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OF CO AND NOX AS
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COMPLETE SYSTEMS
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FOR THE MOST
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SPECIFICATIONS.

RENTECH BOILERS.
AS TOUGH AS TEXAS.
PRODUCTS SOLUTIONS
Heat Recovery Steam Generators Refining and Petrochemical
Waste Heat Boilers Power Generation
Fired Packaged Watertube Boilers Manufacturing & Institutional
Specialty Boilers Food Processing
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 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com

PETROCHEMICAL
TECHNOLOGY
Modeling and optimization of pressure distillation
to achieve pharma-grade THF
Establishing a plastics processing sector in NE India
CFD simulation in chemical reaction engineering

PROCESS OPTIMIZATION
How to speed up the development
of a new commercial adsorbent

BUSINESS TRENDS
Asia and Europe join the feedstock evolution
with steam crackers
Select 63 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
 APRIL 2018 | Volume 97 Number 4
HydrocarbonProcessing.com

M–77

28

SPECIAL FOCUS: PETROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENTS

29 Modeling and optimization of pressure distillation 4 Industry Perspectives
to achieve pharma-grade THF
8 Business Trends
V. Shirpurkar
96 Advertiser Index
35 Energy losses from the radiant firebox wall of pyrolysis furnaces
A. Bueno, V. Regueira and L. Leite 97 Marketplace

41 CFD simulation in chemical reaction engineering 98 Events

R. Aglave and T. Eppinger
COLUMNS
49 Establishing a plastics processing sector in NE India—A short analysis
P. Phukan 7 Editorial Comment
Petrochemicals—Advancing
PROCESS ENGINEERING production for modern life

55 Aqueous chemistry principles applied to refinery processes 15 Reliability

R. Cardoso Guidance for a lube sampling program

19 Africa
PROCESS OPTIMIZATION The challenge of investing
63 Speed up the development of new commercial adsorbents—Part 1 in Africa’s additional capacities
B. Sungnoen, W. Wittanadecha and W. Tanthapanichakoon 23 Petrochemicals
69 An optimized approach to choosing solvent Ethylene and polyethylene—
for the liquid-liquid extraction process An outlook to 2022
A. Gupta and S. Jain 27 Engineering Case Histories
Case 100: Was sloshing
73 Enhancing refinery profitability with a novel offgas conversion technology the cause of a failure?
A. Aronson, D. Zaziski and D. Carter

MAINTENANCE AND TURNAROUNDS DIGITAL EXCLUSIVES

M–77 Maintenance—A value-added expense Industry Metrics
M. Rhodes and L. Nichols Global Project Data
Innovations
ENVIRONMENT AND SAFETY
People
85 Optimize your insulation to reduce costs
J. Petersen, S. O’Hearn and M. Rabeh
89 How pipeline management becomes part of a plant safety strategy
C. Liston

PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION

93 Measuring steam flow to flares
M. Menezes

GAS PROCESSING SUPPLEMENT

GP-1 Technology and Business Information for the Global Gas Processing Industry

Cover Image: BP para-Xylene Technology at Reliance Industries Ltd.’s PX-4 Plant in Jamnagar, Gujarat, India.
The technology is licensed By CB&I. Photo courtesy of BP.

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PUBLISHER Catherine Watkins

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EDITORIAL
Executive Editor Adrienne Blume
China holds nearly half of all Managing Editor
Digital Editor
Mike Rhodes
Stephanie Cano
petrochemical projects in Asia Technical Editor
Reliability/Equipment Editor
Bob Andrew
Heinz P. Bloch
Over the past decade, the Asia-Pacific region has been the Contributing Editor Alissa Leeton
Contributing Editor ARC Advisory Group
leader in total active projects in all sectors of the downstream pro- Contributing Editor Anthony Sofronas
cessing industry. Developing nations in the region have made sig-
MAGAZINE PRODUCTION / +1 (713) 525-4633
nificant investments to increase downstream production capacity Vice President, Production Sheryl Stone
to meet increasing demand for transportation fuels and petro- Manager, Advertising Production Cheryl Willis
Assistant Manager, Advertising Production Krista Norman
chemicals. The demand for petrochemical products will continue Manager, Editorial Production Angela Bathe Dietrich
for the foreseeable future, led by China and India. Both countries Assistant Manager, Editorial Production Lindsey Craun
have growing populations with increasing disposable incomes Artist/Illustrator David Weeks
Graphic Designer Andreina Keller
that demand more refined fuels and petrochemical products.
ADVERTISING SALES
To help mitigate imports and to satisfy robust demand, many See Sales Offices, page 96.
Asia-Pacific nations are investing in the expansion and debottle-
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9% South Korea
4% Malaysia
7% Indonesia President/CEO
CFO
John Royall
Alan Millis

18% India Vice President

Vice President
Andy McDowell
Ron Higgins

44% China Vice President, Finance and Operations

Vice President, Production
Pamela Harvey
Sheryl Stone

FIG. 1. Total active petrochemical project market share in Asia-Pacific. Publication Agreement Number 40034765 Printed in USA
Source: Hydrocarbon Processing’s Construction Boxscore Database. Other Gulf Publishing Company titles include: Gas ProcessingTM, Petroleum Economist ©,
World Oil ®, Pipeline & Gas Journal and Underground Construction.

4 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
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Select 70 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
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 Editorial
Comment
Petrochemicals—Advancing production for modern life
This issue of Hydrocarbon Process-
ing is devoted primarily to the topic
of petrochemicals; and rightly so. The
petrochemical industry has seen incred-
ible growth over the past several years.
According to Hydrocarbon Processing’s
Construction Boxscore Database, more
than 250 new petrochemical projects
have been announced since 2015. The
global petrochemicals sector represents
approximately 42% of all downstream
projects that have been announced over
the past 3 yr.
In total, petrochemical producers have
announced more than $100 B in new pet-
rochemical capacity investments in the
past 3 yr. The majority of this new capaci-
ty will be in the Asia-Pacific region, where
developing nations are showing increas-
ing demand for petrochemical products.
Within the petrochemical sector,
Asia-Pacific, the Middle East and the US
are the leading regions in active projects
(FIG. 1). These three regions represent
approximately 75% of total active pet-
rochemical projects. The Asia-Pacific
region is led by projects in China and
India. Both countries are boosting their
production of petrochemical products to
meet increasing demand.
The Middle East is making a con-
certed effort to diversify its downstream
portfolio as a means of reducing its reli-
FIG. 1. Total active petrochemical market share by region. Source: Hydrocarbon Processing’s
Construction Boxscore Database.
LEE NICHOLS, EDITOR/ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER
Lee.Nichols@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
ance on crude oil export revenues. Over
the past several years, the region has
made capital-intensive investments in all
sectors of the oil and gas industry. This
includes multibillion-dollar petrochemi-
cal complexes to meet global demand.
The US is fully monetizing its shale gas
production. The readily-available, cheap
ethane feedstock has provided a boon
for petrochemical producers, especially
along the US Gulf Coast. The region will
witness more than 10 MMtpy of new eth-
ylene capacity begin operations by the
end of the decade. A second wave of new
ethane crackers could add more than 5
MMtpy of new capacity post 2020, and
could include the genesis of a new petro-
chemical hub in the northeast US. Many
of these projects include ethylene deriva-
tive units, with the largest increase in new
polyethylene (PE) capacity. Including
both integrated and grassroots PE plants,
the US will add approximately 8 MMtpy
of new PE capacity by 2020.
This sector of the industry is seeing
one of the largest expansions to ever oc-
cur. Modern life would not be possible
without the ingenuity and products pro-
duced by the petrochemical industry.
From life-saving equipment to food pack-
aging—and everything in between—the
petrochemical industry is an engine for
the advancement of everyday life.
6% Africa
24% US
37% Asia-Pacific
15% Middle East
2% Latin America
2% Canada
4% Western Europe
10% Eastern Europe/Russia/CIS
INSIDE THIS ISSUE
23 Petrochemicals.
The global ethylene and
polyethylene markets have changed
over the past several years. New demand
centers are emerging, along with growth
in supply, especially from the Asia-
Pacific, Middle East and US regions.
This work details the global ethylene and
polyethylene markets, including supply
and demand forecasts and pricing trends.
28 Special Focus.
The petrochemical sector
continues to search for innovative ways
to adapt to changes in economics and
market demands. This month’s Special
Focus explores techniques to increase
petrochemical production efficiency
and optimize operations.
63 Process Optimization.
A major recurring problem
during new adsorbent development is
researchers being trapped in an infinite
“loop” due to impractical or unrealistic
adsorbent performance targets at
laboratory scale, which can result in
odd engineering design, unsatisfactory
financial return and repeat development
work, as well as budget overruns
and unnecessary delays. To enhance
the success rate, the authors have
proposed an alternative that envisions
commercial ends and helps overcome
the loop challenge.
85 Environment and Safety.
Corrosion under insulation
(CUI) is a common problem that is shared
by the oil and gas, refining, petrochemical
and manufacturing industries. CUI often
remains undetected until the insulation
is removed or a leak occurs. This type
of corrosion is a common root cause for
loss of primary containment leading to
HSE incidents, equipment repairs and
unplanned downtime. However, proper
insulation specifications during front-end
engineering can greatly reduce CUI risks
and lifecycle costs.
Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 7
 | Business Trends
In Europe and Asia, most steam crackers have been designed to
use naphtha as a feedstock for ethylene production, with close
integration to upstream refinery operations. European and Asian
producers find themselves at a cost disadvantage to their Middle
Eastern and US competitors when crude prices are high. Asian
producers have some advantage due to strong economic growth and
healthy downstream demand. However, European producers are at a
significant disadvantage if they rely solely on naphtha cracking, as
this process comes with high costs and lower profitability. This month’s
Business Trends focuses on the dynamics of petrochemical production
in Asia and Europe, and the rise of feedstock flexibility in operations.

Photo: Aerial view on construction of Petronas’ Pengerang Integrated Complex

in Malaysia. Along with a 300-Mbpd refinery, the complex will consist of a
steam cracker capable of producing nearly 1.3 MMtpy of ethylene. The project
received Hydrocarbon Processing’s Top Petrochemical Project award of 2017.
Photo courtesy of Petronas.
J. DUFFY, Argus, UK and P. MORSE, Argus, Houston, Texas
Asia and Europe join the feedstock evolution
with steam crackers
Steam crackers lay at the heart of petrochemical operations.
These units process various feedstocks into the key petrochemi-
cal building blocks of ethylene, propylene, benzene, etc. In 2016,
steam crackers accounted for 97% of ethylene, 47% of propylene
and 32% of benzene produced worldwide. Operations at these
critical units have a fundamental impact on the profitability of
petrochemical manufacturers, and feedstock selection can be
the most important contributor to financial success.
Since the start of shale gas production in the US in 2009,
natural gas liquids (NGL) production—including ethane, pro-
pane and butane—has risen sharply, and monthly production
has more than doubled in the past 6 yr. As NGL production
climbed in a period of high crude oil prices, US petrochemical
producers made investments to add flexibility to their steam
crackers to run lighter and cheaper feedstocks, or chose to build
new units that are optimized to run light feedstocks, especially
ethane (FIG. 1).
More than 11 MMtpy of new US ethylene capacity is start-
ing operations or will begin production over the next few years,
with additional units proposed to follow. After more than a
decade of declining competitiveness for US petrochemicals,
the wealth of ethane supply has quickly translated to new in-
vestment. The largest of these new units—producing up to
1.5 MMtpy of ethylene—are just beginning to operate now:
Dow Chemical began operations of its new cracker at Freeport,
Texas in September 2017; Chevron Phillips is commissioning
its unit at Cedar Bayou, Texas this spring; and ExxonMobil’s
Baytown, Texas unit is expected to startup by mid-year.
Many of these units are designed to maximize the use of
inexpensive ethane feedstock, which provides the maximum
production of ethylene based on feedstock input. As ship-
ping logistics capabilities have expanded in recent years, these
lighter feedstocks are now available in other regions. In turn,
cracker operators have followed the investment path to enable
production with these NGL.
In Europe and Asia, most steam crackers have been de-
signed to use naphtha as a feedstock for ethylene production,
with close integration to upstream refinery operations. Euro-
pean and Asian producers find themselves at a cost disadvan-
tage to their Middle Eastern and US competitors when crude
prices are high. Asian producers have some advantage due to
strong economic growth and healthy downstream demand.
However, European producers are at a significant disadvantage
if they rely solely on naphtha cracking due to high costs and
lower profitability.
Business Trends
Low NGL feedstock prices were particularly appealing
when crude prices soared above $100/bbl, and margins to
produce ethylene from lighter feedstock were much lower.
However, changing the feedstock to expand ethylene pro-
duction has a downstream impact on the volume and ratio of
coproducts produced by the steam cracker (see p. 10, “The
significance of feedstocks”).
A significant development resulting from the shift to lighter
feedstocks at steam crackers is the reduction in propylene pro-
duction. New processes have emerged to address the propyl-
ene supply gap (e.g., on-purpose propylene production). Pro-
pane dehydrogenation (PDH) has become an important tool
to replace lost propylene volumes. For reference, an in-depth
article on the increase in on-purpose propylene production—
“Propane dehydrogenation technology is transforming the
propylene business”—was published in the December 2017
issue of Hydrocarbon Processing.
EUROPE
Over the past 7 yr, Western European cracker producers
have invested in feedstock flexibility. The increase in invest-
ments has raised the share of ethylene production from NGL
feedstocks from 26% in 2007 to nearly 40% in 2017 (FIG. 2).
Most of this investment has been along the coast, where logis-
tics are easier to optimize and/or ethane feedstock is available.
Inland crackers have been slower to invest in LPG cracking
flexibility due to logistics constraints and increased costs.
In addition to NGL investments, crackers across Europe,
where possible, have invested in refinery integration, which al-
100
90
80
70
Percent of feed
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1Q11 1Q12 1Q13 1Q14 1Q15 1Q16 1Q17
Ethane Propane Butanes Naphtha/C4+
FIG. 1. US steam cracker feedstocks, 2011–2018. Source: American Fuel
and Petrochemical Manufacturers (AFPM).
Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 9
 Business Trends
lows low-value refinery streams to pass to the cracker, where
their value is uplifted to naphtha value. This is a widespread
activity in which gasoil, hydro-wax and refinery offgas streams
are integrated into downstream crackers. These investments are
more attractive for inland crackers, and the authors believe this
trend is likely to continue.
The majority of European crackers are located along the
coast and are often adjacent to refinery complexes. Inland
crackers, especially those in Central and Eastern Europe, tend
to be on isolated sites with limited feedstock or product flex-
The significance
of feedstocks
Feedstock has a significant impact on the product mix
available from a steam cracker. The exact production fig-
ures vary according to the process technology, but dif-
ferent feedstocks can significantly affect the products
produced by the steam cracker. Steam cracker operators
can balance their feedstocks to manage their coproduct
production ratios, but this is dependent on a number of
variables, including cracker flexibility.
Steam cracker operators must balance the complex in-
tegration of feedstock supply, asset capability and down-
stream demand. The feedstock choice will depend on
price, the energy required to crack the feedstock, the pro-
portions of produced products and the capability to pro-
cess these products downstream. Cracker performance is
managed to ensure that the asset is used in the most ef-
ficient way possible.
The downstream demand is also balanced to ensure
that the cracker produces adequate quantities of each
product to meet the requirements of customers. The loca-
tion of the cracker, and its proximity to various markets,
will impact these decisions. Models to estimate the ap-
proximate operating margins for steam crackers are based
on assumed prices for feedstocks and products, and as-
set capability. However, it is not unusual for two separate
cracker operators, with similar feedstock flexibility, to
make different feedstock choices due to internal strategic
and commercial demands.
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
Per t of ethylene
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Ethane Propane Butane
Ethylene Propylene C4s
Split of coproducts per feedstock type for every ton of ethylene
produced. Source: Argus.
10 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
ibility. Inland crackers tend to source their feedstock from ad-
jacent refineries or import via barge or rail tank cars. Coastal
crackers tend to have a mixture of feedstock supply sources
ranging from adjacent refinery supply to ship-bound imports.
Downstream ethylene derivative units tend to be on the
same sites as the crackers or linked by ethylene pipelines. The
crackers in the Benelux region, and the majority of those in Ger-
many, are linked by an open-access ethylene pipeline known as
the ARG, a reference to the consortium that owns and operates
the pipeline—Aethylen Rohrleitungs Gesellschaft. This gives
those crackers a high degree of “ethylene integration” and al-
lows for significant intra-site integration.
In contrast to ethylene, where movements are limited to
pipeline or ship, propylene can also be moved by barge and
rail. This allows for greater distribution of propylene supplies
to downstream consuming units.
Historically, approximately 25% of Western European eth-
ylene production has been produced from natural gas feed-
stock, with more than 10% based on North Sea ethane and the
balance from propane/butane (LPG) cracking at a number
of sites. Those crackers integrated to North Sea ethane have
enjoyed a significant cost advantage over their naphtha-based
competitors, while those crackers with the flexibility to crack
LPG have frequently enjoyed a competitive advantage in the
summer months when LPG costs have traditionally been sig-
nificantly below naphtha. Large-cargo propane and coastal
butane cargoes have tended to be the primary sources of LPG
supply for coastal crackers. A small but steady market in rail
supply to inland facilities is present, as well. Large-cargo bu-
tane supplies are beginning to play an increasing role in the
market as reliable supply becomes available from the US and as
investments in import facilities are completed.
Investments in feedstock flexibility have tended to be
made at the coastal crackers, which have access to deep-sea
LPG imports. Inland crackers have significant infrastructure
challenges to overcome before they can readily access the low-
cost LPG volumes available deep-sea. Some are looking to im-
prove their railcar handling and offloading facilities. Others
are looking further at optimizing and potentially integrating
cracker and refining operations. In all cases, cracker operators
are investing in feedstock flexibility rather than wholesale sub-
stitution of naphtha for LPG. In some instances, this can give
a cracker operator the capability to process either propane or
45
40
35
30
25
Percent
20
15
10
5
0
Naphtha Gasoil
1Q12 3Q12 1Q13 3Q13 1Q14 3Q14 1Q15 3Q15 1Q16 3Q16 1Q17 3Q17
Pygas Fuel
Propane Butane LPG Ethane
FIG. 2. Quarterly Western European ethylene production from light
feedstock. Source: Petrochemicals Europe and Argus.

butane, or both, at the same time. A concern remains about
the long-term competitiveness of LPG cracking because of
seasonal prices—either heating-related propane demand or
butane value for gasoline blending, both of which typically
raise prices in winter. As a result, most producers are retain-
ing their naphtha cracking capability and will optimize their
feedstock choice based on the economics of the day and their
own unique positions.
The exception to this approach has been the move by some
cracker operators to invest in ethane cracking, based on ethane
imports from the US. Some players have found an answer to the
declining ethane supply from the North Sea, while others have
chosen to eliminate naphtha from their feedslate and baseload
their units with ethane and LPG. In the latter case, these op-
erators tend to be less constrained by coproduct demands than
most of the other cracker operators in Europe. They are also
exclusively located at the coast. In 2017, more than 1.25 MMt
of ethylene was produced in Europe from imported US ethane.
European producers have some level of protection from the
monthly contract price mechanism, which remains closely re-
lated to naphtha production costs. However, the role of LPG
in the economics of ethylene and propylene production in Eu-
rope is feeding through to product pricing.
Some producers will respond to this challenge by rational-
izing high-cost production assets, while others will seek to
maximize their coproduct production, along with efforts to
differentiate the derivatives and eliminate commodity grades.
Select 151 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
Business Trends
A strong belief exists that excess LPG availability and further
rationalization of gasoline production will force the price of
naphtha lower and increase its competitiveness compared to
LPG. In the end, those producers who look at all of these op-
tions—while continuing to extend their feedstock flexibility to
capitalize on low-cost LPG—will be the ones to prosper.
ASIA
Steam crackers in Asia rely primarily on naphtha as a feed-
stock. Many production units in the region are highly integrat-
ed with downstream chemical production, such as polymers
and intermediate chemicals, and rely on the broad production
mix when naphtha is the feedstock. Many crackers in this re-
gion were built as standalone units and rely on imported and/
or transported naphtha for operations. Some existing crackers
are configured to run LPG feedstock produced at nearby refin-
eries, but the ratio of light feed is typically limited and access
can be constrained by refinery operations.
Profitability has been strong in the petrochemical sector,
and is encouraging these steam cracker expansions. The refin-
ing sector has not seen the same level of new investment, which
means that feedstock for many of these units must be imported.
Several companies have announced plans for new units
with the capability to use a broad feedstock mix that includes
both liquid (naphtha) and gas (LPG) feedslates (TABLE 1). The
movement of naphtha is routine in the region, but LPG logis-
tics provide a new challenge.
Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 201811
 Business Trends

TABLE 1. New Chinese crackers and proposed feedstock mix

Company Location Startup Ethylene capacity, Mtpy Feedstock mix
CNOOC Shell Petrochemicals Huizhou, Guangdong 2018 1,200 Naphtha and LPG
Hengli Petrochemical Dalian, Liaoning 2019 1,500 Light naphtha
Zhejiang Petrochemical Zhoushan, Zhejiang 2019 1,400 Naphtha and LPG
SP Chemicals Taixing, Jiangsu 2020 650 Ethane and propane
Sinopec-KPC Zhanjiang, Guangdong 2020 800 Naphtha and LPG
Sinopec Hainan Petrochemical Danzhou, Hainan 2021 1,000 Naphtha and LPG
Gulei refinery Gulei, Fujian 2021 800 Naphtha and LPG
Jiangsu Shenghong Petrochemical Lianyungang, Jiangsu 2021 1,100 Naphtha and LPG
Sinochem Quanzhou Petrochemical Quanzhou, Fujian 2021 1,100 Naphtha and LPG
Zhejiang Petrochemical Zhoushan, Zhejiang 2021 1,400 Naphtha and LPG
Wanhua Chemical Yantai, Shandong 2022 1,000 LPG

capability must be developed to facilitate the very large cargoes

7,768
8,978
27,445
769
1,007
3,582
2,718
83
Residential Agricultural Industrial
Transport Refinery fuel Petrochemicals
FIG. 3. Chinese LPG consumption by sector (Mtpy), 2017. Source: Argus.
Propane imports to the region have been rapidly increas-
ing in recent years, with the primary outlet in the petrochemi-
cals sector to feed PDH units for the exclusive production of
propylene (FIG. 3). Propane and butane are increasingly being
directed to new steam crackers for ethylene and coproduct
production, as well. It is important to note that high demand
growth in Asia is spurring new investment in light crackers, in
contrast to the conversion of existing units in Europe where
tepid demand growth limits new construction.
China’s LPG imports hit a new record in 2017, increasing
more than 14% year-over-year to 18.4 MMtpy. Most cargoes
are sent to terminals in eastern China where several PDH units
are operating—in Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Shandong. The steam
cracker plans are spread across a wider region, and it is impor-
tant to note that the necessary infrastructure is not yet in place
to supply imported feedstock for many of these facilities. Lo-
cal port and terminal infrastructure to handle these pressur-
ized and/or refrigerated gases are critical requirements to gain
international access to these feedstocks. Additionally, storage
that are typical for international shipments. Considering the
significant infrastructure requirements, the aggressive timeline
for some of these projects may not be achievable.
Regardless of location, margin expansion is the key driver
for companies enlarging the feedstock flexibility of their crack-
ers. Operations of these complex units require careful attention
to the varying prices of possible feedstocks and the volatile val-
ues of the downstream products.
The result of this dynamic has been evident for much of
2017 when US propane values were elevated compared to
other regions, and as a portion of crude value. Many cracker
operators, in Asia in particular, switched back to naphtha as a
steam cracker feed to boost profitability. Simultaneously, PDH
operations maintained robust margins as propylene prices re-
mained strong through most of 2017.
Commercial As the extent of feedstock flexibility increases across all ma-
Other jor regions, markets will have to contend with increased volatil-
ity among feedstock and product prices as participants jockey
for position in this competitive industry. What is clear is that
the petrochemicals sector is becoming a larger portion of NGL
demand worldwide, and will be a contributor to pricing trends
in these markets.
JOE DUFFY is a principal in Argus Consulting, with a focus
on petrochemicals in Europe, Africa and the Middle East.
He previously worked for ICI, Huntsman and SABIC,
where he was responsible for the business management
of SABIC’s olefins business in Europe. Dr. Duffy has worked
on a number of projects covering the structure of the
European olefins markets, investments in new feedstock
flexibility and investment opportunities in the Middle East. Dr. Duffy has
an undergraduate degree and a PhD from the University of Glasgow.
PAIGE MARIE MORSE leads the propylene service
for Argus. She began her career in research and
development and moved to commercial roles at Shell,
Dow and Sunoco. Her projects included market development
for new intermediates and plastics, and strategic planning
for chemical and refining businesses. Additionally, she led
global marketing efforts for Clariant’s catalyst business
in Germany, and has deep knowledge of chemical, refining and polymer
catalysis. Dr. Morse holds a BA in chemistry from Kenyon College, and
a PhD in chemistry from the University of Illinois.

12 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
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Mike.Rhodes@HydrocarbonProcessing.com

Industry Metrics

US refinery margins showed seasonal y–o–y growth, mainly supported Global refining margins, 2017–2018*
by gasoline and diesel stocks drawdowns due to refinery maintenance. 18
European product markets were supported by higher gasoline demand 16 WTI, US Gulf
14 Brent, Rotterdam

Margins, US$/bbl
and improved fuel oil export opportunities. Asia markets recorded gains 12 Oman, Singapore
across the barrel, except in the diesel complex. 10
8
An expanded version of Industry Metrics can be found 6
online at HydrocarbonProcessing.com. 4

Feb.-17

Mar.-17

April-17

May-17

June-17

July-17

Aug.-17

Sept.-17

Oct.-17

Nov.-17

Dec.-17

Jan.-18

Feb.-18
US gas production (Bcfd) and prices (US$/Mcf)
100 7 Global refining utilization rates, 2017–2018*
6 100
80
5
Gas prices, US$/Mcf
Production, Bcfd

95
Utilization rates, %
60 4
90
40 3
85
Monthly price (Henry Hub) 2
20 12-month price avg. 80 US Japan
Production 1 EU 16 Singapore
0 0 75
D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F
Feb.-17

Mar.-17

April-17

May-17

June-17

July-17

Aug.-17

Sept.-17

Oct.-17

Nov.-17

Dec.-17

Jan.-18

Feb.-18
2015 2016 2017 2018
Production equals US marketed production, wet gas. Source: EIA.

Selected world oil prices, US$/bbl US Gulf cracking spread vs. WTI, 2017–2018*
80 50
40 Prem. gasoline Diesel
W. Texas Inter.
Cracking spread, US$/bbl

70 Jet/kero Fuel oil

Brent Blend 30
Oil prices, US$/bbl

60 Dubai Fateh
Source: DOE 20
50 10
40 0
-10
30
-20
20
Feb.-17

Mar.-17

April-17

May-17

June-17

July-17

Aug.-17

Sept.-17

Oct.-17

Nov.-17

Dec.-17

Jan.-18

Feb.-18

Mar.-18
F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F
2016 2017 2018

World liquid fuel supply and demand, MMbpd Rotterdam cracking spread vs. Brent, 2017–2018*
104 6 30
Stock change and balance
Stock change and balance, MMbpd

102 5
Cracking spread, US$/bbl
Supply and demand, MMbpd

World supply
100 4 15
World demand
98 3
96 2 Prem. gasoline Gasoil
0 Jet/kero Fuel oil
94 1
92 0
90 -1 -15
88 -2
Feb.-17

Mar.-17

April-17

May-17

June-17

July-17

Aug.-17

Sept.-17

Oct.-17

Nov.-17

Dec.-17

Jan.-18

Feb.-18

Mar.-18

2013-Q1 2014-Q1 2015-Q1 2016-Q1 2017-Q1 2018-Q1 2019-Q1

Source: EIA Short-Term Energy Outlook, March 2018
Singapore cracking spread vs. Oman, 2017–2018*
Brent dated vs. sour grades
20
(Urals and Dubai) spread, 2017–2018*
Cracking spread, US$/bbl

6 10
Dubai
Light sweet/medium sour
crude spread, US$/bbl

4 Urals Prem. gasoline Gasoil

0 Jet/kero Fuel oil
2
-10
0
Feb.-17

Mar.-17

April-17

May-17

June-17

July-17

Aug.-17

Sept.-17

Oct.-17

Nov.-17

Dec.-17

Jan.-18

Feb.-18

Mar.-18

-2
Feb.-17

Mar.-17

April-17

May-17
June-17
July-17

Aug.-17

Sept.-17

Oct.-17

Nov.-17

Dec.-17

Jan.-18

Feb.-18

Mar.-18

* Material published permission of the OPEC Secretariat; copyright 2018;

all rights reserved; OPEC Monthly Oil Market Report, March 2018.

Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 14–A

LEE NICHOLS, EDITOR/ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER
Lee.Nichols@HydrocarbonProcessing.com

Global Project Data

According to Hydrocarbon Processing’s Construction Boxscore
Database and HPI Market Data 2018, total capital expenditures
(CAPEX) in the global petrochemical sector are more than $440 B.
The majority of these projects are located in the Asia-Pacific, Middle
East and US regions. When broken down by activity level, nearly
70% of active petrochemical projects globally are in preconstruction
phases. The majority of petrochemical product demand is stemming
from developing nations in non-OECD countries. These nations
are showing signs of growing populations with more disposable
incomes, which spurs demand for petrochemical products.

6 3
Canada
68
33
100105
Europe
88
US 55
155
135
25 34 Middle East
Petrochemical projects 24 23 Africa
Total capital expenditures, $B
Latin America Asia-Pacific

Active petrochemical projects vs. total announced

petrochemical capital expenditures (US $B) by region

32
30 30
29 29 6% Africa
25 25 24 24% US
21
20 20 19 33% Asia-Pacific
17

12
13% Middle East
11
6% Latin America
1% Canada
6% Western Europe
Jan.- Feb.- Mar.- April- May- June- July- Aug.- Sept.- Oct.- Nov.- Dec.- Jan.- Feb.- Mar.- 11% Eastern Europe/Russia/CIS
17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 18 18 18

Boxscore new project announcements, Market share analysis of active

January 2017–present petrochemical projects by region

Detailed and up-to-date information for active construction projects in the refining,
gas processing and petrochemical industries across the globe | ConstructionBoxscore.com

14–B APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
 H. P. BLOCH, RELIABILITY/EQUIPMENT EDITOR
Reliability Heinz.Bloch@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Guidance for a lube sampling program
Suppose your manager asked you to be involved in setting
up a lube sampling program. In that case, be prepared to answer
many follow-up questions from the plant’s upper management.
We became aware of this issue when a reliability engineer was
recently asked such questions by his leadership team and we
tried to provide some answers.
This engineer recognized that Step 1 would be to sample the
lube oil his facility received from a supplier before allowing the
oil to reach its final in-plant destination. His question was if, in
our experience, we had come across or knew of a statistic that
showed approximately what percentage of bearing failures were
typically attributable to “unclean” lubricants. He believed that
if we do not sample our lube oil, then we may not be aware of
how contaminated the oil might be. He rightly feared that dirty
oil will contribute to shorter bearing life on rotating equipment.
Reliability-focused users have occasionally received “fresh
oil” that did not meet the International Standards Organization’s
(ISO’s) code requirements for that product. Instances have also
been reported where the viscosity of the oil was not narrowly
specified by the customer or the equipment manufacturer. The
reliability engineer had been asked by his managers what product
deviations should be caught before the oil was introduced to the
equipment. He wanted to show his leadership that, given X pump
failures over a time period, Y% of those failures could be either
drastically reduced or eliminated by taking this oil sampling mea-
sure. He was pressed for answers and asked for guidance.
Although numerical answers can be found in literature, they
may not apply to this engineer’s situation. Statistics depend on
such variables as parts-per-million of unclean components in
the incoming oil, the size of dirt particles, the type of bearing
protector seal installed on the bearing housing, how often the
oil is changed, etc.
However, we can attempt to answer several of the engineer’s
questions in a somewhat general way:
1. Sampling the incoming oil is indeed recommended.
Depending on the original source, the mode of transport
and the chain of custody, an estimated 50%–60% of
lubricants do not meet the buyer’s specifications or the
cleanliness claims made by various lubricant providers.
2. Examining all bearing failures, somewhere between
40% and 60% of these failures are attributed to dirty oil.
SKF and others have published these data. However,
SKF makes no distinction between oil as delivered and
oil cleanliness observed when bearings are in distress.1
3. Given the preceding information, we believe that the
origin of dirty oil in a refinery’s equipment is equally
divided between occurrences outside of the recipient’s
gate and bad practices tolerated inside the recipient’s
gate. The interiors of the oil tanks in bulk delivery
trucks are not always sufficiently clean.
4. Bearings located in housings with open vents and/or
fitted with cheap, simple bearing housing protector seals
(and, occasionally, those fitted with radially outward-
moving O-rings) tend to experience premature bearing
failure. Pump bearing housings with closed/plugged
vents and/or superior bearing housing protector seals
(the ones with axially moving O-rings) are likely to enjoy
considerably longer bearing life.
5. Oil with inadequate viscosity will have too thin an oil
film. As a consequence, the bearings will run hot and fail
prematurely. Oil with excessive viscosity will not remove
enough heat from the bearings. In many instances, oil
rings will experience speed retardation with oils that are
too thick, or in shaft systems that are not truly horizontal,
or with oil rings that are out-of-round because they were
not stress-relief annealed. In that instance, failure risk
increases exponentially because the oil ring may swing
back and forth like a pendulum. If, in addition, an oil ring
slews sideways and contacts other surfaces, then abrasive
particles will definitely contaminate the oil.2
6. Occasionally, carelessly designed bearing housings or
housing bores allow lubricant to collect behind a bearing.
Trapped oil tends to overheat and turn into carbon black.3
7. Oil sampling alone may help increase equipment life,
but violating the other requirements will still cause
failures. This is a bit like putting better tires on an
automobile while allowing the front end to be out of
alignment and refusing to replace cracked rubber boots
that surround the car’s constant-velocity joints. Better
tires alone will be a move in the right direction; however,
the life of one’s new tires will disappoint unless other
causes are addressed, as well.
8. Be sure to take oil samples from points that are
representative of base oil chemistry, additive package,
and wear particle type, size and count. The more
representative the sample, the more accurate the
diagnosis. Sample points from pressurized systems
differ from those selected for non-circulating systems.
Also, be aware that maximum data density will be
found downstream of bearings and upstream of filters.
Take samples with the machine running at operating
temperature and under normal load. Samples from “dead
legs” are undesirable; samples from ports connected
to an elbow are preferred because they originate in a
turbulent, well-mixed zone.
9. Once a sampling point is selected, a sample must
be pulled without altering its integrity or mixing
ratio. In days past, we have often asked for expert
Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 15
 Reliability

input from Oklahoma-based Noria Corp. and performance appraisal will prove revealing. Better yet,
heeded the company’s advice. Noria cautions against reading experience-based books and implementing their
contaminating samples, and provides guidance on the recommendations will show up in failure reductions.4
level to which sample bottles are to be filled (60%– As the reliability engineer seeks a service provider, we asked
70%). This company describes sampling procedures him to specify and elevate his expectations and to communicate
in six steps and recommends sampling frequency for them to interested analysis laboratories. He might pick an expert
different equipment categories. It even recommends laboratory that tells him where specific high-metal and/or high-
if the work is best performed by an onsite portable mineral readings originate in a particular machine, and if a pre-
instrument approach or if it would be best to have a cautionary shutdown and oil change are recommended.
contract with an expert analysis laboratory.
LITERATURE CITED
Needless to say, the user must choose between 1
Bloch, H. P. and K. Bannister, Practical Lubrication for Industrial Facilities, 3rd Ed.,
simply replacing oil in small machines and analyzing the Fairmont Press, Lilburn, Georgia, 2016.
oil to determine its remaining life. We have often applied 2
Bloch, H. P., Pump Wisdom: Problem Solving for Operators and Specialists, John
the “automobile analogy” to discuss the choice issue: Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey, 2011.
3
Bloch, H. P. and A. R. Budris, Pump User’s Handbook: Life Extension, 4th Ed., The
Once our car is on a hydraulic lift and we are ready to Fairmont Press, Lilburn, Georgia, 2014.
change the oil, it will not be cost-effective to send off a 4
Bloch, H. P., Petrochemical Machinery Insights, Elsevier Publishing Company,
sample for analysis. Five liters of oil are likely to cost less Oxford, UK and Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2016.
than what a laboratory would charge for a full analysis.1 HEINZ P. BLOCH resides in Montgomery, Texas.
10. Consulting applicable references may be of interest to His professional career commenced in 1962 and
the engineer. We estimated that repairing an average included long-term assignments as Exxon Chemical’s
API-style pump at his plant will cost $13,000.4 Avoiding Regional Machinery Specialist for the US. He has
authored or co-written more than 700 publications,
even a single repair by finding and implementing among them 20 comprehensive books on practical
answers in a $100 book will yield a 130:1 payback. Our machinery management, failure analysis, failure
recommendation is for management to share the cost avoidance, compressors, steam turbines, pumps, oil
mist lubrication and practical lubrication for industry.
of acquiring technical books. A good manager will see Mr. Bloch holds BS and MS degrees (cum laude) in
the extent to which these books have been consulted; mechanical engineering. He is an ASME Life Fellow
two or three questions asked during the employee’s next and was awarded lifetime registration as a Professional Engineer in New Jersey.

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 S. OIRERE, CONTRIBUTING EDITOR
Africa Nairobi, Kenya
The challenge of investing in Africa’s
additional capacities
According to BP’s Statistical Review
of World Energy 2017, Africa’s total
crude oil production is approximately
7.9 MMbpd. Nearly 78% of the conti-
nent’s oil production is located in four
countries—Algeria, Angola, Egypt and
Nigeria. The region’s crude oil produc-
tion significantly outweighs its refining
capacity, and its oil production is more
than double the amount it consumes.
However, lack of investment, along with
failing infrastructure and inadequate re-
fining capacity are forcing the continent
to rely on imports to satisfy increasing
fuel demand. Most African refineries
operate well below capacity, and the ma-
jority of new refining investments rarely
progress beyond the initial concept stage.
As a result, refined-product imports have
increased for years. Africa’s oil demand is
forecast to increase from approximately
4.3 MMbpd in 2017 to nearly 5 MMbpd
in 2023, according to the International
Energy Agency’s Oil 2018 report.
The region’s underperforming refin-
ery output has stagnated at around 2.1
MMbpd or less. As this trend contin-
ues, Africa’s oil producing countries are
grappling with the question of whether
to embark on upgrades of their existing
refineries or to build additional facilities
to satisfy demand. Although the region’s
crude oil production is more than enough
to satisfy demand, the low utilization of
the continent’s refineries forces Africa to
import refined products. At present, Af-
rica exports a significant amount of crude
oil to countries in the Middle East and
Europe. These refiners are more capable
of processing the crude oil, at a cheaper
cost, than are African refiners.
Across sub-Sahara Africa, refinery
utilization rates are expected to remain
low, unless announced plans to ramp
up investments for the expansion and
improvement of the quality of refined
products come to fruition. This may be
difficult, especially since African govern-
ments favor fuel subsidies and give pri-
ority to projects that provide leadership
with political capital.
Despite these challenges, new refin-
eries have been announced in countries
such as Angola, Chad, Ivory Coast, Mo-
zambique, Nigeria, South Africa, South
Sudan and Uganda. According to Hy-
drocarbon Processing’s Construction Box-
score Database, Nigeria and Egypt hold
the largest market share in active refining
projects on the continent. A breakdown
of active refining project market share in
Africa includes:
• Algeria—11%
• Egypt—23%
• Nigeria—34%
• South Africa—14%
• Other—17%.
Nigeria and Egypt represent nearly
60% of all refining projects in the region.
However, unanswered questions include
the amount of financing that will be
needed to develop these refining plans,
and the best public or private investment
model to ensure that these investments
actually happen.
Nigeria. One capital-intensive project is
being built by the private sector. Located
in Nigeria’s Lekki Free Trade Zone, the
$10-B Dangote Industries Ltd. (DIL)
integrated complex is being developed
by Africa’s richest man—Aliko Dangote.
The project, which will consist of an oil
refinery, petrochemical plant and fertilizer
manufacturing facility, is one of the few in
Africa that has seen progress in mobiliz-
ing financing. In 2013, DIL announced it
had received financing commitments of
approximately $6.7 B from 12 banks, with
the remaining $3 B to come from equity.
The refinery will be operated by DIL’s
subsidiary, Dangote Oil Refinery Co. Ltd.
Once completed, the facility will be the
largest single-train refinery in the world.
Financial woes are holding back
planned rehabilitation projects at Nige-
ria’s four existing refineries. The nation’s
refineries suffer from operational prob-
lems due to insufficient management
and a lack of regular maintenance. The
primary goal of Nigerian National Pe-
troleum Corp.’s (NNPC’s) rehabilitation
program is to upgrade its existing facili-
ties to boost utilization to at least 90%.
It is not clear how Nigeria intends to
finance the rehabilitation of its refiner-
ies, which are operated by NNPC affili-
ates—Port Harcourt Refining Co. Ltd.,
Warri Refining and Petrochemical Co.
Ltd., and Kaduna Refining and Petro-
chemical Co. Ltd. The refineries, which
previously underwent a $500 MM reha-
bilitation phase, have a collective utiliza-
tion capacity of below 20%.
In June 2017, Nigeria’s Petroleum
Resources minister, Ibe Kachikwu, indi-
cated that Nigeria needs $1.2 B to restore
and upgrade its domestic refining system.
This cost includes the installation of new
technology to enable the facilities to com-
ply with global emissions requirements.
The government has put in place a team
to produce a financing model that could
help attract potential investors; however,
no firm agreements have been reached to
help finance this program. The Nigerian
government had also issued 25 licenses
to private investors to build refineries in
the country, but no progress has been
made on these endeavors. A lack of funds
and government-backed fuel subsidies
make investing in new midstream and
downstream processing operations unat-
tractive to private and public investors.
Uganda. In August 2017, the Ugandan
government confirmed that it had award-
ed the Albertine Graben Refinery Consor-
tium (GE Oil and Gas, YAATRA Ventures
LLC, Intracontinent Asset Holdings Ltd.
and Saipem SpA) as the preferred bidder
Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 19
 Africa
for the development of its 60-Mbpd re-
finery. The facility will process crude oil
from the Hoima oil fields that are being
developed by Total SA and Tullow Oil Plc.
According to a statement by Uganda’s
Ministry of Energy, the winning consor-
tium “... proposed to government a financ-
ing approach and a path to establish, de-
velop and operate a commercially viable
refinery company with a strategic benefit
to the country and the region.”
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Before the consortium was awarded
the contract for the $4-B project, Ugan-
da had offered Tanzania and Kenya an
8% equity stake each in the refinery.
Tanzania accepted to pay $150.4 MM for
its share, while Kenya expressed interest
in a 2.5% stake rather than the 8% offer.
Total SA announced in late 2016 that it
would take a 10% share of the refinery
project. With the addition of multiple
equity stakes in the project, Uganda is
hopeful that the project will be imple-
mented on a timely basis.
Angola. The struggle to raise adequate
financing for crude processing projects in
Africa is best epitomized by the delayed
200-Mbpd Lobito refinery project in An-
gola. The $8-B refinery was proposed by
Angola’s national oil company Sonangol.
Although no financing commitments were
in place, the company began site works on
the project. In late 2016, Sonangol an-
nounced it was suspending construction
of the refinery due to unfavorable eco-
nomic conditions in the oil market.
After failing to attract international
financial suitors, along with a lack of po-
litical goodwill on the part of the Angolan
government, Sonangol had to suspend the
construction to allow for the “reassess-
ment of the strategic vision of develop-
ment and implementation” of the refinery
and marine terminal project.
Capacity rationing. By 2040, the Inter-
national Energy Agency (IEA) forecasts
that approximately 400 Mpbd of African
refining capacity will be shuttered if ad-
ditional investments are not made to up-
grade the facilities. If investments come to
fruition, however, the continent could see
an increase in utilization rates, along with
an additional 800 Mbpd of new capacity
by 2040. This ambitious capacity expan-
sion and upgrade program would cost ap-
proximately $40 B, according to the IEA.
An additional $15 B would be required
for regular maintenance. Although the ad-
ditional refining capacity and moderniza-
tion of existing facilities are needed, they
may not be high on the list of priorities.
African countries will need to find ways
to fund these projects, or risk a future of
import dependence.
SHEM OIRERE is a
freelance journalist based
in Nairobi, Kenya. He has
spent more than 10 yr
covering various sectors of
Africa’s economy, and has
had numerous articles
published in several
international publications
and on websites.
Previously, Mr. Oirere
worked for Kenyan national
newspapers, including the Daily Nation, Kenya Times
and The People Daily, where he served in various
capacities as correspondent, business reporter and sub-
editor. He earned a higher degree in journalism from the
London School of Journalism and is also a member of
the Association of Business Executives (ABE).
 ABOVE &

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and we haven’t slowed down one bit.

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C R I T I C A L P R O J E C T E X E C U T I O N F O R T H E R E F I N E RY A N D P E T R O C H E M I C A L I N D U S T R I E S
Select 91 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS

Petrochemicals
Ethylene and polyethylene—An outlook to 2022
ETHYLENE—NEARLY A
CENTURY IN THE MAKING
The first petrochemical-based produc-
tion of ethylene occurred nearly a century
ago. Since then, the industry has under-
gone a momentous evolution. The global
market has grown significantly, reaching
approximately 154 MMtpy at the end
of 2017. Production and consumption
of ethylene is truly global, with the larg-
est markets being in the US, Europe, the
Middle East and China.
Over the next 5 yr, the industry is set
to expand at an average annual growth
rate of 3.6%/yr, taking the market size
to 184 MMtpy by 2022. The sheer size
of the market and relatively high growth
rates translate into significant year-on-
year movements. To satisfy this rapidly
growing demand, approximately four or
five world-scale facilities (i.e., approxi-
mately 1.5 MMtpy) must begin opera-
tions each year. To the early 2020s, major
capacity additions are taking place pre-
dominantly in the US and China.
To satisfy the global supply of ethyl-
ene, several production routes are used.
The largest route is steam cracking of
both gas and liquid hydrocarbon feed-
stocks. Typical gas-based feedstocks are
ethane, propane and butane. The most
dominant liquid feedstocks are naphtha,
condensate, gasoil and hydrowax. These
streams are provided to the ethylene in-
dustry via the oil refining or gas process-
ing industries.
Alternative routes to ethylene pro-
duction are the coal-to-olefins (CTO)
and methanol-to-olefins (MTO) pro-
cesses. These types of processes are used
only on an industrial scale within China.
A small amount of ethylene is also pro-
duced from other routes, such as bio-
based or catalytic cracking. A developing
route to produce ethylene that is gaining
attention in the industry is the direct
conversion of crude oil to ethylene (and
other chemicals).
P. KIRBY AND A. HUSSAIN
PCI Wood Mackenzie, London, UK
Due to the commoditized nature of
the ethylene industry, unit cost of pro-
duction is critical for competitiveness.
Feedstock utilization has the largest bear-
ing on cash cost, but scale-of-asset and
wider integration within a petrochemical
complex are very important, as well. The
overall cost curve for the ethylene indus-
try in 2017 is shown in FIG. 1.
The first half of the cost curve supply
generally reflects gas-based (ethane and
LPG) production of ethylene in locations
such as the Middle East and North Amer-
ica (NA). The right half of the curve gen-
erally reflects liquids (naphtha) produc-
tion of ethylene in locations such as Asia
and Europe. The lower crude oil pricing
seen since 4Q 2014 has altered the shape
of the cost curve, directly reducing the
advantage of gas-based production over
liquids-based production. It has also
made final investment decisions in the
ethylene industry more difficult to assess
on a long-term basis.
In its primary form, ethylene trans-
portation costs are very high; therefore,
trade in this form contributes only ap-
proximately 2%–3% of the global market
1,400
1,200
1,000
Global ethylene cash cost, US$/t
800
600
400
200
0
0 30,000
Ethylene production in metric tons, 2017
FIG. 1. Global ethylene cost curve (ex-works basis), 2017.
size. Typically, ethylene trade occurs in
the form of derivative chemicals, such as
polyethylene (PE), ethylene glycol, ethyl-
ene dichloride/vinyl and ethylbenzene/
styrene. These derivatives are further pro-
cessed into a wide range of durable and
non-durable plastic applications. Ethylene
is converted into several other smaller
and more specialist applications, as well.
Therefore, overall demand tends to track
GDP developments on a global basis, with
ethylene demand expected to outpace
global GDP growth over the next 5 yr.
POLYETHYLENE—THE LARGEST
ETHYLENE DERIVATIVE
AND THERMOPLASTIC
BY MARKET SIZE
Accounting for approximately 60% of
total ethylene demand, PE is the largest
derivative of ethylene and a commodity
plastic. PE is a family of three different
polymers—high-density PE (HDPE),
low-density PE (LDPE) and linear-low
density PE (LLDPE). LDPE, discovered
in the 1940s, is the oldest of the three
forms of PE and shares a lower density
60,000 90,000 120,000 150,000
Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 23
 Petrochemicals

with the youngest member of the PE fam- A paradigm shift in the PE industry.
ily—LLDPE. Both lower-density PEs are In 2017, NA ushered in a new era of PE
primarily used in the production of film capacity additions. New NA PE capacity is
for packaging. HDPE is more versatile largely based on advantaged ethylene pro-
and can be used in many different appli- duction via ethane feedstock. Nine new
cations, mainly non-durable, but also in world-scale steam crackers will enter the
durable products, such as plastic pipes. market between 2017 and 2019, bring-
PE demand tends to increase slightly ing online 5 MMtpy of new PE capacity.
above GDP growth. This trend is due As these capacity additions far exceed do-
to the public’s requirement of everyday mestic demand growth, the region will use
essentials (e.g., domestic cleaning prod- its feedstock advantage to establish itself as
ucts, trash bags, packaged foods, etc.), a cost-competitive exporter of PE. Global
regardless of the state of the economy. PE capacity is approximately 110 MMt,
Film is the largest application (FIG. 2) for and new NA PE capacity will account for
PE demand, with most of this film end- half of new global capacity to 2019.
ing up in the packaging sector. Film will In 2018, NA will solidify itself as a PE
continue to drive global demand growth, exporting force, which will bring about a
with the growth of online retailers, such disruption to existing trade flows around
as Amazon and Alibaba. the world (FIG. 3). Traditional exporting
regions, such as the Middle East, will face
more competition and force exporters to
explore other markets outside of their tra-
ditional trade relationships.
Is the world ready for this new PE
capacity? Global PE demand is expect-
ed to be fairly robust over the next 5 yr,
with an average annual growth rate of
4.5%/yr. This growth rate will increase
FIG. 2. Global PE demand, 2017. PE’s market size to 117 MMtpy by 2022
(FIG. 4). PE demand is supported by ris-
ing demand for consumer goods, which
tends to increase faster than the overall
economy. Asia is the primariy driver for
global demand growth, with countries
such as China, Vietnam, India and Indo-
nesia showing impressive growth rates
over the next 5 yr.
As new NA PE capacity comes online,
there will be a period of oversupply; how-
ever, a quick recovery is expected around
2019 as demand catches up with supply.
Negative impact on global prices
and margins in the near term. Over
the next several years, the global PE in-
dustry will see PE prices and margins im-
pacted due to excess resin supply and de-
mand fundamentals. With incrementally
larger volumes of PE entering the export
markets, the industry will witness a down-
ward price movement, thus squeezing
margins in 2018. This trend has already
begun in certain regions. For example,
the spread between ethylene prices and
contracted HDPE in Europe was above
$200/t until September 2017. After 3Q
2017, the spread began to narrow as new
PE volumes from the Middle East and the
US began impacting domestic margins.

30 PATRICK KIRBY is a
North America Latin America and the Caribbean Principal Analyst for the
Greater Europe Middle East EMEARC region for Wood
20 Africa Asia (ex-China)
Oceania China Mackenzie. In this role,
10 he is integral in developing
Polyethylene, MMt

Wood Mackenzie’s light

0 olefins forecast for the
EMEARC region. His
previous work experience
-10
includes being a Senior
Consultant with CMAI
-20
and both project and
-30 operations-based positions in the olefins division
2005 2010 2015 2020 for SABIC Europe. Mr. Kirby holds a chemical
engineering degree from the University of
FIG. 3. Global PE trade balances. Source: Wood Mackenzie. Manchester and is a chartered engineer with the
Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE).

160 91 AFSAR HUSSAIN is a

Capacity Research Analyst for
140 Production 90 the EMEARC region
Operating rate 89 for Wood Mackenzie.
120 His primary focus is on the
Global polyethylene, MMt

88 polyolefins market, and

100
Operating rate, %

his responsibilities include

87
80 PE and polypropylene
86 global commodity reports,
60 supply and demand, and
85
trade and price forecasting
40 84 for the EMEARC region.
20 Previous to joining Wood Mackenzie, Mr. Hussain
83 was a global data product development analyst for
0 82 ICIS and a process development scientist within
2005 2010 2015 2020 the biotechnology industry. Mr. Hussain holds a degree
from the University College of London and a BEng
FIG. 4. Overview of global PE supply and demand to 2022. Source: Wood Mackenzie.
degree in biochemical engineering.

24 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
THE
COMBUSTION
AUTHORITY.
Others may claim it.
We prove it.
With more installed equipment
than any other manufacturer in
our industry. The largest, most
advanced combustion research
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facility in the world. And the
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For patent and trademark information,

see johnzinkhamworthy.com/legal
johnzinkhamworthy.com | +1 918 234 1800 ©2018 John Zink Company LLC.

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Select 59 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
 Engineering A. SOFRONAS, CONSULTING ENGINEER
Case Histories http://mechanicalengineeringhelp.com

Case 100: Was sloshing the cause of a failure?

Some situations in failure analysis demand an understanding fn
D
of the wave motion of a liquid wave in a tank, called “sloshing.” h
Mixers agitating a product, tank trucks making sharp turns, ships
Spill Spill
carrying liquid products or a floating roof tank undergoing seis-
z
mic activities are examples of sloshing. A case history was used as
a preliminary investigation into why some internal components
in a very large, complex, agitated processing tank were failing.
Sloshing can be demonstrated by the sudden, side-to-side
movement of a cup of coffee on a table, as shown in FIG. 1. The
fluid will keep moving back and forth in a wave action after the Motion Motion
cup motion has stopped. This is the liquid’s first-mode natural
FIG. 1. Sloshing, as demonstrated by liquid in a cup.
frequency and is usually the most severe. However, if the cup
was forced to move back and forth horizontally or stirred at this
frequency, the wave could become quite large and might even F fn
spill out of the cup. This base movement would be called the
excitation frequency. h
This excitation could also be caused by several agitators in a
stationary tank. The wave height, h, depends on the magnitude
of the motion. When the wave impacts internal components,
damage can occur. This can be envisioned as the force, F, the
sloshing wave in the coffee cup would have on a cover area, A,
as shown in FIG. 2.
The fundamental natural frequency, fn , can be calculated us-
ing Eq. 1:
fn = 0.42 × [1 ÷ z] ⁄ cps (1)
1
2

The z term is the amount of mass that is in motion. In large,

shallow tanks, an approximation is z ≈ h, and the wave h rises
and falls at frequency fn .
The velocity the wave moves up with is V = h ÷ t, where t =
1 ÷ fn , so V = h × fn
The F of the water wave that is capable of developing if it
impacts a component that has a contact area A is shown in Eq. 2:
F = 1.93 × A × V2 lbf (2)
D
FIG. 2. Sloshing force hitting a cup cover.
that require further consideration, and also those that might be
unimportant. In this case, a rubbing wear analysis was needed.
The result showed that clearances had to be tightened up.

Consider the force on a component in a large, shallow, agitat- LITERATURE CITED

ed tank with a diameter, D, of 200 ft and a component contact
area, A, of 100 ft2. The wave height was determined by observa-
tion of the agitated tank to be h ≈ 8 ft. From this, fn = 0.15 hz, V
= 1.2 ft/sec, and F = 280 lbf . This fluctuating F cycles from 0 lb
to 280 lb. The force impacts about 5 MM times per year on the
component, and so it can be used to analyze fatigue and wear.
While rough, these calculations were somewhat validated by
viewing through windows on this specialized tank. The slosh-
ing wave action was chaotic, with heavy impacts on the tank
wall at approximately the sloshing frequency.
Such preliminary screening investigations are useful to ei-
ther accept, dismiss or gather more data on a probable cause.
They can alert the investigation team to items of significance
Complete literature cited available online at HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
NOTE
Case 99 was published in HP in January. For past cases, please visit
HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
TONY SOFRONAS, D. Eng, was the worldwide
lead mechanical engineer for ExxonMobil Chemicals
before retiring. He now owns Engineered Products,
which provides consulting and engineering seminars
on machinery and pressure vessels. Dr. Sofronas
has authored several engineering books and
numerous technical articles on analytical methods.
Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 27
 | Special Focus
PETROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY
According to Hydrocarbon Processing’s HPI Market Data 2018,
worldwide spending in the petrochemical sector will reach
nearly $180 B in 2018. The Asia-Pacific, Middle East and US
regions will lead the charge in building new petrochemical
capacity to satisfy regional and global demand. The global
petrochemical sector is seeking more flexibility and efficiency
so that it can quickly adapt to future market changes. This
month’s Special Focus explores the innovative technical
approaches being applied in the petrochemical industry to
increase energy process efficiency and optimize production.

Photo: A night view of Jiaxing Petrochemical‘s PTA line with INVISTA’s

P8 technology. Photo courtesy of Invista.
 Special Focus
Modeling and optimization of pressure distillation
to achieve pharma-grade THF
This case study details the production
of tetrahydrofuran (THF), with a purity of
99.96 wt% and water moisture of less than
200 parts per million (ppm). In this work,
a systematic study of the separation of the
THF-water mixture, with a high-pressure,
rigorous distillation method, was per-
formed to break the binary azeotrope and
achieve moisture of less than 150 ppm.
The two packed beds were used with mel-
lapack packing materials, which provide
extensive purification at a lower pressure
drop at a high mass transfer rate. THF and
water formed a minimum boiling azeo-
trope at 64.2°C. The moisture was signifi-
cantly reduced to a range of 35 ppm–200
ppm in the THF product. The process
feasibility analysis study was performed
by rigorous simulation, with a proprietary
process simulation software.a The simula-
tion results were then implemented at the
distributed control system (DCS) operat-
ing window as revised operating condi-
tions. Based on several samples tested in
a laboratory, the analytical and simulation
results matched. The column’s hydraulic
performance was checked to obtain the
design limitation. The steady-state model
found no hydraulic separation issue in
the column. The model results summary
showed “zero ppm” moisture in the prod-
uct; however, in reality, it reached between
35 ppm–200 ppm. The online analyzer
setup was installed at various locations to
find and verify the moisture content.
The THF refining section consists of a
series of four packed towers designed with
a low-pressure (LP) steam reboiler, direct-
injection LLP steam and a condenser at
subcooled temperatures. The purpose
of the recovery unit is to purify crude oil
from 35 wt% to 99.95 wt%. Crude THF is
generated as a byproduct from the polyes-
ter reaction. The THF will be purified to
Petrochemical Technology
V. SHIRPURKAR, Saudi International Petrochemical Co.
(SIPCHEM), Jubail, Saudi Arabia
break the azeotrope by the pressure swing
technique. The aqueous solution contains
more than 60 wt% water, and is read-
ily concentrated by low-boiling azeotrope
composition. The THF is further distilled
in a high-pressure distillation column to
shift the THF-water azeotrope composi-
tion by 12% water at 9 barg pressure.
A schematic diagram of the pressure
swing distillation process for the THF and
water binary system is shown in FIG. 1. The
function of the T-1 column is to strip off
THF from the THF/effluent stream re-
ceived from the polyester process plant.
Column T-2 is used to strip off water from
the THF/effluent stream received from
THF stripper column T-1, primarily to
break the binary azeotrope. Water-free
THF can be sent to the THF purification
columns (T-3 and T-4) to further enrich
the quality of the THF to the required
grade. The THF/water stream is preheated
at an elevated temperature by using the T-1
bottom wastewater stream as heating fluid.
Preheated THF/water enters the top sec-
CW
Crude THF
25 wt% T-1
LLP
LP
Wastewater
FIG. 1. Schematic diagram of the pressure swing distillation process for the THF and water
binary system.
tion of the column. The stripping media
used is low-pressure steam that is directly
injected at the bottom of column T-1.
The temperature at the bottom is the
most critical to avoid the slippage of THF
to the bottom. The total condenser serves
as the THF stripper column condenser.
The condensed THF-rich liquid is collect-
ed in the THF stripper reflux drum. The
condensed liquid is then fed to column
T-2 as feed, with part of the liquid recycled
back to column T-1 as reflux by the THF
stripper reflux pumps. Tower T-1 is oper-
ated slightly above atmospheric pressure.
Pressure is controlled by the manipulating
condensing area of the condenser.
Column T-3 removes lighter compo-
nents and impurities, such as 2-methyl
THF (MTHF), 3-MTHF and 2-3 di-
hydrofuran (DHF) from the top of the
overhead reflux. The product stream
passes to the final purification column (T-
4). The heavier components, including
THF, dimethyl succinate (DMS), n-bu-
tanol, gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) and
CW CW
T-2 T-3 T-4
Low boiler THF product
LLP LLP
Heavy boiler
Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 29
 Petrochemical Technology

1-butanediol, are removed from the bot- constituents. Indeed, 64.2°C is the mini- Modeling and optimization of THF
tom of the column, and the refined prod- mum temperature at which any THF/ recovery. The separation of THF and
uct cut is removed from the top for storage. water solution can boil at atmospheric
the water stream was carried out by us-
ing a rigorous, pressure-
swing distillation method
Before a simulation is run in the simulation software, to measure hydraulic and
thermal performance of the
it is necessary to establish operating conditions. columns at constant liquid/
vapor loading.
The sensitivity analysis will determine which values of some The distributions of
parameters give the highest purity in the distillate, with liquid and vapor flows in
packed towers T-1 and T-2
moderate energy consumption (condenser and reboiler duty). are the key components in
mass transfer. The driving
force for liquid is downflow,
Thermodynamics and separation. pressure. In general, a positive azeotrope and pressure differential moves the vapor
The non-random, two-liquid (NRTL) boils at a lower temperature than any oth- up through each section. The surface-wet-
model was used to calculate the vapor er ratio of its constituents. ted packing contact area required for mass
phase non-idealities for the modeling of In the first column, which operates at transfer was found to be in an intact posi-
the high-pressure column, along with rig- a lower pressure of 1 bar, the high-boiling tion and provided sufficient area for uni-
orous simulation to understand the vapor- component water is removed as a bot- form mass transfer, as per the temperature
liquid equilibrium relationship. Since this toms stream. The composition of the profile. Vapor flow is adjusted on the high-
column operates around an atmospheric overhead product is as close as possible to er side for efficient liquid-vapor contact-
pressure, isobaric experimental data of that of the azeotrope at this pressure. The ing, and to ensure that weeping prevention
the THF and water mixture at 1.013 bar pressure is increased to 9 barg in the sec- loss does not assist entrainment column
is calculated by using the NRTL model. ond column. At this higher pressure, the flooding. Limitations in the mass transfer
The theoretical stages of each distillation azeotrope forms at a lower concentration area or packing geometry were not ob-
column were fixed according to height of the low-boiling component (THF), served. Due to the high bottom tempera-
equivalent to theoretical plate (HETP), which can then be removed as bottoms. tures of column T-2, a noticeable loss of
including a condenser and a reboiler. The overhead product of the second col- THF product recovery was observed.
THF and water form a minimum- umn is returned to the first column in the Before a simulation is run in the simu-
boiling azeotrope, or positive azeotrope, vapor state after pressure reduction. THF lation software, it is necessary to establish
at 95% water and 5% water composition mole fraction and temperature of the the operating conditions. To do so, a sen-
(by weight). THF boils at 65°C (water azeotrope, as a function of pressure, are sitivity analysis should be completed. This
boils at 100°C), but the azeotrope boils explained in the vapor-liquid equilibrium analysis will determine which values of
at 64.2°C, which is lower than either of its (VLE) diagram (FIG. 2). some parameters give the highest purity in
the distillate, with moderate energy con-
1.0 sumption (condenser and reboiler duty).

0.9 Sensitivity analysis. The sensitivity

analysis was completed using proprietary
0.8
software.a The analysis evaluated different
0.7 variables over the THF distillate compo-
sition of 99.95 wt% and 200 ppm of water,
Mol fraction of THF in vapor

0.6 as well as the condenser and reboiler duty.

The variables tested were the number of
0.5
theoretical stages, reflux ratio, the loca-
0.4 tion of the feed stage plate, the reboiler
duty and the condenser duty.
0.3 The purpose of this column is to con-
centrate the THF near an azeotrope point
0.2
between THF and water, as well as to re-
0.1 move water as a column bottom stream.
The complete miscibility of THF with
0.0 water is one factor that distinguishes THF
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Mol fraction of THF in liquid from the other ethers commonly used for
organic reactions. If the aqueous solution
FIG. 2. VLE diagram of the THF mole fraction and temperature of the azeotrope as a function contains more than 5 wt% water, it can
of pressure.
be readily concentrated by distillation to
30 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
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 Petrochemical Technology

10,000 by increasing the draw amount from the

Ultimate capacity
Minimum pressure drop per unit packed height (frictional) top reflux. The rest of the column’s ther-
Pressure drop per unit packed height
Allowable pressure drop per unit packed height (frictional) modynamics are kept unchanged.
8,000 112.54 mm water/m
Ultimate capacity
Minimum liquid rate
Constant V/L Column T-4 (THF purifier) perfor-
Vapor mass flow, kg/h

Operating point mance. The primary purpose of this

49.37 mm water/m
6,000 column is to distill high boilers from the
THF to obtain on-spec, dry pharmaceuti-
21.65 mm water/m cal-grade THF at the top of the column.
4,000 Column T-4 (final purification) receives
9.50 mm water/m Operating point
the low-boiler free THF. The heavy, rich
concentration of components in the col-
2,000 4.17 mm water/m umn was hydrogenated into DMS. Further
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 reactions produce GBL and BDO chemi-
Liquid mass flow, kg/h cals. Dehydrogenation of these compo-
nents results in decomposition into THF
FIG. 3. Performance of column T-2’s water stripper.
and water in an acidic environment. The
pH of the rich, organic concentration is
100 165 measured to 2.5 acidity, which is highly
90 acidic in nature.
80 160
The reaction kinetics under the acidic

160.3
160.12
159.91

160.01
159.81

159.95
TXY diagram (water +THF), %

159.71

159.88
159.76

159.84
159.63
159.53
159.34
158.88

70 155 phase include:

157.53

Temperature, °C
60 1. DMS + H-H r GBL + methanol
154.1

50 150 2. GBL + H-H r BDO

40 3. BDO r THF + water.
149.23

30 145
146.34

Water % Therefore, the level was reduced in

145.49
145.26

20
10
0 135
1 2
FIG. 4. Temperature vs. composition profile of column T-2 at each stage.
the low-boiling azeotrope composition,
which is 94.7 wt% THF at atmospheric
pressure. The performance of each stage
was tested at 100% load, and the pressure
drop across the bed was found to be well
within the design limit. The maximum
allowable pressure drop is 12 mbar at
62.7% flooding. However, the actual re-
sults were well within the flooding range
of 56%. The operating point, at constant
V/L, was significantly below the ultimate
capacity of the column. No loss of sensi-
tivity at high vapor velocity was observed.
The tower pressure drop was checked to
discriminate between flooding and weep-
ing across the packing. No indication of
weeping or dumping was observed.
Column T-2 (water stripper) perfor-
mance. The performance of column T-2’s
water stripper is shown in FIG. 3. The pres-
sure helps to produce a dry THF stream
that is up to 30 ppm. The azeotrope over-
head composition is recycled to the atmo-
spheric distillation in column T-1. Column
T-2’s bottom temperature is controlled by
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Stage
steam flow to the reboiler, according to
the TXY diagram in FIG. 3 and high-water
THF recycle to T-1 (FIG. 4). An increase of
the water content in the bottom product of
column T-2 is adjusted to 159.4°C.
The performance of the packed col-
umn is calculated by converting HETP
into 20 stages. Each stage, at 100% load,
is checked, with the pressure drop across
the bed being well within the design limit.
The maximum allowable pressure drop is
5.75 mbar at 62.1% flooding. However,
the actual results were well within flood-
ing range at maximum hydraulic load. The
operating point at constant V/L is below
the ultimate capacity of the column. How-
ever, all of the columns are designed for
capacity factor at 80% flooding.
Column T-3 (THF purifier) perfor-
mance. The purpose of this column is to
purify THF from the low boilers, particu-
larly the 2-3 DHF. The reflux stream in the
top is enriched with the 2-3 DHF and THF
water mixture. The low boiler fractions,
especially water, are efficiently removed
THF %
Temperature °C 140 column T-4 to minimize the residence
time. The temperature was reduced to
16 17 18 19 20 90°C to create unfavorable conditions for
DMS decomposition.
Results, discussion and recommen-
dations. The simulation and optimiza-
tion work for the distillation process be-
tween a crude-THF mixture with water
components was completed by using an
NRTL model and proprietary simula-
tion software. The results of this program
were implemented at the actual plant
level and achieved successful separa-
tion. THF is used as a solvent to manu-
facture paint, adhesives, impression ink,
pharmaceutical products, etc. It is also
an intermediate product and monomer.
THF dehydration is a process of special
economic concern since anhydrous THF
demand is increasing.
NOTES
a
Refers to Aspen Plus Radfrac modeling software
VIJAY SHIRPURKAR is a
Senior Process Engineer
at SIPCHEM. He has 14 yr of
technical service and plant
operational experience
in the refining and petrochemical
industries. He has published
multiple papers in various international publications.
He holds a degree in chemical engineering from
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University,
Maharashtra, India.

32 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
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 Special Focus
Energy losses from the radiant firebox wall
of pyrolysis furnaces
The steam cracking unit is highly en-
ergy demanding, requiring high-severity
pyrolysis furnaces to break the carbon-
carbon bonds, as well as high pressure
for the purification of its products. This
process means a high compression ratio
of the cracked gas compressor and a high
frigorific demand for fractionation of
products, with close boiling points.1 Since
the onset of this technological develop-
ment, the licensors have been striving to
reduce the amount of energy demanded
per ton of ethylene produced. Most of the
energy required, 70%–80% of the total, is
spent on the furnaces.
A study of the wall heat loss of the radi-
ant fireboxes was carried out by Braskem
at the Camaçari Industrial Complex in the
Brazilian State of Bahia. This manufactur-
ing site has two lines of ethylene produc-
tion, the first of which was commissioned
in 1978. A field data collection plan was
performed for two pyrolysis furnaces of
the ethylene production hardware. The
main goal was to obtain field data to im-
prove the performance of the unit and
conserve energy, establishing future pro-
cedures for optimizing the timeframe of
the refractory replacement of the pyroly-
sis furnaces. Considering that the petro-
chemical complex has 22 furnaces, the
expectation was to achieve a substantial
reduction of natural gas consumption.
Moreover, a reduction of greenhouse gas
emissions was an additional benefit ob-
tained from the optimization program.
Methodology. The methodology is di-
vided into two parts. First, the premises
for the field data collection of the two py-
rolysis furnaces will be shown. Second, the
main equations to quantify energy losses
in a radiant firebox surface are described.
Petrochemical Technology
A. BUENO and V. REGUEIRA, Braskem, Camaçari, Brazil;
and L. LEITE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Field data collection. To quantify the not only by monitoring thermal behavior,
heat losses, the temperatures of the walls but also by identifying and evaluating the
of the radiation zone of the two furnac- complexity of the operational problem.a
es—both comprising the same technol- An important variable to be set in
ogy—were measured. Both furnaces the camera is emissivity value.2 To de-
began operations in 1978 and were man- termine the emissivity value of the wall,
ufactured by ABB Lummus Global (pres- it is important to use an adhesive with
ently CB&I Lummus). well-known emissivity (ε = 0.97) to cali-
A simplified design of the pyrolysis brate the camera. For the furnaces under
furnaces is shown in FIG. 1. The tempera- consideration, the appropriate emissivity
tures of the north, south, east and west value was 0.95. It was possible to identify
walls were measured, excluding the burn- that, in regions where external wall tem-
er boxes. The refractories used on the peratures exceeded 100°C, the paint on
walls of the radiant firebox of these two the furnace wall was damaged (FIG. 2),
furnaces are ceramic fiber modules. which presents the output of some ther-
The temperature of the top surface of mographic measurements.
the radiant firebox was not measured be- A digital anemometer was used to
cause of many interferences that impacted measure the wind speed and ambient
its measurement (piping, non-flat areas,
etc.). However, for the calculation of heat
losses in this zone, the closest tempera-
ture information at the top of this piece of
equipment was taken into consideration.
In this work, the assessment of the heat
losses of the convection zone was not
considered since it is a region with lower
temperatures—ranging from 150°C at
the top of the convection box to 700°C in
the first bank above the crossover—while
the radiation zone operates at 1,200°C.
Therefore, lower losses occurred in the
convection section. In addition, access to
collect data in this area is limited since the
furnaces have a back-to-back design.
12 m
To measure the wall temperatures in
the radiant firebox, a thermographic de-
vice was used. The device has an infrared
thermographic camera that detects infra-
red energy and converts it into an elec-
tronic signal, producing images and per-
m
10
forming temperature calculations. The 1.7 m
heat detected by a thermographic camera
FIG. 1. Dimensions of the pyrolysis furnace.
can be quantified or measured accurately,
Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 35
 Petrochemical Technology
temperature.b Measurements were made
using the ASME PTC 4 standard of 1998
as reference.3 The data collection was
carried out at operation conditions close
to the design data:
• Feed ratio between real
and design = 0.96
• COT ratio between real
and design = 0.99
• DS/HC ratio between real
and design = 1.04
Considering the typical climate con-
ditions of the Camaçari industrial area,
which does not show great ambient tem-
perature fluctuations throughout the four
seasons, the field data collection was car-
ried out in October (spring season).
Thermal equations. After the field data
were collected, the wall heat loss of the
FIG. 2. Temperature measurements on the
walls of Furnace 1.
36APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
radiation zone of the pyrolysis furnaces
was calculated using ASME PTC 4. The
loss of energy in the radiant firebox sur-
faces is indirectly determined by measur-
ing the temperature of the firebox wall
at different ground levels, the ambient
temperature and the wind speed near the
measuring point. Then, the energy loss
can be calculated using Eq. 1–3:
QrLSrc = Cl ∑(Hcaz + Hraz) Afz
(1)
(TMnAfz – TMnAz)
Hcaz = the larger of 0.2(TMnAfz –
(2)
TMnAz) ⁄ or 0.35VAz ⁄
1
3
4
5
Hraz = 0.847 + 2.367 ×
10–3TDi + 2.94 × 10–6TDi2 (3)
+ 1.37 × 10–9TDi3
where:
QrLSrc = Energy loss due to surface
radiation (Btu/h).
Cl = Unit conversion (1 for Btu/h
or 0.293 W/h/Btu).
Hcaz = Convection heat transfer
coefficient for area z (Btu/ft2/h/°F).
Hraz = Radiation heat transfer
FIG. 3. Wall thermal map of Furnace 1.
FIG. 4. Wall thermal map of Furnace 2.
coefficient for area z (Btu/ft2/h/°F).
This correlation is based on an
ambient temperature of 25°C and
emissivity of 0.8. The uncertainty
of this correlation can be 20%.
Afz = The flat projected surface area
of the casing/lagging over the
insulation for location z (ft2).
For zones with protuberances,
only the flat projected area of
the face adjacent to the hot
surface is included in the total
flat projected area.
TMnAfz = Average surface
temperature of area z (°F).
TMnAz = Average ambient
temperature of area z (°F).
The local ambient air temperature
is the temperature measured
at 2 ft–5 ft of the wall surface.
TDi = (TMnAfz – TMnAz).
VAz = Average wind velocity (ft/s)
near the surface. Typically
measured at 2 ft–5 ft of the surface.
To quantify the potential energy loss
that can be saved in the pyrolysis fur-
 Petrochemical Technology

naces using appropriated insulation, the
reference to minimize the wall heat losses
was considered 60°C, according to the
manufacturer’s project data. Any value
above that indicates a potential gap in the
energy economy of the furnaces, consid-
ering the replacement of insulation and
refractories. This temperature is taken
as reference by insulation manufacturers
and technology licensors.
Results. The results are presented in two
parts. First, a thermal analysis was made
using the field data and the equations
presented previously. In the second part,
a feasibility analysis was made to suggest
the best time to replace the refractory
and insulation in the pyrolysis furnaces.
Feasibility analysis. To evaluate the
feasibility of the refractory replacement
in a furnace, two important economic
aspects need to be analyzed:
1. Reduction of variable costs:
As the refractory and insulation
degrade and lose their protective
characteristics, the wall heat loss
increases, demanding higher fuel
gas consumption, which impacts
the production cost of the steam
cracking unit.
2. Cost of replacement: If the
refractory and insulation are
replaced more frequently,
lower temperatures on the wall
surfaces take place; however,
the maintenance cost increases.
Therefore, the challenge is to find the
optimal point between these two costs,
since the ultimate goal is to reduce the
total cost.

Energy efficiency analysis. Taking

into consideration the previously pre-
sented equations, the furnace wall energy
losses and their overall efficiency impact
were calculated. Also, the heat losses
were calculated for theoretical cases, con-
sidering the average wall temperature of
60°C, such as:
1. In the case where the average
wall temperature of the furnace
is 60°C, there is a loss of 1.756
GJ/h, which corresponds to
1.29% of the furnace efficiency.
2. With the temperatures ACCURATE • FAST • CUSTOMIZABLE
obtained for Furnace 1 (FIG. 3),
there is a loss of 2.712 GJ/h, TM

which corresponds to 1.99%

of furnace efficiency.
3. With the temperatures obtained
for Furnace 2 (FIG. 4), there is
a loss of 3.041 GJ/h, or 2.23%
of furnace efficiency.
As indicated by the results, an in- Join other process industry leaders
crease of only 10°C in the average tem- now benefitting from Exchanger Optimizer.
perature of the furnace wall causes a rel-
evant impact on the furnace efficiency, • Design heat exchanger systems to minimize the total
increasing the variable cost of the unit. installed cost of the plant
Considering that a cracking unit usually
has many pyrolysis furnaces, the energy • Evaluate revamp scenarios including bundle replacements,
impact can be substantial. For example, metallurgy upgrades, or enhanced tubing
considering two steam cracking units
with 22 furnaces, such as in the Cama- • Generate customizable and region-specific estimates
çari Industrial Complex, an inefficiency • Share data with HTRI Xchanger Suite®
of 0.5% above the reference case can
increase the energy consumption by
184,241 GJ/year. This consumption CONTACT HTRI FOR
is equal to the annual consumption of
7,170 Brazilian people, considering the MORE INFORMATION.
per capita consumption reported by the www.htri.net
National Energy Balance.4
Select 154 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
37
 Petrochemical Technology
800
700
600
500
Cost, $ y/m2
400
300
222
200
100
0 It is necessary to evaluate savings in
0 5 10
FIG. 5. Optimum points for refractory replacement.
To determine a favorable time interval
to replace the refractory, a variable cost
curve was plotted as a function of the wall
temperature differential, applying the
equations described in the methodology
and determining the additional energy
lost. The additional energy calculated was
converted into fuel gas consumption, us-
ing its lowest calorific value (LHV). To
quantify the additional cost, the gas price
quotation of Bahiagás,5 the local power
distributor, was used.
In relation to the total cost of the re-
fractory replacement, it is important to
calculate manpower and insulation mate-
rial costs for each of the following steps:
• Refractory and insulation removal
• Application of the new refractory,
considering the cost of ceramic
fiber modules
• Coating application on the refractory
• Removal and installation of
the burners.
The results of the feasibility analysis
are shown in FIG. 5. The analyst aimed at
defining a better timeframe to replace the
insulation. All replacement costs were
calculated per square meter of insulation
area. This figure shows three maintenance
costs for different replacement frequen-
cies: Maintenance Cost 1 considered
that insulation is replaced every year, and
maintenance Cost 2 considered refrac-
tory restoration every 3 yr, and this cost
is reported on an annual basis. Mainte-
nance Cost 3, also reported on an annual
basis, considered that the substitution
would take place every 6 yr. The reason
for generating these curves with different
replacement timeframes is due to the pos-
sibility of restoring the damaged refrac-
38 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
734
471 Variable costs, $ y/m2
Maintenance costs 1, $ y/m2
Maintenance costs 2, $ y/m2
Maintenance costs 3, $ y/m2
15 20 25 30
∆T wall, °C
tory during preventive maintenance shut-
downs, which usually occur during the
coil life campaign. Typically, furnaces are
shut down every 6 yr to replace the coils
of the radiation section.
Considering 60°C as the recommend-
ed wall temperature and taking into ac-
count the actual measured wall tempera-
ture of the furnaces and the differential
wall temperature obtained (∆T), some
considerations can be made:
1. If the differential wall temperature
increases 5°C or more in a 6-yr
campaign, which corresponds
to an increase of the wall
temperature of less than 1°C/y,
the refractory should be replaced
after the sixth year.
2. If the differential wall temperature
increases 9°C or more in a 3-yr
campaign, which corresponds
to an increase of 3°C/y or more,
the refractory should be replaced
after the third year.
3. If the wall differential temperature
increases 25°C or more in a
1-yr campaign, the refractory
should be replaced yearly.
If a proper refractory replacement
policy is adopted, it is possible to estimate
potential annual energy savings for the Ca-
maçari Industrial Complex of $1,547,985.
This amount was calculated assuming that
the other 20 furnaces of the site present a
similar energy loss to Furnaces 1 and 2.
Takeaways. In view of the results ob-
tained, it was possible to deduct that the
pyrolysis Furnaces 1 and 2 at the Ca-
maçari Industrial Complex present en-
ergy losses from the radiant firebox walls
above the optimal values recommended
in literature. Through the analyses, it was
verified that a complete thermographic
monitoring of the metal radiant firebox of
the furnace is essential to detect regions
with high heat losses.
The accurate measurement of the fur-
nace wall temperatures made possible
the calculation of the energy losses in
the radiation zone and the evaluation of
the economic impact caused by this in-
efficiency, which can be more than $1.5
MM/yr for a cracker with 22 furnaces.
variable costs, the maintenance cost of
refractories and insulation replacement to
define the best timeframe for the substitu-
tion of those materials, which guarantees
the lowest total cost for this equipment
campaign. The outcome of this study
also enhances the importance of regu-
larly monitoring the wall temperature of
the furnace radiant firebox to establish a
proper insulation recovery policy.
In addition, the study also contributed
to the reduction of greenhouse gas emis-
sions, with a potential reduction of 10,423
t/yr of CO2 for the Camaçari site.
NOTES
a
Refers to FLIR thermal imaging camera technology
b
Refers to Benetech GM 816 anemometer
REFERENCES
1
Leite, L. F., “Light olefins: Technology, market and
economical aspects,” Interciência, 2013.
2
Incropera, F. and Dewitt, D., Fundamentals of Heat
and Mass Transfer, 4th ed., John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
1996.
3
ASME, STD ASME PTC 4, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1998.
4
Ministry of Mines and Energy—Brazil, “National
Energy Balance,” 2015.
5
Bahiagás, Natural gas price table, 2015.
ADMAR BUENO has worked nearly
10 yr in the petrochemicals and
energy sectors. He is a Process
Engineer at Braskem’s Camaçari
ethylene plant in Brazil, where he
oversees pyrolysis furnace
performance.
DR. LUIZ LEITE has 35 yr of
experience in process design,
research and development,
planning and managing activities in
refining and petrochemical projects
at Petrobras. At present, he is an
Associate Professor at Federal
University of Rio de Janeiro’s School of Chemistry.
VICTOR REGUEIRA graduated as
a Chemical Engineer from the
Federal University of Bahia and is
finishing his MS degree in industrial
engineering. He was an intern
at Braskem’s ethylene plant during
the development of this work.
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 Special Focus Petrochemical Technology
R. AGLAVE and T. EPPINGER,
Siemens PLM, Houston, Texas

CFD simulation in chemical reaction engineering

Reaction engineering is a branch of • Lab scale: Analysis of kinetics, scale and is used to predict key variables
chemical engineering that deals with the catalysis, thermodynamics, material in reactor behavior, including the reac-
design and optimization of chemical reac- properties and toxicity tion parameters, material properties,
tors. The goal is to optimize the transport • Reactor selection: Analysis of flow toxicity, ideal operating conditions and
processes (heat transfer, mass transfer and regime, heat release, residence time catalysts best suited for the job, as well
mixing) to improve the yield/conversion distribution (RTD), liquid hourly as preliminary reactor dimensions. Next
of desired products and to ensure the safe space velocity (LHSV), as well as comes the preliminary reactor configura-
operation of the reactor. This means maxi- gas hourly space velocity (GHSV) tion, followed by scale-up and simulation
mizing yield while minimizing costs. These • Engineering with idealized models: of a pilot-scale design. Finding the “sweet
costs could be related to the cost of feed- Analysis of plug flow or continuous spot” for the pilot-scale design is typical-
stock, energy input, heat removal or cool- stirred tank reactors (CSTR), ly the stiffest challenge during the design
ing, stirring or agitation, pumping to in- volume sizing, overall heat transfer process, as the affected parameters are
crease pressure, frictional pressure loss, etc. • Preliminary configuration: linked non-linearly to each other, which
From the standpoint of computational Analysis of vessel configuration, means that each of the sub-processes
fluid dynamics (CFD), reaction engineer- internals, baffles and coils scales differently.
ing is the application of transport phe- • Scale-up simulations: Pilot-scale
nomenon and chemical kinetics knowl- design, scale-up parameters and Conceptualization
Scale-up
Final design
edge to industrial systems. Chemical design space exploration simulation
kinetics—the study of rates of chemical • Final design: Extrapolation from
processes—is founded on the experimen- scale-up rules, flow modeling, Preliminary
Lab scale Commercialization
configuration
tal study of how different conditions influ- safety, risk and runaway analysis,
ence the speed of a chemical reaction, its dynamic modeling Engineering with
Reactor selection
mechanism and transition states, and the • Commercializing: Startup, idealized models
development of mathematical models of troubleshooting and operating
the reaction’s characteristics. training. FIG. 2. Phases of reactor design and scale-
Initial engineering begins with an ide- up where CFD can add visibility, fidelity and
confidence beyond experimental data alone.
Reactor design and CFD. Reactor de- alized reactor model sized to lab/bench
sign includes several key facets: Phase, or
state of the reactants and products (solid,
Updated model selection
gas, liquid or aqueous/dissolved in wa- Phase Reacting for multi-component
interactions
ter); reaction type (single, multiple, par- G-L, S-L,
gas reacting
allel series or polymerization); whether Flow mode G-L-S, G-S Reaction
types: Single
a catalyst is involved; flow distribution Batch parallel-series, Reacting species
Semi-batch Flamelet
and mixing; transport of the species; Continuous polymerization transport
and mode of operation (i.e., batch, semi- Flame propagation
models
batch or continuous). Most crucial are the Reactor Complex
Flamelet
underlying transport processes—fluid Transport generated Kinetic rate
design Reaction types: chemistry manifold
Mass transfer
flow, heat transfer, mass transfer and reac- Heat transfer
Homogeneous,
heterogeneous
tions—which is where CFD simulation Diffusion Steady laminar
Eddy breakup CFM
can add substantial value. Reaction Flow
flamelet
In reactor design, the process of tak- and safety distribution
Coking, poisoning Homogeneity TFC
ing the discovery of a new chemical with Chain and Dispersion Chemical
novel properties from lab to commercial runaway Mixing equilibrium
production involves many steps (FIG. 1):
• Conceptualization: Analysis of new FIG. 1. Essential aspects of chemical FIG. 3. List of available reaction models for
reactor design. gas phase reaction flows.
chemistry and the business case
Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 41
 Petrochemical Technology
If a larger capacity is desired, an in-
crease in the geometric size may be suffi-
FIG. 4. Eddy breakup model of glass furnace showing flame zone and region of NOX formation
within overall combustion chamber.
FIG. 5. Proprietary modeling results for a coupled 1D/3D simulation of a steam
methane reformer.
FIG. 6. Digital analysis providing flamelet libraries and lookup tables for gas and surface
chemistry to the modeling system.
42 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
cient; however, this does not apply to the
reaction, heat transfer or mixing. If the
model is scaled with turbulence scales, it
may result in extremely high revolutions
per minute, or a geometrically unfeasible
design. As a result, many different designs
can be created, depending on the scale-up
rule used. Achieving the perfect scale-up
model requires design space exploration
to find the optimum result.
Final design is accomplished through
extrapolation from scale-up rules, de-
tailed flow modeling, assessment of safety
risks and runaway reactions, and dynamic
modeling of the entire system to see how
the predicted reactions will work at plant
scale. At each stage of the design process
(FIG. 2), CFD can provide predictive ca-
pability, design exploration and optimiza-
tion at better fidelity, speed and cost than
can experimental data alone.
Reaction models. Depending on the
physics of the reaction, a wide range of
chemical reaction models are available in
a proprietary modeling system,a regard-
less of whether the reaction is carried
out in the gas phase or liquid phase, and
whether a catalyst is present. Models that
are supported include:
• Gas phase reactions may be simple
combustion reactions, or reactions
that take place inside tubes, such
as those in cracker furnaces where
heat is supplied externally.
• Liquid phase reactions may
involve polymerization schemes
or series-parallel liquid reactions
with meso-/micro-mixing.
• Custom reactions involve
enzymatic reactions and
fermentation, as well as user coding.
• In cases where detailed chemical
kinetics of a reaction need to be
developed, modified or modeled in
ideal flow conditions, a dedicated,
proprietary tool is available.
Gas phase reacting flow models. The
most basic types of flow models are for
gas phase reacting flows where the differ-
ent species (feedstocks) enter the reactor
non-premixed, completely mixed or part-
ly premixed. For each category, a host of
proprietary models are available to simu-
late the reaction (FIG. 3).
Some of these models are regarded
as tabulated chemistry models to reduce
computation times, while others make use
of detailed chemistry using the previously
mentioned proprietary tool. An example

is a simple glass furnace, where air and
fuel enter the domain non-premixed. One
simple proprietary model, shown in FIG. 4,
highlights the flame zone, the approximate
region where NOX is formed, and the re-
mainder of the combustion chamber. In
this case, critical considerations in design
and operation of the reactor include not
only heat transfer, but also the production
of pollutant species, such as NOx.
Validation studies conducted for this
reactor design are summarized in FIG. 4.
The top right plot shows the temperature
profile at a location of 0.9 m downstream
from the fuel inlet. The green dots show
experimental measurements, while the
blue line shows simulation results from a
proprietary modeling system. Good agree-
ment is visible between the two, providing
the necessary confidence and predictive
capability for designing and operating this
type of reactor safely.
Also important is species concentra-
tion, such as the O2 mole fraction at the
same location, which is shown 0.9 m
from the fuel inlet. In FIG. 4, the bottom
plot demonstrates good agreement be-
tween experimental measurements and
simulation results. In situations such as
this, where high-temperature processes
make experimental work difficult and
expensive, simulation provides an easier,
more cost-effective way to explore quan-
tities of interest.
Modeling process for heaters and
crackers. In process heaters and naph-
tha crackers, reactants pass through a tube
while heat is supplied by combustion out-
side the tube. The proprietary modeling
system provides a simplified way to simu-
late these reactions by modeling the tubes
as 1D plug flow reactors—an idealized
model used to describe chemical reactions
in continuous, flowing systems of cylin-
drical geometry—while the external com-
bustion is modeled in 3D. This approach
is much less computationally expensive
than simulating the entire system in 3D.
On the outer tube wall, conduction,
convection and radiation are modeled in
3D, while inside the tube, heat transfer
via convection is modeled in 1D. The two
simulations are then coupled at the junc-
tion of the tube wall. This allows the de-
signer to observe how mass fractions of
species behave inside the tubes, and at the
same time view the heat transfer and tem-
perature profiles outside the tubes in the
Petrochemical Technology
furnace. FIG. 5 shows the model results for port reaction mechanisms to perform sen-
a coupled 1D/3D simulation of a steam sitivity analysis, validate experimental data
methane reformer providing the axial and simplify the reaction mechanisms for
distribution of temperature, heat flux and use in CFD simulations (FIG. 6).
species concentration.
Surface chemistry formulation. An
Chemical kinetics modeling tool. A important class of detailed chemistry sim-
standalone, gas phase, detailed chemical ulations is surface chemistry. In these ac-
kinetics modeling toolb can be used for tions, the reactants are initially adsorbed
simulating ideal (simplified) reactor mod- onto a surface medium that acts as a cata-
els. These models help develop and im- lyst for the reaction. After the reaction,
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Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 43
 Petrochemical Technology

the products are desorbed and the surface solver in the proprietary model, or using ing material impregnated with catalysts
is left unchanged. global reaction mechanisms. One ap- to improve the contact between the two
Surface chemistry can be modeled plication where surface chemistry is im- phases in the reaction.
either with detailed chemistry formula- portant is designing packed-bed reactors, Design challenges include the accurate
tions using the stiff differential equation which consist of tubes filled with a pack- prediction of heat transfer, which is critical
for the safe operation of such reactors. The
modeling of such reactors provides critical
insights into heat transfer if representative
random packing is generated, and if con-
tact resolution in meshing can be carried
out efficiently and accurately (FIG. 7).
The proprietary modeling system pro-
vides an automated way to model and
simulate packed-bed reactors. Through
a graphical user interface, the designer
can specify geometry conditions, particle
properties, wall properties and particle-
to-particle interactions, as well as other
fluid properties and heat transfer simula-
tions. Once these specifications are de-
FIG. 7. The proprietary model provides an automated process to model and simulate fined, the catalyst bed is generated using a
packed-bed reactors. built-in element modeling capability. The
modeling system creates a mesh includ-
ing boundary layers, and then progresses
90
to carry out the CFD simulation, followed
Correlation
85 Experiment by post-processing, to show radial and ax-
Model ial porosity, velocity profiles, heat transfer
80
and reactions, if necessary.
Power, W

75
Multiphase systems. Performing lab-
70 scale tests and validating them in a CFD
65 simulation is an essential part of the scale-
up operation. Such validation provides the
60
0.00 0.00 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 necessary confidence in the robustness
Solids loading and fidelity of the model to make predic-
tions at plant scales, where measurements
FIG. 9. Power consumption comparison of experiment, simulation and correlation. The contours may not be possible. One such example of
plot on the right shows the solids volume fraction for various solids loadings.
determining the power calculation for a
varying solids concentration (10 wt%, 20
wt%, 30 wt% and 40 wt%) is given.

FIG. 10. Physical configuration of reactors is critical to predicting the product of many liquid FIG. 8. Schematic of the lab-scale mixing
phase micro-mixing reactions. vessel used in solids suspension experiments.

44 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Select 87 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
 Petrochemical Technology
In this example, a four-bladed,
pitched-bladed turbine (FIG. 8) was used
to suspend sand (particle size 190 μm) in
water at a speed of 600 rpm. The liquid
and solid densities were 1,000 kg/m3 and
2,483 kg/m3, respectively. The tank had
a height and diameter of 0.34 m, whereas
the impeller diameter was 0.19 m.
Results (FIG. 9) show that simulation
predictions not only accurately validate
power consumption data, but also predict
that the increase in power is sub-parity.
Common correlations that are used to
predict power require the lookup of a
power number from available charts in lit-
erature. The conditions of the given sys-
96
94
92
90
% yield
88
86
84 Experiment
EBU
82 Eddy contact micro-mixing
80
3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000
Re
FIG. 11. Comparison of predicted yield values
obtained by eddy contact micro-mixing, and
eddy breakup models with experimental
measurements for liquid phase reaction.
FIG. 12. The proprietary modeling system provides numerous ways and capabilities
to model reactors.
46APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
tem must be matched to those available
in literature for geometric ratios, material
properties and solids concentrations.
Most of the time, it is impossible to
find a good match from the geometries
and material properties for cases available
in literature for factor S to those for a given
design requirement; therefore, the confi-
dence to choose the right power number
is very low. This uncertainty results in
inaccurate power prediction from corre-
lation-based methods, as shown in FIG. 10.
Liquid phase reactions: Micro-mix-
ing. Liquid phase reactions differ signifi-
cantly from gas phase reactions because
the diffusivity of liquids is much lower
than their viscosity. Therefore, reactions
can be strongly influenced by scalar gradi-
ents. The most important difference pres-
ent in many liquid phase reactions is the
phenomenon of micro-mixing, or mixing
at the molecular scale.
In the reaction shown in FIG. 10, wheth-
er the reaction will preferentially form
product S or product R depends on the
physical configuration of the reactor. In
this schematic, for example, the location at
7,000 8,000 which species B is added—at the top of the
vessel, or instead close to the impeller—
can make a significant difference in results.
The proprietary model allows accurate
modeling and prediction of these micro-
mixing effects by providing an eddy con-
tact micro-mixing model, which gives
higher accuracy compared to an eddy
breakup model (used as standard for gas
phase reactions). The eddy contact model
calculates a reaction time scale based on
the scalar dissipation rate, and uses this
scale to calculate the reaction rate (FIG. 11).
Customized reaction models: Fer-
mentation and biochemical reac-
tions. Another kind of flow reaction
consists of fermentation and biochemical
reactions. In these reactions, sugar is con-
verted to acid, and either gases or alcohol
are produced through a complex reaction
chemistry. Reaction rates differ, starting
with a log phase followed by an exponen-
tial phase, then a deceleration phase and,
finally, a stationary phase. Each phase has
a defined reaction rate. All of these phases
can be defined in the modeling system us-
ing the custom reaction definitions avail-
able through the user-defined functions
or field functions (FIG. 12).
Takeaway. The capabilities available in
the modeling system allow reaction engi-
neers to look at the transport processes in
various reactor types, including packed-
bed reactors, fluidization, stirred reactors,
bubble columns and membrane reactors,
as well as the various high-temperature
processes in gas phase reactions.
Even in established processes, the
underlying transport processes are cru-
cial for reactor design, and they open up
possibilities for improvement. For each
of those transport processes, the model-
ing system provides ways and capabilities
to model and discover better reactor de-
signs, faster.
NOTES
a
The STAR-CCM+ modeling system
b
DARS (Digital Analysis of Reacting Systems)
RAVINDRA AGLAVE is the Director
for Energy and Process Industries in
the Simulation and Test (STS) sub-
segment of Siemens PLM Software.
In this role, he is responsible for
bringing new modeling and physics
knowledge into CFD simulation
code that can be deployed in the industry.
THOMAS EPPINGER is an
application specialist for chemical
and process industries in the STS
sub-segment of Siemens PLM
Software. In this role, he is
responsible for expanding the use
of CFD into new application areas,
along with bridging the gap between the software
development and the users.
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 Special Focus
Establishing a plastics processing sector
in NE India—A short analysis
The Assam gas cracker project was
proposed as a part of the implementa-
tion of the Assam Accord, which was
signed on August 15, 1985. In January
1991, a letter of intent was issued by
Assam Industrial Development Corp.
(AIDC) to set up a 300-Mtpy petro-
chemical gas cracker complex. Due to
the inherent disadvantages of locating a
project in Assam, the government could
not attract a JV partner, despite its best
efforts. Therefore, the Assam Govern-
ment approached the Central Govern-
ment in April 1992 for fiscal conces-
sions to neutralize the disadvantages of
setting up the project in Assam.
A Memorandum of Understanding
was signed between the Government
of Assam and Reliance Industries Ltd.
(RIL) in May 1994, which created the
company Reliance Assam Petrochemi-
cals Ltd. (RAPL) to implement the
project. However, RAPL did not start
work on the project due to an insuffi-
cient supply of natural gas. RAPL de-
manded that the shortfall in natural gas
be compensated by LPG at the cost of
natural gas, but the project remained a
non-starter.
In 2003, a meeting of Indian govern-
ment officials was held to discuss pro-
viding a subsidy for the associated gas
feedstock to be used for the complex. It
was decided that GAIL would examine
the feasibility of taking up the project
on its own. GAIL also indicated the
assistance needed from other public-
sector undertakings and the support
needed from the Indian government for
setting up the project.
Finally, the Cabinet Committee on
Economic Affairs approved the project
in 2006. The JV company Brahmaputra
Cracker and Polymer Ltd. (BCPL) was
Petrochemical Technology
P. K. PHUKAN, Brahmaputra Cracker and Polymer Ltd.,
Lepetkata, Dibrugarh, Assam, India
incorporated in January 2007 to oper- BCPL—A CASE STUDY
ate the facility. A natural gas supply commitment
BCPL’s petrochemical complex is lo- from India’s Oil and Natural Gas Corp.
cated at Lepetkata, India. The principal (ONGC), combined with moderate
end products produced are 220 Mtpy pricing, have provided a strong eco-
of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) nomic advantage to BCPL, which pro-
and linear low-density polyethylene cesses natural gas and natural gas liquids
(LLDPE), as well as 60 Mtpy of poly- (NGL) into intermediate chemicals and
propylene (PP). The other products in- an array of finished polymer products.
clude hydrogenated pyrolysis gasoline BCPL’s share in the existing manu-
and pyrolysis fuel oil. The plant’s con- facturing capacity is shown in FIG. 2.
figuration is shown in FIG. 1. The impact of India’s chemical indus-
Considering the risks associated try buildout will be felt not just in the
with setting up a greenfield mega-proj- northeastern states of India, which have
ect in Assam, it was imperative that the a per-capita polymer consumption of 2.8
viability of the project be sufficiently kg, but also across all Indian states where
ensured. This required reducing the per-capita polymer consumption is 9.7
level of investment, ensuring feedstock kg (FIG. 3). A breakout of plastics con-
availability at a reasonable cost and se- sumption in India is shown in FIG. 4.
curing competitive finished product BCPL’s petrochemical complex is a
pricing considering the remote location first step toward the buildout of a region-
of the plant. Since the petrochemicals al petrochemical hub and manufacturing
business is cyclical in nature, the proj- renaissance in the plastics and chemi-
ect financials must be sound enough to cals sector in northeast India. The hope
absorb the polymer price fluctuations. is that new and existing companies will
From oil
Captive power
Lean gas Rich gas plant
IOPs
4.62 MMm3d 6 MMm3d Butene-1
8.9 Mtpy
18-in. rich gas pipeline
Gas 47 km
compresssion/dehydration Cracker complex, LLDPE/HDPE
Duliajan Lepetkata
18-in. lean gas pipeline 220 Mtpy
47 km
GAIL, Lakwa
C2/C3 plant PP
26,715 TPA GSU—6 MMm3d 60 Mtpy
4-in. C2+ liquid pipeline
Rich gas Lean gas 47 km
1 MMm3d 0.77 MMm3d Ethylene—220 Mtpy
Pyro gasoline
Propylene—60 Mtpy 43 Mtpy
ONGC, Lakwa
Naphtha Fuel oil
NRL
160 Mtpy through 9.728 Mtpy
railway wagons
Total polymer production
280 Mtpy
FIG. 1. Configuration of BCPL’s petrochemical complex.
Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 49

take advantage of the PE and PP being
produced by BCPL, and the intermedi-
ates produced from other potential re-
gional cracker facilities.
The following focuses on the gas
cracker project and includes the project’s
challenges, innovation, cost and comple-
tion. The project’s concept-to-commis-
sioning scope is shown in FIG. 5.
Project challenges. Major challenges
that needed to be overcome during the
initial and construction phases of the
project included:
FIG. 2. Existing thermoplastics manufacturing capacity in India.
120
100
Per-capita polymer consumption, kg
80
60
40
20
0
0 10,000
FIG. 3. Polymer consumption by region.
50 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Petrochemical Technology
• The bidders’ response for the o Having the licensors expedite their
ethane cracking unit (ECU) final datasheets at the earliest.
was poor, which led to a delay o Commencing procurement
in finalizing the licensor for the and engineering activities,
ECU. Subsequently, selecting based on preliminary datasheets,
the licensor for the downstream instead of waiting for the
units (i.e., PE and PP units) was final process packages.
also delayed. Several actions o Completing the site office,
were taken to make up the construction substations and
slippage in the project’s schedule. receiving substation buildings
Those included: by adopting unconventional
ο Signing the licensing agreements construction techniques.
as soon as the licensors were o Executing basic and detailed
selected. engineering from Engineers
India Ltd.’s regional offices.
o Having process licensors supply
critical equipment and long-
lead item datasheets, piping
and instrumentation diagrams
(P&IDs), equipment layouts,
etc., within 12 wk–16 wk against
the contractual date of 26 wk–
36 wk. The ECU’s licensor was
also asked to provide the heater’s
detailed engineering package
within 36 wk rather than the
contractual timeframe of 54 wk.
• A delay in authorization from
the statutory authority regarding
minor minerals used in the project.
This obstacle was overcome by
persistent persuasion with different
statutory bodies.
• Frequent theft/sabotage
and misplacement of project
materials. This challenge
was overcome by instituting
enhanced security measures.
• Loss of working days due to
frequent strikes. The project
Global average is 27 kg developers kept up relentless
India China Russia Brazil US
dialogues with local administration
EU Mexico Argentina Columbia Future US—90 kg and appropriate labor to
overcome this challenge.
• Site grading and piling work was
The Indian scenario 9% Eastern
China—46 kg (as per FICCI, CPMA)
• 2007–2012, polymer 23% Northern
growth at CAGR of 10.3%
• PP—12%
• PE—9% 47% Western
India toward end of decade—28 kg • PVC—11%
• Demand growth projected
for polymers in 2012–2017: 10.3%
21% Southern
India—9.7 kg
20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000
GDP per capita, $US
FIG. 4. Plastics consumption in India by
region. Source: IOCL, Tata Strategic.
 Petrochemical Technology

affected due to incessant rain. fractionators, due to inadequate column, etc.).

To ensure that work and the road/rail infrastructure and the • Unavailability of high-capacity
movement of equipment and unavailability of a nearby port. cranes, which led to a delay
labor during monsoon season This challenge was overcome in erecting heavy equipment.
continued, site grading contractors by transporting equipment in Nevertheless, BCPL developed the
were advised to complete the a knocked-down state by waterways site condition on a priority basis
construction activities for approach and roadways, as well as by and hired a high-capacity crane
roads along with culverts and fabricating units onsite (e.g., PE from outside agencies.
drains at the working sites. polymerization reactor, purge • The project’s budget increased from
• A delay in readiness of utilities
due to the lackluster approach
of lump-sum turnkey (LSTK)
contractors. This challenge was met
by offloading some of the contracts
(e.g., LSTK) and positioned the risk
and cost to the main contractor.
• Scarcity of water due to the
disruption of an HT cable. To
fulfill the demand for raw water,
additional wells were drilled.
• Paucity of requisite skilled and
unskilled manpower. To fulfill
labor needs, experienced contract
manpower was outsourced.
• A delay in the erection of major
pieces of equipment, such as
the purge column and ethylene FIG. 5. The BCPL gas cracker project’s concept-to-commissioning route.

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Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 51
 Petrochemical Technology

nearly $853 MM to approximately
$1.56 B. The increased cost was
due to a high-escalation rate during
the global recession (2008–2010),
a prolonged monsoon season and
several additional factors during the
initial and final stages of the project.
• A dearth of industrial culture and
awareness/aptitude among people
in the region about the benefits
of petrochemical products. The
project developers worked, trained
and interacted with the workers
to make them conscious about
their work and safety procedures.
The commissioning of a modern chem-
ical plant is a complex and difficult exercise.
The final stage of a major project involves
the authorization, design, construction
and startup of the plant. Commissioning is
the time when the quality of work carried
out during earlier phases of the project is
validated, and confirmation is made that a
return on the investment commences.
Between the original conception of the
project and the beneficial production of
chemicals, all chemical plant projects pass
through a similar sequence of phases. De-
cisions taken throughout the entire proj-
ect are complex and are based on the best
information available at that time. This
information is sometimes incomplete or
conflicting due to the uniqueness of con-
cept to commissioning. The correctness
of these decisions is not apparent until the
plant is commissioned and operating.
During the detailed design stage, the
plant’s hardware is constructed and is de-
fined in detail. The design has a major in-
fluence on the success of commissioning,
but some features that have a large effect
on commissioning were overlooked dur-
ing this project.
Challenges during the precommis-
sion, commissioning and startup
phases. The readiness of utilities is a key
factor to start precommissioning/com-
missioning activities, but the scenario
was very difficult due to the lackluster ap-
proach of the LSTK contractors. A limita-
tion in raw water storage, along with high
silica content in the raw water intake well,
were major reasons for a delay in commis-
sioning of the DM plant and CPP. The
project developers stored rainwater in the
DM plant’s raw water reservoir to supply
the desired specification of DM water to
the CPP. This operation helped overcome
the delay in commissioning CPP and
steam generation, which helped supply
power and the required steam for steam
blowing the VHP, HP, MP and LP steam
lines. The output between regeneration
was reduced, and the regeneration cycle
was increased in the DM plant.
There was a scarcity of nitrogen due
to a delay in commissioning the nitrogen
plant. Liquid nitrogen/nitrogen cylinders
were procured from other agencies to mit-
igate the demand for passivation, inertiza-
tion, seal gas, blanketing, etc.
Due to a lack of plant/instrument air,
cardboard blasting of different pipelines
was carried out with the help of a rented
portable air compressor. Hydroblasting,
rotomould cleaning, chemical cleaning and
degreasing were carried out to clean the
pipelines for different services. Due to the
lack of heat load in the circuit, passivation
of the cooling water circuit was delayed.

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52 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
 Petrochemical Technology

Multiple pieces of equipment, pipes/
fittings, structural steels, etc., were dam-
aged due to improper storage. Since
equipment supplied by the vendor/
mechanical contractor was not properly
protected and/or cleaned, commission-
ing of the refrigeration package was de-
layed since precommissioning activities
required more time than anticipated.
Several additional challenges that
needed to be overcome by the project
team included:
• A breakdown of the No. 2
tor in northeast India. Part 2 will provide
an analysis on India’s northeast petro-
chemical region, and if a petrochemical
hub can exist in the region.
Next month. Part 2 will appear in the
May issue of Hydrocarbon Processing.
DISCLAIMER
Any views or opinions represented in this pre-
sentation are personal and belong solely to the
author and do not represent those of people, institu-
tions or organizations that author may or may not be
associated with in professional or personal capacity,
unless explicitly stated. Any views or opinions are
not intended to malign any organization, company
or individual.
PRANJAL KUMAR PHUKAN has more than 22 yr of
experience in the field of procurement and contract
management in the automotive, telecommunication
and petrochemical sectors. He is affiliated with
various international and domestic organizations
of repute. Dr. Phukan is a published author, and he
belongs to numerous organizations, associations and
councils. He is a professional and chartered engineer.

Biggest Combustion
utility boiler in the CPP
during commissioning.
• Damage to 68 pole structures

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of the HT overhead transmission
line during a cyclone.
• Leakage in the cold box of the

No Problem.
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• A delay in commissioning of
other units (e.g., the GDU and
GSU) due to the remote location.
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butene-1 plant. The plant also
suffered from a shortage of
propylene feed for the PP plant
due to the scarcity of natural
gas and/or naphtha, which was
procured through various sources.
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Aqueous chemistry principles
applied to refinery processes
In the petroleum refining industry, pH measurement and
adjustment are extremely important. When pH is not properly
monitored and controlled, chemical consumption increases,
corrosion causes equipment and pipe failures, and products
go off-specification—all of which affect company profits and
unit utilization.
Along with acid-base theory, precipitation equilibrium is
another basic chemistry principle that is often overlooked.
Salt deposition occurs because aqueous solutions reach the
salt solubility limit. Moreover, precipitation of certain salts can
take place by merely changing pH. Examples of applications of
acid-base theory and precipitation equilibrium in the refining
sector include:
• Wastewater treatment, which is directly affected by
pH and is the most important variable in the coagulation
process. In wastewater treatment, pH is used to control
and optimize biological activity and to prevent corrosion
and/or neutralize effluent to discharge limits (generally
a pH range).
• Proper desalter operation is the first step for optimum
control of corrosion and fouling in a petroleum
refining distillation process. Acidification of desalter
washwater, when correctly carried out, has improved
desalter operations and helped prevent atmospheric
crude distillation tower overhead fouling and corrosion.
The type and quantity of acid used, and the brine
pH requirement, depend on the type of water used
in desalting and the type of amines to be “extracted,”
respectively. As an example, caution should be exercised
if the washwater and/or the crude oil have high levels
of calcium, and if citric or sulfuric acid is used.
The higher the injection rates of these acids,
the higher the chance of forming calcium precipitate
in the desalter and downstream system.
• Hydrogen chloride formed by the hydrolysis of calcium
and magnesium salts will evolve in the crude distillation
tower and form hydrochloric acid in the cold sections
when water reaches its dewpoint, leading to severe,
localized corrosion. Hydrogen chloride can also combine
with amines to form salts in the overhead system, leading
to under-deposit corrosion. Water wash helps prevent the
problem by diluting acid and dissolving salts. The water
Process
Engineering
R. CARDOSO, Phillips 66, Westlake, Louisiana
collected in the overhead collection drum is used
to monitor and control pH by the addition of a
neutralizing amine. Iron is also tested to determine
loss of metal within the system. However, the iron test
result may be misleading under certain combination
of pH and total sulfur concentration in the overhead
system, as will be discussed later.
Widespread misunderstanding exists of the acid-base theory,
pH definition and precipitation equilibrium, consequently af-
fecting how to apply theory to practice. At times, an assessment
can be performed by merely consulting an ionization constant
table that provides enough information to properly explain a re-
action that is taking place, or to avoid a problem.
This article presents examples of acids and bases encoun-
tered in the refining industry and how to avoid issues with salt
solubility. A review of basic concepts is followed by examples of
how the theory can be applied with real case studies.
Aqueous chemistry principles. Key aqueous chemistry
principles are described in the following sections.
Solubility.1,2 The solubility of a particular compound in wa-
ter can be described as the maximum quantity that this com-
pound (called solute) can be in solution right before another
phase (solid, liquid or gas) of this pure compound is formed.
The solubility product constant (at a given temperature) can
be derived from the solubility of a salt, and vice versa. Tables
with solubilities and solubility product constants can be found
in literature.3 As an example, the solubility product constant
(Ksp ) for iron sulfide ( Fe +2(aq) + S–2(aq) ! FeS(s) ) saturated
solution is shown in Eq. 1:
[Fe+2] × [S–2] = K sp (1)
where the concentration of each ion is raised to a power equal to
its coefficient in the chemical equation.
Given Eq. 1, suppose that an iron sulfide solution is to be
generated from two solutions (iron choride and sodium bisul-
fide/sulfide, for example), such that the calculated molarity of
Fe+2 can be multiplied by the molarity of S–2 for the final blend.
Three conditions can be achieved:
1. [Fe+2] × [S–2] < Ksp The blend would generate
an unsaturated solution,
and more Fe+2 and/or S–2
Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 55
 Process Engineering

could be added to the solution Strong acids. At this point, it is worth differentiating be-
before a precipitate (free solid tween weak and strong acids. To simplify, a strong acid is an acid
phase of FeS) is formed. that, when in aqueous solution, is completely ionized. An ex-
2. [Fe+2] × [S–2] = Ksp The blend would generate ample of these strong acids are HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4, HCl and
a saturated solution, as previously HI. Any of these acids will ionize completely in water; therefore,
defined, and any more Fe+2 and/or if a solution of 0.01 mol/l of HNO3 is prepared, then 0.01 mol/l
S–2 added to the solution will cause of H3O+ is formed according to Eq. 5:
the formation of an FeS precipitate.
HNO3 + H2O → H3O+(aq) + NO3–(aq) (5)
3. [Fe+2] × [S–2] > Ksp The blend would generate
a saturated solution and a Here, the pH will be 2. Due to complete ionization, the pH
precipitate of FeS, upon blending of a strong acid solution can be easily calculated. If a solution
of the two initial solutions. of 10–3 gmol/l of HNO3 is prepared, the pH will be 3. If a solu-
Acid-base theory.1,2 The basic and acidic properties of di- tion of 10–4 gmol/l of HNO3 is prepared, the pH will be 4. If a
luted aqueous solutions are dependent on the equilibrium that solution of 10–6 gmol/l of HNO3 is prepared, the pH will be
involves water, the solvent. The equilibrium constant for pure 6. However, if a solution of 10–8 gmol/l of HNO3 is prepared,
water ionization is Kw , which has a value of 1 × 10–14 at 77°F does it make sense to say that the pH of an acid solution will
(25°C). The water ionization reaction follows and, due to the be 8? The answer is no. The amount of acid is so small that
low ionization constant, pure water has a very small concentra- the hydrogen ion formed will interfere in the equilibrium of
tion of H3O+(aq) and HO–(aq), as shown in Eqs. 2 and 3: ionization of water. When this equilibrium is taken into con-
sideration, the pH will be 6.96.
H 2O + H 2O ! H 3O+(aq) + HO–(aq) (2)
Equilibrium for weak acids. Weak acids will ionize in wa-
ter according to their ionization constant and, therefore, only a
Kw = [H3O+] × [HO–] = 1 × 10–14 (3)
small portion of the acid molecules will generate hydrogen ions
Note: H2O, as a solvent, does not appear in the equation be- (H3O+). The equilibrium reaction and equation are represented
cause its concentration does not change since the ionization is in Eqs. 6 and 7 for acetic acid:
extremely small.
A solution becomes acidic or basic due to an imbalance in H 3CCOOH(aq) + H 2O !
(6)
the concentration of H3O+(aq) and HO–(aq). When they are the H 3O+(aq) + H 3CCOO−(aq)
same, the solution is neutral; if H3O+(aq) > HO–(aq), then the so-
lution is acidic; converserly, if H3O+(aq) < HO–(aq), then the solu- [H 3O+ ][H 3CCOO− ]
tion is basic. Ka = = 1.8 × 10−5 (7)
[H 3CCOOH]
The power of the hydrogen ion, or pH, is a simple way to
quantify the concentration of hydrogen ion in solution defined as where Ka is the acid ionization constant for acetic acid at 77°F.
pH = –log [H3O+]. That way, if [H3O+] = 10–3 gmol/l, the pH is 3. For a generic acid, the ionization equilibrium equation is
Applying the logarithm to the water ionization equation given by Eq. 8:
(Eq. 3) and using the power of the hydrogen ion and hydroxide
([H3O+ ] × [B − ])
definitions, Eq. 4 can be derived: Ka = , based on
[HB] (8)
–log Kw = –log [H3O+] –log [HO–] = –log 1 × 10–14
→ pKw = pH + pOH = 14
(4) HB(aq) + H2O ! H3O+(aq) + B −(aq)

where pKw is merely –logKw. With a mathematical treatment, the above equation can be
written as shown in Eqs. 9–11:
1.0
1. Apply logarithm to the equation and multiply by –1:
[HB]
–logK a = –log[H 3O+ ] + log (9)
[B– ]
2. Using the definition of the power of hydrogen:
Mol fraction of species

[HB]
0.5 pKa = pH + log – ,where pK a is merely –logKa (10)
(H2A) pKa1
[B ]
(HA–) pKa2 3. Rearranging Eq. 10:
(A=)
[HB]
log – = pKa – pH (11)
[B ]
From this last equation, the following derivations can be de-
0.0 fined:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 [HB]
pH • If the pH is equal to pK a , then log – = 0
[B ]
FIG. 1. Distribution curve for acid species. and [HB] is equal to [B–]

56 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
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 Process Engineering

• If the pH is lower than pKa (i.e., pH = pKa – 2), Chlorine is slightly soluble in water, according to Eq. 12, and
[HB] equilibrium will shift to the left as pH drops below 3:
then log – = 2 and [HB] is 100 times higher than [B– ]
[B ]
Cl 2(g) + 2H 2O ! HClO(aq) + H 3O+(aq) + Cl –(aq) (12)
• If the pH is higher than pKa (i.e., pH = pKa + 2),
[HB]
then log – = –2 and [HB] is 100 times lower than [B– ] It is also desirable to keep a margin above pH = 3 in case of
[B ]
upsets. For example, pH = 3.5 can be used as a monitored target.
This treatment allows for the determination of which form When pH started to approach 3 due to issues related to the
is predominant in a solution, according to the solution pH. The regeneration system, a question arose: Can the cooling water
distribution curve for the generic diprotic acid species (H2A, flowrate be increased to readjust the pH? The answer is yes,
HA– and A–2) in a solution with pKa1 = 5 and pKa2 = 9 is pre- but the net effect would be minimal. One of the issues was
sented in FIG. 1. that the cooling water valve flowrate was already operating at
The application of these two concepts—solubility and acid- nearly 100% open. Even with an unlimited rate of cooling wa-
base theories—for real refinery cases will prove their importance. ter available to the unit, a hydraulic limit would be imposed by
the gravity draining line since the flow of water would need to
Case studies for the refining industry. The following be massively increased (TABLE 1).
sections highlight examples of refinery case studies for the ap- A logarithmic scale is used to measure pH, meaning that for
plied concepts. every one unit of change on the pH scale, there is a tenfold dif-
Case 1. In a continuous catalyst regeneration reformer unit, ference in the hydrogen ion (acid) concentration. This is why,
a scrubber is used to treat the offgas from the catalyst regenera- for even a minute increase of 0.1 in the pH, 30% more water is
tor. The gas is treated to eliminate HCl(g) and Cl2(g) and avoid needed, as shown in TABLE 1.
environmental issues, as well as to prevent corrosion to nearby The solution for this problem is the addition of an alkaline
equipment, piping and structures. solution to the scrubber system.
The scrubber for this case study uses once-through cooling Case 2. Caustic solution is used to neutralize acidic streams,
water (inlet pH of approximately 7.5) to contact the offgases either as a pretreatment for further processing or as final clean-
from the catalyst regenerator. Gas removal efficiency is moni- ing before disposal:
tored by maintaining a minimum flow of cooling water to the • Pretreatment example: A sulfuric acid alkylation
scrubber and keeping the effluent water pH above 3 (FIG. 2). unit where a liquid stream from the refrigeration
system is pretreated in a caustic wash to neutralize
Scrubbed gas
SO2 , a byproduct of the alkylation reaction, prior to
fractionation in a depropanizer
Cooling water pH = 7.5
• Cleaning prior to disposal example: A particular sulfur
removal unit where the flue gas, rich in SO2 from the
absorbent regenerator, is treated by caustic prior to
Valve output 90% disposal to atmosphere.
In both cases, caustic is used and the neutralization process
can be described according to Eq. 13 (formation of weak sulfu-
rous acid with pKa1 = 1.85 and pKa2 = 7.2) and Eq. 14 (neutral-
ization of sulfurous acid by caustic):
SO2(g or l) + H2O ! H3O +(aq) + HSO 3 –(aq) (13)
H3O+(aq) + HSO3–(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) →
Acid gas (CO2, Cl2, HCl) 2H2O + Na2SO3(aq) (14)
Based on pKa2, even with a fairly diluted caustic solution,
pH ≥ 3 the equilibrium would be forced to the right, and all SO2 that
is properly contacted would be neutralized by caustic. As an ex-
FIG. 2. Scrubber for acid gases. ample, a diluted caustic solution of 0.1 wt% would have a pH
above 13, much higher than pKa2.
A process engineer would then be tempted to spend caustic
TABLE 1. Flow requirement to increase effluent pH* to the limit. However, the solubility in aqueous solution for so-
Cooling water flowrate Effluent pH dium sulfite is lower than that for sodium hydroxide, as shown
Base case 3
in TABLE 2. Another important factor is that the sodium sulfite
solubility reaches a maximum, and then starts dropping with an
1.3 times base case 3.1 increase in temperature.
1.6 times base case 3.2 Data from TABLE 2 can be used to calculate the solubility
3.2 times base case 3.5 product for sodium sulfite:
*The buffering effect was not considered, and it would reduce the amount of water
1. Conversion of solubility in wt% into molarity leads
required. to 2.55 gmol/l. At 86°F, the solubility is 26.3 g of
58 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
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 Process Engineering

TABLE 2. Solubility in water for sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium sulfite (Na2SO3)3
Temperature, °F 77 86 104 122 140 158
NaOH, wt% 50 53 58 63 67 71
Na2SO3, wt% 23.5 26.3 27.3 25.9 24.8 23.7

10,000 batches to be replaced more often (or makeup to be increased),

but would also allow the caustic solution to be spent more with-
1,000 10 ppm total sulfides
100 ppm total sulfides out the risk of salt precipitation, fouling and plugging equipment.
500 ppm total sulfides Case 3. The overhead system of a crude distillation unit is
100
always closely monitored to avoid or control corrosion. Neu-
10 tralizers and amines are added, and pH and iron of the water
collected in the overhead system are monitored as key perfor-
ppm, Fe+2

1.00
0.10
0.01
0.001
0.0001
4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
pH
FIG. 3. Soluble iron that can be detected.
Na2SO3/100 g of solution, and solution density is 1.22 g/
ml, leading to 320.86 g of Na2SO3/l of solution. With the
molecular weight of 126 g/gmol, the result is 2.55 gmol/l.
2. For the solubility product estimation, 2.55 gmol/l of
saturated solution of Na2SO3 will generate [Na+] = 5.09
gmol/l and [SO3–2] = 2.55 gmol/l. From the solubility-
product constant definition in Eq. 1, the Ksp for Na2SO3
can be calculated as shown in Eq. 15:
Ksp for Na2SO3 = [Na+]2 × [SO3–2] = 5.092 ×
2.55 = 66.05 gmol3/l3
If the treatment process uses 18 wt% caustic solution to
remove SO2, then the system will depart as follows: 18 g of
NaOH/100 g of solution × 1.18 g/ml → 212.4 g of NaOH/l of
solution. With a molecular weight of 40 g/gmol, this caustic solu-
tion would have 5.31 gmol/l. From Eq. 14, every gmol of Na2SO3
formed consumes 2 gmols of NaOH. If caustic is spent all the way
to 0.63 gmol/l (still generating a pH > 13), then an Na2SO3 solu-
tion of 2.34 gmol/l would be formed, and any further absorbed
SO2(g) would cause precipitation of Na2SO3 to occur. The solubil-
ity product would be exceeded, as shown in Eqs. 16–18:
From [Na2SO3] = 2.34 gmol/l → [SO3–2] =
2.34 gmol/l and [Na+] = 4.68 gmol/l (16)
The remaining [NaOH] contributes
(17)
to additional [Na+] = 0.63 gmol/l
[Na+]2 × [SO3–2] = [4.68 + 0.63]2 × [2.34] =
66 gmol3/l3 (18)
Note: In Eq. 17, the contribution is due to a common-ion effect.
The higher the initial caustic concentration, the higher the
chances of salt precipitation occurring. Using a more diluted
caustic solution (e.g., 12%), the precipitation would not occur;
instead, the caustic would be depleted and SO2 breakthrough
would take place. A lower caustic concentration would require
60 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
mance indicators. The iron content of the water collected in wa-
ter wash systems in hydrotreater and hydrockacker units is also
constantly monitored.
Monitoring and keeping the iron content below 0.5 ppm in
the process water is considered an accepted practice to control
corrosion. However, low iron results do not necessarily indicate
that corrosion is not taking place in the system.
7.0 7.5 Iron sulfide (FeS) with a product of solubility constant on
the order of 10–17gmol2/l2 is highly insoluble in water. If FeS is
precipitated in the system (Eq. 19), then the water sample anal-
ysis will not indicate the real amount of iron generated due to
corrosion; or, it may not detect any iron at all due to the detec-
tion limit of the analytical lab equipment:
Fe +2(aq) + S–2(aq) ! FeS(s) (19)
Measuring soluble iron in the process water will be effective
only in the presence of two important parameters:
• Where the pH is controlled
• What is the concentration of total sulfides (H2S, HS–
and S–2) in the water.
FIG. 3 illustrates the limitations of the iron test, if not evalu-
(15) ated along with the pH and total sulfides being collected in
the water. Sulfides in the water will be distributed according
to the pH, similar to that indicated in FIG. 1. FIG. 3 was built
using pK1 = 6.81 and pK2 = 12.24 at 104°F as the ionization
constants for the H2S/HS –/S –2 system, and 2 × 10–17gmol2/l2
as the product of the solubility constant for FeS.4 The curves
indicate the maximum concentration of iron that can be found
in the solution according to the concentration of total sulfides
and the pH.
If the process water analysis reveals that the concentration
of total sulfides (H2S, HS– and S–2) is 10 ppm, the pH is 5 and
the soluble iron content is 0.4 ppm, then corrosion is within
acceptable limits. This is an acceptable conclusion because,
as indicated in FIG. 3, for the abovementioned conditions, the
maximum concentration of iron in solution would be approxi-
mately 4 ppm, which is higher than the reported iron analysis.
Alternatively, if total sulfides are the same but the pH is 6,
then corrosion may be taking place and iron analysis is not a
good indicator for it. Note that, for 10 ppm total sulfides and
pH = 6, the maximum concentration of iron in solution would
be approximately 0.05 ppm. The higher the pH, the higher will
be the concentration of S–2, and the lower will be the ion iron
that can be found in solution.
At relatively low pH (e.g., 5.5), depending on the concentra-
tion of total sulfides in water, severe corrosion may be taking
 Process Engineering

place. Most of the ion iron formed will precipitate as FeS and 1E-02
linger in the equipment/pipe. The iron test performed in the
pH increase
process water will be misleading, as it will indicate less than 0.5
1E-03
ppm iron in the solution, which is accepted as a good indication
(H2CO3)
of corrosion control. (HCO3–)

Species concentration in gmoI/l

Case 4. Propane, butanes and butylenes are some of the 1E-04
(CO3=)
streams in a refinery that are caustic-treated to remove mercap-
tans. After the caustic treatment, a water wash system may be 1E-05
used to help avoid the effects that caustic carryover may have on
downstream equipment or process. Two of these effects are (1)
alkaline stress corrosion cracking, if the stream goes to a distil- 1E-06
lation tower; and (2) excessive acid consumption in the case of
butylenes fed to an alkylation unit. 1E-07
In one of the water wash systems, boiler feedwater (BFW)
was being used to contact a mixture of butane/butylene. The pH 1E-08
of the water leaving the bottom ranged from 7.5–10, depending 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
on the freshwater flowrate and the amount of caustic carryover. pH
The supply of BFW was curtailed, and well water was routed FIG. 4. Predominant species graph.
to the water wash system. After a couple of weeks, the pressure
started to build up in the vessel, approaching the relief valve set
pressure. As a result, the level controller in the bottom of the TABLE 3. Comparison between well water and BFW
water wash vessel opened wide, thereby forcing the total fresh-
Constituent Well water, mg/l BFW, mg/l
water flowrate to be reduced. Fortunately, a planned outage was
soon scheduled to start. Calcium 32 < 0.05
How does this problem occur? How did the operation of the Magnesium 8 < 0.15
water wash tower become compromised simply by changing Bicarbonate 80 7
the source of the water? A comparison of analyses for BFW and
well water (TABLE 3) can reveal the source of the problem.
BFW contains insignificant amounts of calcium, magnesium the underlying cause of a problem limits the application of basic
and bicarbonates ions. In a different manner, well water con- chemistry principles.
tains calcium and magnesium bicarbonate salts that are soluble. However, even in the absence of a good reference for acid
When well water contacts the hydrocarbon stream containing ionization and solubility product constants, a lab test can easily
carryover caustic, sparingly soluble calcium carbonate and mag- mimic process conditions, either by blending solutions and/or
nesium hydroxide may be formed due to an increase in pH and by making pH adjustments and observing the results.
the consequent shift in the carbonate species equilibrium from The cases in this article exemplify some of the reasons to
HCO3– to CO3–2, according to Eq. 20: better understand how chemistry can affect the operation of
refinery processes by:
HCO3–(aq) + OH –(aq) ! H 2O + CO3–2(aq) (20) • Showing how a quick assessment can avoid deposits
in equipment and pipes that can eventually lead to
The higher the pH, the higher will be the concentration of an outage
carbonate and hydroxide ions in solution (predominant species • Explaining how a corrosion problem can be brought
graph according to the pH is presented in FIG. 4). When solubil- to the surface, even though routine iron analysis may
ity limits are exceeded, solid calcium carbonate and magnesium not indicate any issues
hydroxide precipitates, as shown in Eqs. 21 and 22: • Proving that even apparently simple changes may have
drastic consequences—e.g., the replacement of BFW
Mg –2(aq) + 2 OH –(aq) ! Mg(OH)2(s) (21) with well water.
LITERATURE CITED
Ca –2(aq) + CO3–2(aq) ! CaCO3(s) (22) 1
Pauling, L., General Chemistry, 3rd Ed., Dover Publications Inc., US, 1988.
2
Masterson, W. L. and C. N. Hurley, Chemistry: Principles and Reactions, 3rd Ed.,
In this case study, due to the concentration of magnesium Saunders College Publishing, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1997.
and calcium, only calcium carbonate precipitated and, conse-
3
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 87th Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton,
Florida, 2007.
quently, accumulated in the contacting devices (trays or pack- 4
Perrin, D. D., Dissociation Constants of Inorganic Acids and Bases in Aqueous
ing), in the water wash system and in the water outlet line. This Solution, Butterworth & Co., 1969.
caused the pressure to build up and the water level control valve
to open wide. RODRIGO CARDOSO is an Area Manager for Phillips 66 Westlake
Refinery. He has 13 yr of experience as Process Engineer and
previously worked as a Chemical Expert for the Federal Police
Takeaway. The concepts presented in this article are simple, in Brazil. Mr. Cardoso holds a BS degree in chemical engineering
but simplicity does not always mean that the concepts are easy from Rio de Janeiro Federal University and an MS degree from
to understand or put into practice. The lack of understanding of the French Institute of Petroleum (IFP School).

Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 61

RELIABILITY & MAINTENANCE HENRY B. GONZALEZ
CONVENTION CENTER

CONFERENCE AND EXHIBITION SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS

MAY 22 – 25, 2018

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• Tech Talks presenting the newest technologies
Visit www.afpm.org/conferences and select Reliability & Maintenance Conference to learn more. Photo ©Marathon Petroleum Corporation
 Process
Optimization
B. SUNGNOEN, W. WITTANADECHA
and W. TANTHAPANICHAKOON,
SCG Chemicals Co. Ltd., Thailand

Speed up the development of new commercial

adsorbents—Part 1
In the conventional development ap-
proach, a multi-stage process begins in
the laboratory, moves to the pilot plant,
and ends at the commercial unit, often
before any financial benefits are realized.
A major recurring problem during new
adsorbent development is that research-
ers may become trapped in a seemingly
infinite “loop” because impractical (and
sometimes unrealistic) adsorbent per-
formance targets in laboratory scale can
result in “strange” engineering design,
repeat development work, unsatisfactory
financial return, budget overrun and un-
necessary delay.
To enhance the success rate, an alter-
native method to help conquer the loop is
proposed here. The novel method, which
envisions commercial ends, consists of
two distinct phases. In Phase 1, a first
draft of the commercial adsorber design
is created, along with an economic assess-
ment. The second phase is essentially a
sensitivity analysis to determine the per-
formance targets of the new adsorbent to
be developed in a lab scale. Numerous
adsorber design cases are calculated and
compared to identify influential deci-
sions coming from previous steps.
Part 1 of this article presents a step-
by-step sensitivity analysis to determine
the performance targets of a new adsor-
bent to be developed. In Part 2, which
will appear in the May issue of Hydrocar-
bon Processing, a demonstration of how to
apply the proposed method will be giv-
en, including the graphic display of key
analysis results. Consequently, the devel-
opment team can gain valuable insight
into the roles played by each key design
parameter over the entire development
process. The derived performance tar-
gets give meaningful, practical, lab-scale
adsorbent development targets for the re-
searcher that take into account pilot and
commercial perspectives. The authors’
experience has shown that this proposed
alternative approach can effectively help
conquer the loop in the conventional
scale-up procedure.
The conventional adsorber scale-
up method. Typically, the conventional
method for adsorber design1 always advis-
es that the development and commercial-
ization of a new adsorbent should be car-
ried out in three major steps: laboratory or
bench scale, pilot or demonstration plant,
and, finally, commercial scale. FIG. 1 shows
Laboratory Pilot unit
Freedom
of design
Candidate
Adsorbent
screening Pilot test
Accumulative
investment
FIG. 1. Overview of the conventional scale-up procedure, starting from the lab and ending at
benefit return.
an overview of the scale-up procedure
starting from the lab until benefit return,
in terms of accumulative investment and
freedom of design parameters.
First, the selection of adsorbent can-
didates and the determination of their
final recipes are attempted at the lab scale
through screening and the study of ad-
sorbent performance, which is closely
related to such basic adsorbent proper-
ties as density, void fraction, particle size
distribution, specific surface area and
pore size distribution, crush strength and
attrition resistance.
In addition, adsorption equilibrium
and kinetic parameters in terms of ad-
sorption isotherm and effective diffusiv-
ity of single or multiple adsorbates are
investigated over the interested range of
Commercial unit Benefit return
Project
benefit
Time
Infinite loop
Pr-commercial
test
Commercial
unit package
Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 63
 Process Optimization
Chemical
properties
Phase 2
Regenerability
Phase 1
Process
constraints
Engineering
FIG. 2. Systemetic diagram of the new procedure to determine effective range of adsorbent
performance target.
TABLE 1. Process constraints and
design criteria
Parameter
m, kg/hr
C0, kg/m3
Ct, kg/m 3
ρfluid, kg/m 3
µ fluid, kg/m/sec
Pop, kg/cm2a
Top , °C
tcycle, day
CF
ΔPallowance , kg/cm2
concentration and temperature. The pi-
lot-scale adsorber used to test adsorbent
performance is designed to represent a
scaled-down version of the envisioned
commercial unit, which is usually a con-
tinuous fixed-bed adsorber. This step re-
veals that key performance factors, such
as pressure drop, flow distribution and
a suitable cooling system (if required to
control adsorption temperature), can be
affected to a significant degree by mass
and heat transfer effects and adsorber
length-to-diameter ratio.
The sizing of the commercial adsor-
bent bed is also determined by process
constraints involving feedrate and com-
position, and cycle time requirement.
The optimal adsorbent candidate is ul-
timately decided by economic evalua-
tion, process severity and safety. If the
resulting adsorbent performance and ap-
64 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
R&D
Physical
properties
Possible adsorbent
Capacity and Particle size Crush performance target
selectivity strength
1st draft full commercial adsorber package Economic analysis
sensitivity study
Adsorbent
Design criteria Economic aspect
screening
Problem statement
and lab information
Business R&D
plicable costs are unacceptable, it will be
necessary to return to the first step of the
Value
loop, shown as a dotted circle in FIG. 1.
Based on the authors’ experience, the
75,453
conventional scale-up method often fails
0.12 to satisfactorily lead to successful com-
0.012 mercialization in terms of accumulative
1,200
investment due to the death valley loop
during new adsorbent development. The
5.777 × 10–4 larger the number of loop repetitions,
4 the higher the accumulated investment
35 will become, not to mention the lost op-
10
portunities due to longer delays in proj-
ect completion.
200%
1 Conquering the loop. To ensure the
success of new adsorbent development,
the business direction and engineering
design must be clearly established and
known from the beginning of the process.
Companies must provide a framework of
adsorption technology in terms of an eco-
nomic performance index to allow rea-
sonable investment to achieve desirable
project benefits. The engineering support
team must understand how to play with
process parameters—from the initial ad-
sorbent development phase to the final
phase—when designing the pilot and
commercial adsorber. FIG. 1 clearly shows
that a high degree of freedom of process
parameters can be found at the labora-
tory scale. To quickly conquer the loop,
the adsorbent development team must be
able to frame these parameters as allow-
able minimum or maximum values that
are due to numerous process constraints
based on commercial perspectives.
As illustrated in FIG. 2, the effective
range of performance targets of new ad-
sorbent for the development research-
ers is to be completed in two phases of
development under the proposed meth-
odology. In the first phase, the overall
configuration and dimensions of the
adsorber are estimated with the aid of
order-of-magnitude cost estimation,2
which is based on existing performance
of adsorbent candidates in the lab scale
and design criteria of a commercial unit.
As a result, parameters with a high degree
of design freedom can be earmarked and
suitably confined at this stage with small
costs involved. The second phase is es-
sentially a sensitivity study to determine
the adsorbent performance targets. Nu-
merous adsorber design cases are calcu-
lated and compared to identify influen-
tial decisions derived from the previous
phase. To make decisions on adsorbent
performance targets, the upper and low-
er limits of the project’s return benefits
(such as EBITDA, % EBITDA on invest-
ment, % IRR, % ROI, or any suitable in-
dicators) are to be investigated. A more
detailed description and explanation of
the two phases, along with an actual ex-
ample, are included here.
PHASE 1: FIRST DRAFT
OF COMMERCIAL ADSORBER
DESIGN AND ECONOMIC
ASSESSMENT
All major process constraints and
design criteria needed to determine the
draft version of the commercial unit,
such as product purity, equipment loca-
tion, etc., must be stipulated as in the ex-
ample shown in TABLE 1.
In the adsorbent screening process,
the most important characteristics of
an adsorbent are adsorption capacity
and selectivity. An engineer may conve-
niently use some apparent adsorption
isotherm as a basis of calculation. Gen-
erally, the particle-based Reynolds num-
ber of the fluid that passes through the
bed voidage in lab or pilot scale must be
designed to be equal to that of the com-
mercial scale to ensure that the overall
rate of mass transfer will be essentially
equal. First, the adsorption capacity is
required in design and must be estimat-
ed. Here, the Wheer-Jonas equation3,4 is
selected to estimate the capacity of ad-
sorbent via breakthrough curve in a con-
 Process Optimization

tinuous fixed-bed experiment, as shown To calculate the pressure drop across For example, land costs may be excluded
in Eq. 1: the bed, the modified Ergun equation6 from the list if the equipment is installed
(Eq. 6) can be used to give a correct value at the owner’s site. On the other hand, an
q 0 M q 0 ρ b ⎛ C0 – C t ⎞ for each shape of the adsorbent: engineer that cannot obtain a reasonable
t cycle = – ln (1)
C0Q C 0 k v ⎜⎝ C t ⎟⎠ cost list during design might resort to a

As a first approximation, the cycle time

ΔPbed
L
(
= KRe p a + bRe p ) (6)
grassroots capital estimate to obtain a
conservative budget.
3 2
in this article considers only the adsorp- ⎛ 1– ε ⎞ µ
tion period, since regeneration is usually ⎝ ε ⎠ ρf d 3p PHASE 2: DETERMINE THE
carried out in parallel to adsorption in
ADSORBENT PERFORMANCE
the industry and constitutes a small frac- FIG. 3 and TABLE 3 summarize the first
tion of the cycle time. The effect of this draft of commercial adsorber design and TARGETS FROM COMMERCIAL
approximation on the regeneration cost corresponding process data, respectively. PLANT PERSPECTIVES
is partly taken care of in the design tem- At this stage, we are ready to make or- The second phase is essentially a sen-
perature of the adsorption vessel (mate- der-of-magnitude cost estimates (Class 5) sitivity analysis to determine the perfor-
rial class), and the cost of regeneration to evaluate the economic feasibility of the mance targets of the new adsorbent to
gas is assumed to be negligible, as this gas adsorber unit. Economic analysis gener-
is usually available in a commercial plant. ally involves:
The corresponding overall adsorp- • Capital expenditures (CAPEX),
tion rate can be roughly estimated with as shown in TABLE 4
the semi-empirical equation reported by • Operating costs (OPEX),
Lodewyckx and Wood5 in Eq. 2: such as utilities, raw materials
and coproduct.
k v = 421.64 × β 1/3 × v 3/4
L ×
(2) These factors are used to calculate the
1/2
⎛ q0 ⎞ manufacturing expense (TABLE 5). Here,
d –3/2
p ⎜⎝ M ⎟⎠ the focus is placed only on the adsorp-
W
tion system without considering the
TABLE 2 shows the laboratory-scale costs of the adsorbent. It should be not-
data used in the adsorbent performance ed that, although the total bare module
screening step. cost is dependent on the type of process,
The total volume of fluid treated per the main equipment usually consists of
cycle can be calculated by Eq. 3: a number of pressure changes, process
Vt = Qt cycle (3) vessels and heat exchangers. The major
purpose of cost estimation here is not to FIG. 3. First draft of commercial adsorber
The engineer should estimate the ac- make a comprehensive list of cost items. design.
tual mass of adsorbent Mdesign in a conser-
vative manner (Eq. 4): TABLE 3. Summary of process data used in adsorber design
Mdesign = CF × M (4) Description Adsorber Unit
The bed volume of adsorbent required Orientation Vertical
is calculated from Eq. 5: Average fluid density 1,200 kg/m3
M design Operating temperature 35 °C
Vbed = (5)
ρ bulk Operating pressure 4 kg/cm2(g)
Design temperature 400 °C
TABLE 2. Laboratory-scale data used
Design pressure, internal 10 kg/cm2(g)
in the adsorbent performance
screening step Maximum cycle time 3.2 Day
Parameter Value Adsorbent XYZ'sorbent
q0, kg/kg 0.17 Packing method Dense loading
β 5.77 × 10 –5
Solid density 1,738 kg/m3
MW, kg/kmole 155.24 Total packed height 6,925 mm
shape Cylinders Inside diameter of shell 1,000 mm
dp, m 0.0016 Length between tangent line 9,300 mm
ρp, kg/m 3
1,737 Insulation type Fire protection
Packing method Dense loading Total pressure drop 1 kg/cm2
Fcs, N 44.48 Corrosion allowance 1 mm

Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 65

 Process Optimization

be developed. Numerous adsorber de- a particular economic variable under a Consideration of total investment
sign cases are calculated and compared given set of process constraints. The key per maximum cycle time. The evalu-
to identify influential decisions origi- points in FIG. 4 are briefly explained be- ation of adsorbent candidates is inaccu-
nating from previous steps. As shown fore a calculation example is shown to rate if it considers only total investment.
in FIG. 4, the step-by-step sensitivity enhance understanding. The total investment is divided by the
analysis is carried out to investigate and maximum cycle time to obtain a normal-
determine the various values of adsor- Knowing the maximum cycle time. ized decision variable.
bent performance that are impacted by The cycle time is mainly determined by
the maximum (equilibrium) adsorbent Practical bed depth-over-diameter
TABLE 4. CAPEX estimates for an capacity, provided that all operating con- ratio. Generally, the optimal height of
adsorber based on adsorbent screening ditions are the same. After this maximum the pressure vessel (vertical adsorber)
information is reached or neared, the spent adsorbent is based on several parameters, such as
Capital cost calculation must either be disposed of or regenerat- maximum internal pressure, allowable
Total bare module $US ed for repeated use. stress, corrosion allowance and joint ef-
Normally, nearly all industrial adsor- ficiency. To obtain practical, safe vessel
Vessel and internal 259,819
bents would be regenerated for reasons design, the engineer should prescribe a
Pump and drivers 60,000 such as high replacement costs, disposal practical range of bed depth-over-diam-
Subtotal 319,819 limitation and costs, etc. The researcher eter ratio for the maximum design case.
ISBL should develop a regeneration method
using the available utility in the plant Regime of adsorbent capacity ef-
Misc. equipment 95,946
to minimize costs. While the cycle time fect on total capital investment.
Piping 575,674 can easily be prolonged by using a larger An example of the relationship between
Instrument and control 95,946 quantity of adsorbent, the maximum adsorbent capacity and total capital in-
Electrical 63,964 quantity is limited by the predetermined vestment, which can be divided into two
maximum allowable pressure drop. As regimes or zones, as shown in FIG. 5. In
Civil 95,946
shown in Eq. 6, pressure drop across the the first zone (left), which is controlled
Structure and building 63,964 bed is a function of the Reynolds num- by adsorbent capacity, the vessel cost is
Lagging and paint 31,982 ber (fluid velocity), bed length, adsor- dominant when adsorbent capacity is
Sub-total 1,023,421 bent particle size, shape and bulk density, small due to the high cost of the big ad-
which depends on the packing method. sorber, high adsorbent loading and land
Fixed capital investment 1,862,626
(including OSBL) To estimate the maximum cycle time, the costs, etc. The second zone (right) is
pressure drop allowance is considered to controlled by throughput or production
Startup expenses 37,253
be the limiting factor. Therefore, the final rate. As adsorbent capacity increases, the
Working capital 372,525 shape of the new adsorbent is also inves- cost of the vessel decreases. However, the
Land cost 55,879 tigated in the calculation example. costs of other auxiliary equipment, such
Contingency 279,394 as pumps, heat exchangers, etc., do not
Knowing the maximum cycle time increase. These equipment costs depend
Fee 55,879
directly on the throughput. Researchers
Total capital investment 2,663,555 need not spend extra effort to maximize
Consideration of total investment per the capacity of adsorbent during the de-
TABLE 5. Manufacturing cost estimates maximum cycle time velopment step.
for an adsorber based on adsorbent
screening information Optimizing adsorbent particle den-
Manufacturing expenses Practical bed depth-over-diameter ratio sity. Generally, when the adsorbent
calculation $US/yr particle density increases, its crushing
Operating labor – strength will increase while the required
Regime of adsorbent capacity effect on adsorber volume will tend to decrease,
Supervisory and clerical labor –
total capital investment provided that the adsorbent capacity
Utilities – does not significantly decrease due to a
Maintenance and repairs 204,888 reduction of pore volume. Therefore, re-
Operating supplies 30,733 Optimizing adsorbent particle density searchers should attempt to densify the
adsorbent particle as much as practical.
Laboratory charges 74,504
FIG. 6 shows an example of the relation-
Local taxes 37,252 ship between adsorbent capacity and
Crushing forces acting on adsorbent particle
Insurance 18,626 total capital cost with particle density
Administrative costs 111,757 as a parameter. When particle density is
FIG. 4. Step-by-step sensitivity analysis doubled, the adsorbent capacity decreas-
Financing 266,355 to determine the performance targets es slightly, resulting in a lower capital
Total manufacturing expenses 744,117 of a new adsorbent to be developed.
investment. The key point is to densify
66 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
 Process Optimization

Adsorbent capacity
Adsorbent capacity Production rate controlled regime is shifted
controlled controlled

Particle density = 1,500 kg/m3

Total capital investment, $MM

Total capital investment, $MM

dp = 3.2 pill: raking
Particle density = 1,500 kg/m3 Particle density = 3,000 kg/m3
dp = 3.3 pill: raking dp = 3.2 pill: raking

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Apparent adsorbent capacity, kg/kg Apparent adsorbent capacity, kg/kg

FIG. 5. Relationship between adsorbent capacity and total FIG. 6. Relationship between adsorbent capacity and total
capital investment. capital cost.

adsorbent particles as much as practical, Ct Effluent adsorbate concentration, kg/m3 Iss. 5, 2003.
CF Conservative factor 6
Nemec, D. and J. Levec, “Flow through packed bed
with minimal loss of adsorbent capacity dp Equivalent particle diameter, m reactors: 1. Single-phase flow,” Chemical Engineering
and enhanced crushing strength. ε Bed voidage Science, Vol. 60, Iss. 24, 2005.
Fes Crushing force, N
Crushing forces acting on an ad- K Dimension constant = 1.02 × 10–5, BAMRUNG SUNGNOEN is a
kg/cm2/Pa Process Technology Engineer
sorbent particle. In addition to the kv The overall adsorption rate coefficient, hr–1 for the SCG Chemicals Co. Ltd.
effects of temperature and pressure, the L Bed depth, m Process Technology Center in
net crushing force acting on an adsor- M Mass of adsorbent required, kg Thailand. He provides technical
MDesign Design mass of adsorbent, kg
bent particle depends on the direction MW Molecular weight, g/mole
support for scale-up, from
laboratory to pilot scale, involving
of fluid flow, pressure drop across the m Mass throughput in adsorber, kg/hr heterogeneous catalyst and adsorbent. He has
bed, accumulative weight of particles μ Fluid viscosity, kg/m/sec worked in various roles within the process design,
and liquid holdup. As shown in Eq. 6, Pop Operating pressure, kg/cm2(a) research and development sections. He received
ΔPAllowance Maximum pressure drop allowance, kg/cm2 BS (1st ranking in class) and MS degrees in chemical
pressure drop depends on fluid density ΔPBed Pressure drop across bed, kg/cm2 engineering from Naresuan and Chulalongkorn
and velocity (Reynolds number), flow Q Fluid volumetric flowrate, m3/hr Universities, respectively.
regime, bed depth, and particle size and q0 Equilibrium adsorbate uptake per adsorbent
shape. Normally, downward-flowing from Thomas model, kg/kg WIBOON WITTANADECHA
Rep Packed-bed Reynolds number, dimensionless is a Lead Engineer at the
pressure drop is frequently a cause of ρb Bulk density of adsorbent, kg/m3 SCG Chemicals Co. Ltd. Process
particle attrition and breakage. To avoid ρp Particle density of adsorbent, kg/m3 Technology Center in Thailand.
particle crushing during operation, the ρf Fluid density, kg/m3 As a Production Engineer
Top Operating temperature, °C
net crushing force must not exceed the tcycle Cycle time, hr
for petrochemical plants,
he provides his knowledge
average single particle crushing strength. Vt Volume treated per cycle, hr and technical support for new technology
For a conservative design, the net crush- V
L Linear velocity through bed, m/sec development of olefin and vinyl chain production.
ing force should not exceed half of the Mr. Wittanadecha has been published in numerous
LITERATURE CITED international industry publications.
crushing strength. 1
Knaebel, S. K., “Adsorption,” Section 14 in Albright,
L. F., Albright Chemical Engineering Handbook, 1st WIWUT TANTHAPANICHAKOON
Next month. In the May issue of Hydro- Ed., CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca is a full-time Technology Adviser
carbon Processing, Part 2 of this article Raton, Florida, 2009. at the SCG Chemicals Co. Ltd.
2
Couper, J. R., et al., “Process Economics,” Section Process Technology Center in
will show a detailed calculation example 9 in Green, D. W. and R. H. Perry, Perry’s Chemical Thailand, and Emeritus Professor
to aid the reader’s understanding and Engineers’ Handbook, 8th Ed., McGraw-Hill, New of the Tokyo Institute of Technology
the application results of the proposed York, New York, 2008. in Japan, and at Chulalongkorn
methodology.
3
Wheerler, A. and A. J. Robell, “Performance of University in Thailand. Dr. Tanthapanichakoon has
fixed-bed catalytic reactors with poison in the feed,” 40 yr of teaching and research experience in heat
Journal of Catalysis, Vol. 13, Iss. 3, 1969. and mass transfer operations, particle technology,
NOMENCLATURE 4
Jonas, L. A. and J. A. Rehrmann, “Predictive equa- aerosol engineering, and process analysis and
a Blake–Kozeny–Carman constant-viscous tions in gas adsorption kinetics,” Carbon, Vol. 11, simulation. He was the founding Executive Director
term of the Ergun equation, dimensionless Iss. 1, 1973. of the National Nanotechnology Center at the
b Blake–Kozeny–Carman constant-inertial 5
Wood, G. O. and P. Lodewyckx, “An extended equa- National Science and Technology Development
term of the Ergun equation, dimensionless tion for rate coefficients for adsorption of organic Agency in Thailand. He holds a BEng (ChE) degree
β The affinity coefficient vapors and gases on activated carbons in air-puri- from Kyoto University in Japan, and a PhD (ChE)
C0 Influent adsorbate concentration, kg/m3 fying respirator cartridges,” AIHA Journal, Vol. 64, from The University of Texas at Austin.

Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 67

 Liquefied Natural Gas

REAL-TIME LNG DATA

Any project. Any time. Any place.
Updated in real time, the Energy Web Atlas, a web-based platform,
enables users to access worldwide facility and project data.

Actionable Data
• Owner/Operator • LNG shipping/vessel
• Project status information

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• Shareholder data • Global Natural Gas Pipelines

• Process method

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reporting and graphing
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An optimized approach to choosing solvent
for the liquid-liquid extraction process
Liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) is a traditional method used
for separating a specific component (solute) from the carrier
liquid phase. The process works on the principle of difference
in solubility of the component in the carrier liquid and sol-
vent. The higher solubility of the component to be extracted
in the solvent compared to other components in the carrier
liquid results in the formation of two phases. These phases are
commonly referred to as extract phase (rich in the target com-
ponent) and raffinate phase (lean in the target component).
Choosing the right solvent for extraction is key to the success
of the extraction process, and the efficiency of the solvent
drives the economics of the process. The LLE process usu-
ally has an extraction column followed by a solvent recovery
column. The solvent recovery column accounts for 97% of the
operating cost in comparison to 3% for the extraction column.
When selecting a solvent, the ease of separation from the sol-
vent needs to be considered, along with higher affinity toward
the desired component.
The properties of interest for a solvent required for the LLE
process can be predicted from the group contribution (GC)
method, which is based on the structure of the molecule. Both
the pure component and mixture properties are important
in selecting the solvent for extraction, and GC model param-
eters for the estimation of these properties can be obtained
from literature.1,2 The database for the estimation of mixture
properties (UNIFAC-GC model) consists of 39 groups and
18 compounds. Pure component parameters (GC model) are
available for all of these basic groups. Consisting of 39 groups,
the size of the search space in solvent design problems is huge.
It consists of approximately 106 number of molecules that can
be formed when considering a maximum of five groups in a
molecule. However, the search space can be reduced by apply-
ing step-by-step filtering criteria, as depicted in FIG. 1.
Exclusion of unstable groups. Certain type of groups can
be omitted from the list of basic groups, which are known to
form unstable compounds. Due to chemical instability, carb-
aldehyde and olefinic groups can be omitted from the list of
basic groups, along with chloride-based groups due to corro-
sion problems.3 The complexity of the solvent design problem
is brought down significantly, as approximately 104 number of
combinations are possible.
Process
Optimization
A. GUPTA and S. JAIN, Reliance Industries Ltd.,
Jamnagar, Gujarat, India
Structural constraints and chemical stability. While form-
ing structures from a set of basic groups, we need to form struc-
turally-feasible molecules. Therefore, molecules are screened
with valence balance constraints,4 which further reduces the
number of potential solvents.
Besides structural constraints, a combination of rules for dif-
ferent UNIFAC groups are defined to generate chemically fea-
sible structures.3 These groups are categorized into type K, type
M, type J and type L. Restrictions are imposed on the attach-
ment of certain categories of groups (e.g., type K groups can-
not be combined with type K and type L groups). Hydrogen
peroxide (HO-OH) is formed from a combination of two type
K OH groups. Although HO-OH is physically viable, it should
be avoided due to high reactivity.5 Aside from the stability of
the molecules that are formed, the combination rule also takes
into account the proximity effect of certain groups, leading to
unreliable UNIFAC predictions. Out of approximately 104
structurally feasible molecules, approximately 103 molecules
satisfy both the structural and combination rules shown in Eq.
2; hence, they form chemically stable compounds.
Pure component property constraints. Certain pure com-
ponent properties are desired for an LLE solvent, such as melt-
ing point, boiling point, viscosity, density and interfacial tension.
The solvent’s melting point should be lower than the extraction
temperature so that it is in the liquid phase. From the extraction
column, the mixture of solute and solvent is fed to the solvent
recovery column, which is usually a distillation column. For
easier separation of the solute from the solvent, it is desirable to
have high relative volatility (> 1).6 The restriction on minimum
boiling temperature is imposed to ensure lower vapor pressure
of the solvent at the operating conditions. High viscosity leads
Selection of Structural Pure Mixture
stable and chemical component properties
groups feasibility property
constraints
• 106 to 104 • 104 to 103 • 103 to 102 • Shortlisted
solvents
FIG. 1. Sequential methodology of screening solvents for the LLE
process (the number of solvent molecules are reduced at each step).
Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 201869
 Process Optimization

to problems with handling, storage and pumping; therefore, the 1 MWA

viscosity of the solvent should be as low as possible. The den- Solvent power(sp) = (5)
γ∞ MWS
sity difference between the solvent and raffinate phase leads to A ,S
a clear phase separation, so a difference greater than 150 kg/m3 γ∞
is recommended.7 If all other target properties of the extraction A ,B MWB
Distribution coefficient (m) = (6)
solvent are met, then the solvent-raffinate pair, with a small dif- γ∞ MWS
A ,S
ference in density, can be separated using a centrifugal extractor.
γ∞
When a solvent with small interfacial tension is added to the B ,S MWA
Selectivity (β ) = (7)
LLE feed mixture, small droplets are formed, which provide a γ∞ MWB
high surface area for mass transfer. However, settling becomes A ,S
difficult and there is a chance of formation of stable emulsion. 1 MWS
Solvent loss (sl) = (8)
With higher interfacial tension, though higher amounts of en- γ∞ MWB
ergy are required to increase the interface area, this scenario is S ,B

preferred over the formation of stable emulsion.8 Ideally, medi- where:

um-level interfacial tension is required for an LLE solvent.
Various GC models are available in literature for the estima-
tion of pure component properties of organic compounds. For
example, the GC model developed by Joback and Reid2 is sim-
plistic to integrate in the solvent design framework; therefore, it
is used to estimate the pure component properties. Among the
properties of interest for the LLE solvent, GC parameters are
available for melting point, boiling point and viscosity in this
work.2 Physical property constraints (shown in Eq. 3–4) further
reduce the number of solvent molecules to approximately 102.
The step-by-step constraints applied to select the solvent for the
LLE process are summarized in Eq. 1–4:
∑n j (2 – v j ) = 2 (1)
j target solute in both phases can be described by the distribu-
type K ≤ type M + type J / 2 (2)
Tm ≤ 300 K (3)
T solvent
> 333 K (4)
b
A = Solute
B = Solvent
S = Carrier liquid
γ ∞ = Activity coefficient of component i in solvent phase S.
i ,S
The mixture properties of the solvent play an important
role in affecting the process parameters. The higher the sol-
vent selectivity, the lower the number of extraction stages re-
quired to achieve the target purity of extract. Solvent power
(capacity) is related to the amount of solvent required for ex-
traction, and so it affects the size of the extractor and recov-
ery columns. Solvents with a higher capacity require a lower
solvent-to-feed ratio, hence the cost of removal of the solvent
in the recovery column is reduced, as well. The distribution of
tion coefficient. Both the capacity and distribution coefficient
equations (Eq. 5–6) are related to each other. If we take the
ratio of these two equations
⎛ ⎞
⎜ sp = 1 MWA ⎟

where:
Tb = Normal boiling point
Tm = Melting point
type K, type M, type J = Categories defined for different
types of groups
nj, vj = Number and valency of groups of type j in the
molecule.
Solvent performance indicators for extraction. While pure
component properties of solvent molecules are important, ther-
modynamic properties of mixture will ultimately determine the
effectiveness of the solvent for LLE. The performance of the sol-
vent in a solution is evaluated in terms of various mixture proper-
ties, such as selectivity and distribution coefficient. Essentially,
the primary objective of the solvent for efficient extraction is to
obtain the maximum concentration of solute in the extract phase.
This process is done to selectively extract the solute, with a mini-
mum concentration of other components, in the extract phase
and to lower the solvent miscibility in the raffinate phase to mini-
mize loss of the solvent. The process objectives for the solvent
are generally expressed as functions of infinite dilution activity
coefficients (Eq. 5–8) and calculated in terms of solvent power,
distribution coefficient, selectivity and solvent loss.6 Activity co-
efficient values can be calculated from the UNIFAC-GC meth-
od.9 Equations for solvent performance indicators are as follows:
70 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
⎜ m γ ∞ MWB ⎟ ,
⎝ A ,B ⎠
then it is independent of solvent properties. Therefore, solvent
power has a direct positive effect on the distribution coeffi-
cient, and either solvent power or distribution coefficient can
be used to describe the solvent performance. Solvent loss is
related to the miscibility gap, which should be higher for the
creation of two liquid phases.8 The reduction in concentration
of the solvent in the raffinate phase improves the miscibility
gap; therefore, a higher concentration of solute in the feed can
be handled. A lower loss of solvent improves the selectivity
of solute in the extract phase, and so a lower amount of other
components are obtained. Out of approximately 102 molecules
obtained after applying physical property constraints, we can
further screen the solvents by evaluating mixture properties.
The application of the solvent design methodology is illus-
trated by applying it for n-heptane/toluene separation, which is
a well-known separation problem encountered in oil refineries.
The conventional method of selecting the solvent involves per-
forming experiments with a set of solvents and then choosing
the one possessing the required target properties. With the help
of the GC method, the target properties can be predicted based
on the structure of the molecule. In the conventional method,
search space is restricted to a set of commercially known sol-
vents, while the capability of the GC-based method allows for
 Process Optimization

TABLE 1. A list of optimal solvents for the extraction of toluene from n-heptane
Solvent β sp m sl Tm (°K) T bsolute – T bsolvent (°K) ∆ρ (kg/m3) η (cP)
(CH2)4SO2 29.27 0.23 0.27 0.0019 300 a
175 a
576 A
10
CH3O(CH2)3 CH2CN 21.83 0.95 1.11 0.007 244 78 NA NAb
(CH3)2SO 20.62 0.31 0.36 0.00045 291a 79a 416a 2
Furfural 15.45 0.63 0.73 0.04 236 a
52 a
568 a
1.5
(CH2)2CH3CO CH2CN 11.11 0.51 0.6 0.006 272 109 NA NAb
(OHCH2CH2)2O 4.49 0.1 0.12 0.02 263 136 572a 35.7
(CH2)2OHCH2CN 6.14 0.26 0.3 0.005 260 102 NA NAb
a
Properties are taken from literature, and other properties are predicted from GC models.
b
GC parameters for viscosity are not available for –CN and NO2 in the literature.2

the exploration of a large number of combinations and decreas-
es the experimental effort extensively. For validation, experi-
ments can be performed with the set of shortlisted candidates.
CASE STUDY: DESIGN OF A SOLVENT FOR THE
EXTRACTION OF TOLUENE FROM N-HEPTANE
We have elaborated the systematic procedure for designing
a solvent for extraction by applying various physical and struc-
tural constraints. It is shown that with this procedure, one can
bring down the computational complexity to a large extent.
For this case study, we have restricted the design to aliphatic
solvents. However, the described procedure is a generalized ap-
proach for the molecular design of solvents and can be applied
to the design of various type of solvents, such as aromatic and
ionic liquids, with some additional structural constraints.
For the separation problem of toluene and n-heptane, 1,057
molecules are found to be structurally feasible. Out of 1,057
solvents, 203 solvents satisfy both the melting point and boil-
ing point constraints, as shown in Eq. 3–4. Designed solvents
should exhibit a higher selectivity toward the dissolution of
toluene rather than n-heptane, a higher capacity for extraction
of toluene and a lower concentration of solvent in the heptane-
rich phase. Some of the optimal solvents obtained from the sol-
vent design procedure are listed in TABLE 1. It would be ideal to
have both high selectivity and high solvent power; however, for
many solvents, these properties follow the opposite trend. Typi-
cally, solvents with high selectivity have a lower solvent power.8
The similar behavior can be observed for the first five solvents
(in descending order of selectivity) listed in TABLE 1. To illus-
trate, dimethyl sulfoxide [(CH3)2SO] is superior to sulfolane
[(CH2)4 SO2 ] in terms of solvent power, distribution coefficient
and solvent loss, but it has lower selectivity than (CH2)4 SO2 .
A solvent must be chosen with a compromise between the tar-
get properties. For further screening of the solvents listed in
TABLE 1, process model calculations need to be performed to
evaluate the exact compositions of both the extract and raffinate
phases. Finally, experiments are required to validate the results.
(CH2)4 SO2 is found to possess the highest selectivity among
the list of optimal solvents. It is also the industrially known sol-
vent for the extraction of n-heptane from toluene. Although
separation of toluene from n-heptane is a well-known problem
and efficient organic solvents have already been identified, the
solvent design procedure is generic and is applicable for design-
ing a solvent for any LLE process.
Takeaways. The selection of the optimal solvent is the most
critical part for the performance of an LLE process. A brute force
approach to performing experiments with various solvents, and
then choosing the one with optimal properties, will be expen-
sive and might not obtain the best solvent available. With the
help of computational methods, it is shown that one can explore
a large number of solvent molecules and screen the molecules
sequentially with various criteria, such as structural and physical
property constraints. Computational effort is also brought down
by decomposing the problem. The discussed methodology for
solvent design is applied to a well-known separation problem of
n-heptane and toluene. (CH2)4 SO2 is obtained in the potential
list of solvents, which is commercially used for this separation.
The method is generic, and it can be applied in different LLE
separation problems for the design of suitable solvents.
LITERATURE CITED
1
Magnussen, T., P. Rasmussen and A. Fredenslund, “UNIFAC parameter table
for prediction of liquid-liquid equilibriums,” Industrial and Engineering Chemistry
Process Design and Development, 1981.
2
Joback, K. G. and R. C. Reid, “Estimation of pure component properties from
group contributions,” Chemical Engineering Communications, 1987.
3
Brignole, E., S. Bottini and R. Gani, “A strategy for the design and selection of
solvents for separation processes,” Fluid Phase Equilibria, 1986.
4
Odele, O. and S. Macchietto, “Computer-aided molecular design: A novel method
for optimal solvent selection,” Fluid Phase Equilibria, 1993.
5
Harini, M., J. Adhikari and K. Y. Rani, “A review of property estimation methods
and computational schemes for rational solvent design: A focus on pharmaceuti-
cals,” Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research, 2013.
Complete literature cited available online at HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
AJAY GUPTA is the Assistant Vice President of refining R&D at
Reliance Industries Ltd. in Jamnagar, Gujarat, India. He holds
BS and MS degrees, as well as a PhD, all in chemical engineering
from the Indian Institute of Technology at Delhi, India.
His experience includes implementation of advanced process
control strategies in fluid catalytic cracking and crude distillation
units; development of reactor models for various chemical
processes, including effect of scale; and application of computational fluid
dynamics for solving problems in the refining and petrochemical industries.
SHANU JAIN is a Research Scientist in Reliance Industries Ltd.’s
refining R&D group. She previously worked for Halliburton’s
technology center as a technical professional in cementing
R&D. Her experience consists of multi-objective optimization,
computer-aided molecular design of ionic liquids,
computational fluid dynamics, nonlinear regression,
engineering software development and polymer reaction
engineering. Ms. Jain completed her BCh of technology degree in chemical
engineering from the National Institute of Technology (NIT) in Jaipur, and
an MS degree from the IIT in Bombay, India.

Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 71


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 Process
Optimization
A. ARONSON and D. ZAZISKI, Siluria Technologies,
San Francisco, California and D. CARTER,
Wood Group, Houston, Texas

Enhancing refinery profitability

with a novel offgas conversion technology
The refining industry is challenged
every day to optimize product slates that
comply with market demand, product
specifications, environmental regulations
and refining-petrochemical integration,
all while remaining profitable. Typically,
this means running less-expensive, heavi-
er crudes with higher severity processing,
resulting in increased refinery fuel gas
production. The ability of refiners to ef-
fectively manage fuel gas production has
a direct impact on operational flexibility
and profitability.
Refinery offgas recovery. Refiners
long on fuel gas often alter refinery op-
erations to meet fuel gas constraints, flare
fuel gas or sell it at a discount. Some re-
finery fuel gas streams contain significant
quantities of valuable light olefins (ethyl-
ene and propylene), hydrogen and natural
gas liquids (NGL), typically from fluid
catalytic crackers (FCC) and delayed cok-
ing units (DCU).
Past approaches for extracting value
from the fuel gas fall within two categories:
1. Using recovery systems
to extract and purify the
valuable components
2. Simply using the stream as fuel
to generate onsite heat or power.
Recovery systems can offer greater po-
tential uplift in value; however, they come
with several technical, operational and
financial hurdles. These systems involve
complex, capital and energy-intensive
compression, front-end gas treatment
and cryogenic fractionation. Installation
of these systems can require significant
downtime, which negatively impacts refin-
ery operations. Furthermore, the refiner
must enter new markets and establish buy-
ers and supply chain solutions for these lo-
gistically challenging products. As a result,
many refiners opt to simply use gas as fuel,
and value it for its Btu (energy value) by
burning it for power within the refinery
operation. Rather than burning this offgas
for heat or power, what if there was a way
to turn it into a valuable commodity?
Chemical conversion of refinery
offgas. An attractive and alternative ap-
proach is to use one or more chemical
reactions to convert the fuel gas compo-
nents into high-value liquids that are al-
ready produced and sold by the refinery.
This approach provides a much simpler,
lower-cost and more-effective solution for
maximizing the value of offgas streams.
While such conversion processes are tech-
nically feasible, their implementation has
been limited, in part, due to complications
with low component concentrations, as
well as the need for extensive contaminant
removal, both of which adversely impact
economic conversion.
Offgas conversion technology. Re-
cently, a new proprietary process technol-
ogy has been developed that selectively
converts dilute concentrations of light ole-
fins to a high-octane, low-sulfur gasoline
blendstock and LPG.a The process uses
robust, commercially proven catalysts that
have been engineered to directly process
the stream, without requiring extensive
contaminant treatment.
The process also meets important
needs that most refiners have for the adop-
tion of a new technology: small footprint,
easy installation and limited operational
disruption. Utilizing a compact, modular,
skid-mounted design, most of the system
can be procured and assembled offsite.
Site preparation, primarily foundation
work and utility tie-ins, can occur concur-
rently with minimal impact on refinery
operations. Final onsite installation of the
modules can then be done during a routine
maintenance turnaround, providing less in-
terference and downtime when compared
with a typical FCCU revamp project.
A block diagram of the offgas conver-
sion process is shown in FIG. 1. Offgas
from the refinery FCCU and/or DCU,
typically downstream of the amine unit,
can be bypassed from the fuel gas system
and redirected to the conversion system.
After compression, simple guard beds
are provided for selective contaminate
removal (primarily sulfur-containing
organics, metals and basic nitrogen spe-
cies), which affect product quality and/
or downstream process units. Other
common impurities in the offgas, such as
oxygen, carbon dioxide (CO2 ), nitrogen
oxide (NOx ) and water, remain in the
stream since the conversion catalyst and
downstream units are not impacted.
After pretreatment, the compressed
feedstream enters the reactor section,
which contains a proprietary catalyst
and a multi-reactor system. The catalyst
is based on a commercially proven cata-
lyst system that has been modified to se-
lectively oligomerize dilute light olefins
streams to longer hydrocarbon chains in
the gasoline range. Typical of this class of
catalyst, the catalyst will deactivate during
operation due to coking until conversion
of light olefins falls below a target level.
Full catalyst activity and gasoline selectiv-
Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 73
 Process Optimization

ity can then be fully restored by simple,
in-situ regeneration for coke removal via
dilute air combustion.
Based on capacity requirements, the
reactor system consists of at least three
adiabatic fixed-bed reactors in parallel.
The reactor set is run in a cyclic or swing
mode, similar to a cyclic catalytic reform-
er, to ensure continuous operation. In
the typical operating configuration, one
reactor is offline in catalyst regeneration
mode, while the other reactors simulta-
neously operate with catalyst at various
(staggered) stages of deactivation. Stag-
gered reactors help maintain high conver-
sion and consistent product composition.
In-situ catalyst regeneration
FCCU and DCU
offgas feed
As a catalyst bed nears the end of activ- Refinery case study. To quantify the
ity, identified by olefin breakthrough, the economic and operational benefits of the
reactor is switched out to regeneration offgas conversion technology, several case
mode, while the freshly regenerated reac- studies within a US Gulf Coast refinery
tor is returned to operation. are examined using a linear programing
Finally, a separation section is used to (LP) model.
recover the liquid hydrocarbon products. The configuration of the refinery is
The products are a high-octane, ultra- shown in FIG. 2. The refinery processes 200
low-sulfur gasoline blendstock stream Mbpd of crude oil, with a product slate of
(TABLE 1), an LPG coproduct and clean gasoline (87 octane and 91 octane), diesel
gas that is returned to the refinery fuel fuel, LPG, coke and sulfur. An equal split
gas system. Based on the refinery’s needs, of heavy and light crude is selected as a
the final characteristics of the gasoline typical feed for this benchmark refinery.
blendstock, such as octane and product In the low-sulfur, reformulated gaso-
grade, can be adjusted through control of line world, refiners have been relegated
the reactor operating conditions. to producing blendstocks instead of fin-
ished gasolines. For simplicity, the cases
Return to prepared were based on producing blend-
fuel gas
stocks that can be used for conventional
gasoline finishing or reformulated oxy-
genate blending to meet the needs at the
Modular product pump for regular unleaded, mid-grade
Regeneration

LPG
Pretreatment recovery and and premium-grade finished gasolines.
separations unit
The base case is configured with an
Gasoline 80-Mbpd nominal feed FCCU and a 50-
blendstock Mbpd nominal feed DCU, with offgas
directed to the fuel gas system. Two oper-
ating modes of the FCCU are considered,
TABLE 1. Characteristics of the
gasoline blendstock from the
FIG. 1. Block flow diagram of offgas conversion process scheme. offgas conversion process
Property Value
Saturated gas plant Isomerate to
and naphtha Octane RON 96
LPG gasoline blending
stabilization Octane MON 84
Naphtha HDS Isomerization Reformate to
and splitter and reforming gasoline blending RVP, psi 8
Total aromatics, vol% 35
DS FCC gasoline to
gasoline blending Total olefins, vol% 20
Kerosine Benzene, vol% < 0.1
HDS
50/50 Arabian Alkylate to Sulfur, ppm <1
Light/Heavy crude Gasoline gasoline blending
Crude HDS
distillation
TABLE 2. Total offgas composition
Distillate to (FCCU + DCU) with FCCU operated in
Distillate diesel blending a gasoline mode and an olefin mode
HDS/HDA Alkylation
Gasoline Olefin
Composition mode, mol% mode, mol%
Methane 43.3 39.5
FCCU and LPG
unsaturated Ethane 22.1 17.3
Vacuum gas plant
distillation Propane 0.4 0.5
VGO
HDS Offgas n-Butane 0.5 0.6
Distillate to
diesel blending conversion i-Butane 0.6 0.8
unit
Ethylene 9.6 19.3
Delayed Coke Propylene 2 2.5
coker
Butenes 3.9 4.9
Hydrogen 16.5 13.6
FIG. 2. Configuration of the refinery examined in the case study. H 2O 1.1 1.1

74 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com

a gasoline production mode and an olefin
mode. In the gasoline mode, the operating
conditions of the FCCU are selected to
boost the output of gasoline, whereas the
olefin mode production is shifted to pro-
duce additional propylene using ZSM-5
catalyst additives in the FCCU. Addition-
al ethylene is produced in the olefin mode
and serves as additional feedstock for liq-
uid fuel production using the offgas con-
version process. The offgas composition
for each mode is displayed in TABLE 2. As
expected, the offgas in the FCCU olefin
mode has overall higher concentrations of
small-chain olefins.
The offgas conversion technology is
included in the refinery configuration
(see blue colored block in FIG. 2) by re-di-
recting the FCCU and DCU offgas from
the fuel gas system to the conversion unit.
The output products, approximately 750
bpd–1.5 Mbpd gasoline blendstock and
LPG, are combined with the existing re-
finery product streams. The energy con-
tent extracted from the offgas is replaced
with additional natural gas, as needed, to
maintain the fuel gas system balance.
The LP model was used to investigate
the effect of integration of the offgas con-
version technology into the refinery pro-
cess flow. The objective function of the LP
model is optimized by maximizing the re-
finery net operating margin. TABLE 3 shows
feedstock and product pricing assump-
tions used in the analysis, which reflect
present approximate market conditions.
Case study results. Side-by-side eco-
nomic comparisons are made between
the base refinery case and those in which
the offgas conversion unit is included
(TABLE 4), as obtained from the LP model.
The results show that the offgas conver-
sion unit expands product revenue by
approximately 1%. This is partially offset
by a modest increase to feedstock and op-
erating cost, largely driven from the pur-
chase of additional low-cost natural gas to
replace the missing olefins in the fuel gas
system. On a net operating margin basis,
the refinery profits are enhanced by $29
MM/yr–$34 MM/yr, depending on the
operating mode of the FCCU.
To evaluate the economic viability of
the offgas conversion technology, a simple
payout time for this investment is calcu-
lated. The total installed cost (TIC) of the
conversion unit is estimated at $35 MM
for the gasoline mode and $49 MM for the
Process Optimization
olefin mode system. Costs are based on ap- chemical engineering from the University
of California, Berkeley, a BS degree in chemical
plying scaled factors from a Class 4 capital engineering from the University of Illinois and
estimate and include TIC for inside battery an MBA degree from the University of Michigan.
limits (ISBL), a 25% allowance for outside
DR. DAVID ZAZISKI is the Director
battery limits (OSBL) considerations, and of Business Development, External
an overall contingency factor of 10%. Affairs and Communications
Relating this investment to the net op- for Siluria Technologies. Over the
erating margin, a payout time of 1.2 yr–1.4 past 15 yr, Dr. Zaziski has worked at
the intersection of new technology,
yr is derived. This demonstrates the attrac- public policy and commercializing
tiveness of the technology since a refiner’s products from concept in areas including energy,
criterion for economic viability is typically cleantech, aerospace, nanotechnology and defense.
Dr. Zaziski holds a PhD in chemistry from the
a simple payout time of less than 2 yr–3 yr. University of California, Berkeley and a BS degree
in chemistry from the University of Michigan.
Takeaway. The refining industry has
DANIEL CARTER is the Director
been searching for an economic means of of Global Consultancy within
recovering the value of light olefins in the Wood’s Process Technology
fuel gas for many years. The offgas conver- and Consulting service line.
sion process described herein provides an His responsibilities include
consultancy and pre-FEED business
alternative for these dilute olefins, which development and project execution
otherwise are burned as fuel. The conver- in the onshore upstream, midstream, LNG, refining
sion process presents refiners with an at- and petrochemical business lines globally. Mr. Carter
tractive and unique option to convert the earned an MBA degree from Warwick Business
School and an MS degree in chemical and bioprocess
under-valued components into high-value engineering from the University of Wales,
liquids that are already produced and sold Swansea. He is a Fellow of the Institution of
by the refinery. The process also offers re- Chemical Engineers and a chartered engineer.
finers additional flexibility in the way the
TABLE 3. Feedstock and product pricing
FFCU can be operated to further enhance
used in the case study
operating margins.
Product Price, $ US
NOTES Natural gas 2.94/MMBtu
a
Refers to Wood and Siluria Technologies’ Modus
Ethane 0.23/gal
process technology.
Propane 0.59/gal
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
n-Butane 0.80/gal
The authors would like to recognize Pete Czerpak,
Senior Process Engineer with Siluria Technologies, i-Butane 0.81/gal
and Dr. Jimmy Vajifdar, Process Technology Specialist Gasoline—87 octane 1.48/gal
with Wood, for their contributions for the simulation,
figures and LP modeling results presented in the work. Gasoline—91 octane 1.61/gal
Ultra-low-sulfur diesel 1.56/gal
ANDREW ARONSON is a Senior
Technical BD Analyst for Siluria Light crude 46.64/bbl
Technologies. He has worked Heavy crude 44.35/bbl
for Siluria since 2010, and has
specialized in process development, PG propylene 850/Mt
project management, and is Coke 35/Mt
focused on commercializing the
Modus technology. Mr. Aronson holds an MS degree in Sulfur 80/Mt
TABLE 4. Side-by-side comparison of the economic impact of using an offgas
conversion process at a US Gulf Coast refinery
FCC in gasoline mode FCC in olefin mode
With offgas With offgas
Base case conversion Base case conversion
Product revenue, $MM/d 13.27 13.37 13.54 13.67
Feedstock costs, $MM/d (9.2) (9.21) (9.17) (9.2)
Operating cost, $MM/d (0.05) (0.05) (0.11) (0.1)
Net operating margin, $MM/d 4.02 4.11 4.26 4.37
Delta NOM, $/d 86,850 104,335
Annual Delta NOM, $/yr* 28,661,000 34,431,000
* Based on 330 operating days per year
Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 75
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 MAINTENANCE
AND TURNAROUNDS

Special Supplement to

Maintenance—A value-added expense CORPORATE PROFILES

M–78 Curtiss-Wright EST Group M–81 Victaulic M–83
Clean Harbors M–84

COVER PHOTO
Layher Scaffolding provides support to refinery expansion,
modification and maintenance projects.
 MAINTENANCE AND TURNAROUNDS
MAINTENANCE—A VALUE-ADDED EXPENSE
M. RHODES and L. NICHOLS, Hydrocarbon Processing, Houston, Texas
The following focuses on one of the
most integral aspects of the downstream
industry (or any industry, for that mat-
ter): maintenance. Maintenance helps
ensure efficient and safe operations.
Since it is crucial to facility operations,
operators dedicate a sizable portion of
their budgets for maintenance activities.
However, we have seen maintenance
activities delayed due to the drop in oil
prices over the past 2 yr. Many refiners
around the world held off, or delayed,
scheduled maintenance/turnarounds to
take advantage of high margins.
Change in the global petroleum, oil and
gas, refining and petrochemical industries
is constant. As the economies of develop-
ing countries continue to strengthen and
new sources of crude oil emerge, grass-
root refinery projects are being continu-
ally planned, and maintenance, upgrades,
revamps and retrofits for existing refiner-
ies are increasingly frequent.
In these industries, downtime can
lead to significant revenue losses—some-
times millions of dollars—for owners
and operators. Assets must perform reli-
ably at the required capacity to achieve
customer commitments, and financial
and schedule targets.
Because owners and operators seek
to avoid unplanned shutdowns or plant
turnarounds (TARs), retrofits and up-
grades that disrupt production, they are
continuously seeking new ways to reduce
total lifecycle maintenance costs and reli-
ability-related production losses. Mainte-
nance costs make up a fundamental share
of the total costs for equipment. Refiners
are willing to spend the capital to im-
prove, but they must weigh those expens-
es against the costs of lost production.
Scheduled maintenance and turnarounds
are opportunities to increase safety, reli-
ability, environmental performance and
profitability. Large and aging facilities are
expected to support increased mainte-
nance expenditure to sustain production
levels and reduce downtime.
Maintenance costs in downstream as-
sets, which can account for 30%–50% of
a facility’s operating expenses (OPEX),
M–78 MAINTENANCE AND TURNAROUNDS | APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
include maintenance materials, contract
maintenance labor, and equipment pur-
chase or rental. An estimated 75% of main-
tenance costs are typically spent on rou-
tine maintenance that can be performed
without significant downtime. The re-
maining 25% of maintenance spending
goes toward costly TARs and outages.
These costs are compulsory to maintain-
ing reliability and effectiveness, and ex-
tending the lifetime of vital equipment.
Environmental and safety compliance are
also an important factor that must be con-
sidered in any maintenance budget.
The editors of Hydrocarbon Processing
forecast that the hydrocarbon processing
industry’s capital, maintenance and oper-
ating budgets will exceed $360 B in 2018.
Nearly $60 B is expected to be spent on
maintenance activities (TABLE 1). This
forecast for maintenance spending rep-
resents approximately 16% of the total
spending projected for the downstream
industry in 2018.
Significant price pressure during the
oil price downturn has heavily impacted
the downstream maintenance market,
according to Douglas-Westwood’s World
Downstream Maintenance Market Forecast
(FIG. 1). In 2016, global downstream
maintenance spending fell 26% compared
to 2014 levels. However, most indus-
try experts believe that the downstream
maintenance market, which saw increas-
ing expenditures in 2017 to approximate-
ly $54 B, will continue to recover with
year-on-year growth from 2018–2022.
During the next 5 yr, global maintenance
spending is forecast to rise at a 3.5% com-
pound annual growth rate (CAGR).
Despite having a lower maintenance
cost per facility relative to refineries, petro-
chemical facilities are forecast to account
for the largest proportion of downstream
maintenance expenditures between 2018
and 2022, with a 42% market share.
North America will continue to repre-
sent the largest share of the downstream
maintenance market during this period,
with regional expenditures forecast to
reach $105 B. US refiners will increase
planned maintenance spending by an es-
timated 38.5% to $1.26 B in 2018, while
the chemicals processing sector will see
a 4% increase to $1.81 B, and the power
sector will grow by 9.3% to $3.54 B. The
consultancy says that other US industries
(pipelines, alternative fuels, metals, pulp
and paper, food and beverage, manu-
facturing and pharmaceuticals) will fall
4.7% to $3.82 B.
LNG facility expenditures are expected
to increase through to 2022, with signifi-
cant additional capacity forecast to come
onstream in Asia, Asia-Pacific and North
America. Rising demand for refined prod-
ucts and natural gas—in line with popula-
tion growth, economic development and
an aging population of assets—will act as
robust long-term drivers for downstream
maintenance expenditures.
Decisions concerning what materials
and equipment will be purchased (and
when), are made by a consensus of man-
agement and personnel across a wide
spectrum of departments and engineer-
ing disciplines of the hydrocarbon pro-
cessing industry (HPI), including main-
tenance and operations.
Labor. Recent deferrals of planned main-
tenance TAR activity are leading to an
increased demand for craft labor. Any
delay in TAR execution adds to produc-
tion losses. Improved refining margins are
encouraging more capital project activities
that are being executed during the main-
tenance TAR window than ever before.
Capacity additions coming onstream
in the near-term will compete for work
crews. An industry trend is the inclusion
of more capital project work in the out-
age, commonly approaching as much as
one-third of the labor hours in the out-
age duration. The downstream industry’s
workforce needs fall into two general cat-
egories: retaining the present workforce,
whether by extending their careers or uti-
lizing their industrial expertise in an advi-
sory or mentoring capacity; and attract-
ing the next generation of skilled talent to
fill the positions of retiring professionals.
An API-sponsored report states that, de-
spite the recent market downturn, there

will be more than 1.3 MM job opportu-
nities in the oil, gas and petrochemical
industries over the next 20 yr.
In the next 5 yr–7 yr, approximately
50% of the workforce will retire in what
many are calling the “great crew change.”
The next generation of engineers, op-
erators, technicians and skilled workers
must step up to continue the pursuit of
technological innovations and industry
growth. The graying of the workforce is
inevitable, and the oil and gas business is
cyclical and subject to price-driven fluc-
tuations that result in periods of hiring
and layoffs. These market fluctuations
are further complicating the process of
attracting, recruiting and retaining em-
ployees. To fill job openings, hiring man-
agers are prioritizing hard skills, particu-
larly for positions that have a direct effect
on asset maintenance.
The ebb and flow of energy prices is
leading the oil and gas industry to focus on
the best ways to attract and retain talented
workers in both lean and flush times.
A huge chasm of experience exists
between new people coming into the in-
dustry—and fewer are coming in—and
the more experienced group that is mov-
ing out. Succession planning is needed.
The bigger players in the industry are
becoming adept at maintaining a steady
stream of talent. However, the situation
seems to be more difficult for smaller re-
finers, which may be afraid that they can-
not afford and retain qualified person-
nel. Many companies are outsourcing
their condition-based programs as they
shrink their number of in-house mainte-
nance personnel.
While some maintenance activities
require formal training, many routine
tasks can be taught to the next genera-
tion internally using reliability engineers
(RE), original equipment manufactur-
ers (OEM) instruction manuals and in-
house experts. As they progress toward
the end of their careers, experienced
maintenance craftspeople are often
underutilized as a resource for cross-
training operators and new personnel.
Knowledge transfer through on-the-job
training utilizes the skills of those who
routinely work with equipment and en-
courages a vested interest in equipment
reliability. Operator care tasks also free
up maintenance craftspeople for more
proactive maintenance (i.e., preventive
and predictive maintenance).
MAINTENANCE AND TURNAROUNDS
Because they are best positioned to
identify and treat hazards, operators must
know what to look for, how to respond, be
trained to perform basic front-line main-
tenance tasks—such as cleaning, lubrica-
tion, specific adjustments, inspections
and quick repairs—and to know when to
reach out for help should the task appear
beyond their capabilities. During equip-
ment cleaning, operators are also inspect-
ing and identifying specific sources of
contamination, debris, corrosion and
leaks. Inspections enable operators to be
the eyes and ears of maintenance activi-
ties by identifying defects early. These ac-
tivities can be called “operator-performed
minor maintenance,” which involves
small minor maintenance tasks that help
ensure the continued reliable operations
of various pieces of equipment. When
completed in a routine, timely way, minor
maintenance helps avoid condition and
performance degradation and required
equipment outages.
Predictive/preventive maintenance.
Maintenance expenditures are a proac-
tive and necessary expense. As one of the
key components in maintaining a facility’s
TABLE 1. 2018 worldwide spending by budget, $ B
US
Capital 33
Maintenance 5 52
Operating* 48
Total 86
*Excluding feedstock and maintenance costs
90
80
70
60
Expenditures, $ B
50
40
30
20
10
0
2014 2015 2016
2013
FIG. 1. Global downstream maintenance expenditures ($ B), 2013–2022.
Source: Douglas-Westwood.
HYDROCARBON PROCESSING | APRIL 2018 | MAINTENANCE AND TURNAROUNDS
efficiency and maximizing profits, routine
maintenance programs and the accompa-
nying expenditures monitor equipment
health to identify potential problems,
proactively correct any issues before a
failure occurs and allow processing units
to run at top condition.
The budget allotted for facility and
unit maintenance, equipment and ma-
terials is crucial to maintain reliable, ef-
ficient and profitable operations, as well
as to extend the lifetime of vital and often
expensive equipment. Maintenance pro-
cedures and programs are not only vital
to crucial pieces of equipment, but also to
the safety of refinery and plant personnel.
Preventive maintenance (PM) pro-
grams are a key element of managing as-
sets proactively, allowing hydrocarbon
processing industry processing units to
run at maximum efficiency, monitoring
equipment health to identify potential
problems and correcting issues before a
failure occurs. PM is based on two over-
arching concepts: asset failure predic-
tion, and repairing equipment before it
does fail. Performing repetitive mainte-
nance on assets, at a set frequency, will
prolong equipment life and ensure that
OUS Total
111 144
57
112 160
275 361
Africa Asia
Asia-Pacific Eastern Europe and FSU
Latin America Middle East
North America Western Europe
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
M–79
 MAINTENANCE AND TURNAROUNDS

they remain in optimal condition, reduce Companies are becoming increas- Cybersecurity. PdM technology and the
the likelihood of potential safety inci- ingly reliant on technology to provide digitalization of the refinery/plant does
dents and unplanned breakdowns, and asset management techniques and data. come at a risk. With any type of remote
minimize long-term maintenance costs. While this is helpful, collecting data is not sensing technology, it is at risk for cyberat-
While set-schedule equipment main- enough on its own: implementing reliable tacks. Owners and operators have recog-
tenance is an accepted industry practice predictive maintenance requires diligent nized the potential risks and impacts of
to preserve uptime and reduce costs, analysis of that data. cyberwarfare and cybercrime, and while
many refining and petrochemical facili- PdM technologies offer an alterna- many organizations have adopted their
ties are transitioning from preventive to tive to intrusive overhauls and rebuilds, framework for industrial cybersecurity
predictive maintenance. With the digitali- as well as the ability to monitor and track control systems, many struggle to imple-
zation of the plant, sensors on equipment an asset’s mechanical condition to deter- ment effective programs.
can notify plant personnel in advance mine the optimum time for an overhaul According to the Department of
of needed maintenance (i.e., predictive or repair. If properly executed, asset run Homeland Security (DHS), the aver-
maintenance). Different companies have durations can be extended, unnecessary age length of time between a security
developed—and are perfecting—mul- work is eliminated and the frequency of breach and detection exceeds 240 days.
tiple tools and resources to aid plant per- shutdowns or turnarounds is reduced. The DHS processes approximately 300
sonnel in all facets of operations. These An effective predictive maintenance instances each day, and top concerns in-
resources are ensuring the move to better, program will provide a proactive ap- clude cyberattacks on the energy, finan-
more efficient maintenance programs, ac- proach to scheduling. This allows work cial and healthcare sectors. The agency
tionable items and operations. to be thoroughly planned and the parts recommends five rule sets that every orga-
Predictive maintenance (PdM) is mod- ordered ahead of time. While a reactive nization should consider when construct-
eled around the concept that repairs should maintenance approach to unplanned ing its framework to combat cyberattacks:
be made only when they are actually need- equipment failure tends to bring havoc • Identification—Companies must
ed, which enables improved planning, in- to labor availability and existing mainte- conduct an asset evaluation
creases uptime, improves the bottom line nance schedules, a proactive approach re- that includes intellectual
and enhances the efficiency of planned duces equipment downtime and increases property, personnel information
outages by eliminating unnecessary work. cost efficiency. and technologies.
• Protection—Key information
should be protected, and not all
information is created equal.
• Detection—It is important to
catch the attack as (or before)
it is happening. Training and
up-to-date methods and
www.ConstructionBoxscore.com technology are important.
• Response—Organizations
should have a clear and practiced
OJECT INTELLIGENCE
THE FUTURE OF DOWNSTREAM PR
response plan, including insurance
mechanisms and a media relation
branch to protect the brand.
Often, this requires a change of
Market Intelligence for the Global Refining, Petrochemical and organizational culture.
Gas Processing/LNG Industries • Recovery—A clear response will
Hydrocarbon Processing’s Construction Boxscore Database, the most reliable go a long way toward recovery.
source to track active construction projects in the refining, petrochemical, gas Recovery plans include backup
processing, LNG and solids industries throughout the world, now reaches further drives and Cloud-based storage
and is more powerful than ever before! systems at both work and home.
• Project details on thousands of active projects and global construction These measures, which every orga-
contracts, including contact information for key personnel nization must consider and employ, will
• Advanced search that filters the listings by project type, scope, region, continue to stimulate significant growth
investment and more in the market for industrial cybersecurity
• Daily updates for new and updated projects products and services.
• The weekly Boxscore Update e-newsletter with new listings and trends analysis
Takeaway. Improving reliability and
Logon to www.ConstructionBoxscore.com and take a free demo! equipment conditioning is beneficial to
any organization. Maintenance programs
For more information, contact: J’Nette Davis-Nichols at
Jnette.Davis-Nichols@GulfPub.com, or +1 (713) 520-4426
should not be viewed as a “cost of doing
business,” but rather as value-added service
to ensure the optimal use of equipment.

M–80 MAINTENANCE AND TURNAROUNDS | APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com

 CURTISS-WRIGHT EST GROUP

TRUSTED MAINTENANCE & TURNAROUND

PARTNER FOR OVER 50 YEARS
Curtiss-Wright EST Group specializes in engineered plugs for
shell and tube heat exchangers, condensers, boilers, piping systems
and pressure vessels for severe service applications. Their flagship
product, Pop-A-Plug® Tube Plugs are the industry’s leading technology
for heat exchanger tube repair. Since 1968, Curtiss-Wright EST Group’s
plugging and testing systems have saved their downstream oil & gas
customers millions of dollars in maintenance and downtime.

MAJOR PRODUCT LINES

Pop-A-Plug® Heat Exchanger Tube Plugging System & Testing
Equipment—Mechanical plugging solution for repairing leaking and/
or degraded heat exchanger, condenser, and boiler tubes. Service technician installing Pop-A-Plug® Tube Plugs
GripTight® Pressure Test & Isolation Plugs—Hydrostatically test pipe, in a heat exchanger bundle.
pipelines and pressure vessels; and safely isolate & test weld joints of
any welded flange-to-pipe connection or pipe ends during cutting, CONTACT INFORMATION
grinding and welding operations. 2701 Township Line Road, Hatfield, PA 19440
Curtiss-Wright EST Group serves a global customer base within Phone: 215-721-1100 / Fax: 215-721-1101
power generation, oil and gas, refining, petrochemical, fine chemical, est-info@curtisswright.com
pharmaceutical and shipbuilding industries. www.cw-estgroup.com

Unmatched Reliability for Critical Processes

Pop-A-Plug® Heat Exchanger Tube Plugging System

Pop-A-Plug Tube Plugs are pressure rated up to 7000 PsiG (483 BarG) and conform to
ASME PCC-2-2015 (Article 3.12) recommended tube plugging repair methods, offering
a permanent mechanical solution to safely seal leaking heat exchanger tubes without
welding. Installation takes only minutes, providing superior reliability for critical processes.
Full material traceability documentation available.

Visit cw-estgroup.com/hp0418 to maximize your turnaround success! EST Group

Select 159 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
Hyrdrocarbon Processing April Issue v2 3.6.2018.indd 1 3/8/2018 1:58:37 PM
SPONSORED CONTENT HYDROCARBON PROCESSING | APRIL 2018 | MAINTENANCE AND TURNAROUNDS M–81
Select 82 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS

EXPANDING A VITAL NETWORK
OF INDUSTRIAL SERVICES
With the acquisition of Veolia North America’s U.S. industrial cleaning
services division, Clean Harbors adds significant size, scale and capabili-
ties to its existing Industrial Services business and significantly expands its
geographic reach, enabling the company to offer U.S. customers a broader
selection of industrial services from a greater number of locations. The acqui-
sition also adds highly trained and experienced personnel, including diverse
management teams and expert equipment operators and technicians.
ONGOING COMMITMENT TO SCOPE,
SERVICE AND SAFETY
“At Clean Harbors, we make safety a fundamental part of our corpo-
rate culture and consistently deliver industry-leading safety results,” said
Alan McKim, chairman, president and chief executive officer of Clean
Harbors. “It’s that commitment to safety, along with an emphasis on deliver-
ing the highest possible quality of service to each and every customer that
will continue to guide our decision-making as a company.”
Adding more than 60 operating locations across the United States
Clean Harbors provides a broad range of services to an extensive cus-
tomer base, served by 1,400 additional employees and operating a
sizable service fleet of specialized vehicles and equipment.
A LONG HISTORY OF INNOVATION
AND PROBLEM SOLVING
Many in the industry agree that customers will see a direct and immedi-
ate benefit. For more than 20 years, Clean Harbors has provided expert
on-site industrial services to companies throughout North America. An ongo-
ing commitment to excellence is an essential part of the company’s credo—
ensuring that their expanding portfolio of industrial services offerings will
continue to meet the needs of a growing customer base. Services include:
Hydro Blasting & Ultra High-Pressure Cleaning. Automated tech-
niques help ensure that equipment functions at maximum efficiency. The
advanced methodology now includes Hands Free™ technology, making
Clean Harbors a frequent choice for cold cutting, CO2 dry ice blasting
and hydro blasting projects.
Pigging & Decoking. Unsurpassed in capacity and availability, Clean
Harbors offers the largest fleet of pump units in the world. Our experi-
ence and capabilities help ensure safer, cleaner, more efficient pigging,
decoking and descaling, with less facility downtime and minimal envi-
ronmental impact.
Chemical Cleaning, Decontamination & Disposal. This process requires
field personnel to safely dissolve and remove scaling, sludge and deposits
with a full range of customized reactants and solvents. Applied by an
experienced team using the industry’s most technologically advanced
methodologies, the company’s turnkey approach includes a unique ability
to safely contain, transport and dispose of generated water, as well as
condition waste materials on-site.
Daylighting & Hydro Excavation. Today’s advanced daylighting and
hydro excavation techniques help protect sensitive underground infrastructure
and surrounding landscapes. A safer, more precise alternative to traditional
hard-edge digging (also referred to as ‘yellow iron’), hydro excavation uses
pressured water to excavate and evacuate soil in challenging environments.
SPONSORED CONTENT HYDROCARBON PROCESSING | APRIL 2018 | MAINTENANCE AND TURNAROUNDS
CLEAN HARBORS
Tank Cleaning. Complete tank cleaning, dewatering and materi-
als processing services are designed to help keep tanks and storage
systems safe, inspection-ready and operating at the highest possible
efficiency level. The company’s proprietary technology includes Gator™,
an advanced robotic tank cleaning tool.
THE PREFERRED SOURCE FOR PREMIER
INDUSTRIAL SERVICES
Over the years, Clean Harbors has built a complete portfolio of envi-
ronmental and industrial services, eliminating the cost and complexity of
managing multiple specialty providers. With one call, expert help is avail-
able to maintain day-in, day-out safety and productivity—all with excep-
tional bottom-line value. Additional industrial services offerings include:
• Outage and Turnaround Management
• Dredging, Dewatering and Materials Processing
• Liquid/Dry Vacuum Services
• Ash and Wastewater Management
• Ultrasonic Cleaning Technology
• Pre-Commissioning Services
• Re-Source Solutions
• Sewer Cleaning and Inspection
• Coker Jet Pump Replacement Services
Today, Clean Harbors is North America’s leading provider of envi-
ronmental, energy and industrial services to petrochemical, chemical,
energy, manufacturing and public-sector clientele, many of them members
of the Fortune 500. Founded in 1980, Clean Harbors delivers a broad
range of services that include end-to-end hazardous waste management,
emergency response, industrial cleaning and maintenance, and recycling
services. With more than 13,000 full-time employees, the company oper-
ates throughout the United States, Canada, Mexico and Puerto Rico. For
more information, call us at 877.215.9730.
CONTACT INFORMATION
42 Longwater Drive, Norwell, MA 02061-9149
www.cleanharbors.com
M–83
 VICTAULIC

ENGINEERING
CONFIDENCE
INTO EVERY BUILD

Corporate, Victaulic Facility

Manufacturing paint line
Fast, Reliable Pipe
Joining Solutions for
Since 1919, Victaulic’s pipe joining and flow control solutions have
optimized construction productivity and reduced risk, ensuring projects
are completed safely, on time and within budget. Driven by a spirit of
Category D Fluid Service continuous innovation, Victaulic’s portfolio of 100,000+ products and
patented technologies promote freedom of design, as well as simplified
inspection and maintenance for the life of any system.
With more than 3,500 employees and 40 international facilities,
Victaulic helps customers in over 120 countries succeed in the global
construction industry. From the tallest buildings to the deepest mines,
B31.3 Compliant customers trust our products to increase overall system durability in the
most demanding construction projects and operating conditions. Learn
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Shortened Construction Timeline engineer confidence into your build at www.victaulic.com.

CONTACT INFORMATION
4901 Kesslersville Road Easton, PA
610-559-3300
www.victaulic.com/contact-us/

victaulic.com
© 2018 VICTAULIC COMPANY. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

Select 160 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS

M–84 MAINTENANCE AND TURNAROUNDS | APRIL 2018 SPONSORED CONTENT

Optimize your insulation to reduce costs
Corrosion under insulation (CUI) is a common problem
that is shared by the oil and gas (onshore and offshore), refin-
ing, petrochemical, power and manufacturing industries. CUI
refers to the external corrosion of steel piping and vessels under
insulation due to the penetration of water (FIG. 1). Inspection
technologies for detecting CUI are limited, and the probabil-
ity of detection depends greatly on the extent of inspection and
insulation removal. CUI often remains undetected until the in-
sulation is removed or a leak occurs. This type of corrosion is a
common root cause for loss of primary containment (LOPC),
leading to health, safety and environment (HSE) incidents,
equipment repairs and unplanned downtime. Costs associated
with such events can escalate into millions of dollars.
At the design phase, project teams often engineer and plan
to insulate much more equipment than is necessary. As a re-
sult, both the risk of CUI and the lifecycle cost of insulation in-
creases. Thorough front-end engineering and proper insulation
specifications can greatly reduce CUI risk and lifecycle cost.
The justification for insulation should be made both during the
design phase and after a facility is operating to ensure that in-
sulation coverage is optimized. After a facility is in operation,
it is important to verify the assumptions made during design,
to determine if any insulation can be permanently removed
and to verify that insulation was installed per specification. An
inspection and maintenance plan for insulation will increase
short-term cost, but it can greatly reduce long-term CUI risk, as
well as help reduce HSE incidents, production and repair costs
associated with potential LOPC.
CUI risk and cost of insulation on pressure equipment can
result in:
• HSE incidents
• Lost or deferred production
• Higher initial installation cost
• Higher insulation inspection/maintenance cost
• Higher CUI inspection cost/decreased inspection quality
• Regulatory and reputational consequences.
Solution. The best prevention for CUI is no insulation at all.
As such, any insulation that is not required for heat/cold con-
servation, personnel burn protection, condensation prevention
or acoustic control should be permanently removed. Where
insulation is required only for personnel burn protection, the
insulation should be replaced with caged burn protection or a
thermal insulating coating system (FIG. 2).
Environment
and Safety
J. PETERSEN, S. O’HEARN and M. RABEH,
BP, Houston, Texas
Challenge the need for insulation. Due to limited data at
the design stage, it is common practice for the project team to
use conservative assumptions when estimating process proper-
ties. This approach leads the project team to recommend the in-
stallation of insulation on equipment (e.g., piping, vessels, tanks,
etc.) where it may not be needed. This increases potential CUI
risk to equipment where it should not exist from the beginning.
Challenge heat conservation insulation. To address this
problem, BP evaluated the need for insulation on equipment on
operating platforms in the Gulf of Mexico (GoM) using the op-
erating data available. The approach was kept simple. A heat loss
transfer study was performed on all equipment that was insulat-
ed for heat conservation (FIG. 3). Process simulation tools were
used to accurately calculate the heat loss without insulation.
Conservative assumptions were used for ambient conditions in
the simulation (e.g., high wind velocity and low ambient tem-
peratures). The following two questions were then answered to
determine if insulation would be required for conserving heat:
1. Is a heater present in the system that can compensate
for the heat loss if the insulation is removed?
2. Are there operability reasons for keeping the insulation
(e.g., separation efficiency)?
Challenge personnel protection insulation. Engineer-
ing specifications and regulatory authorities frequently list the
FIG. 1. Image of active CUI in a facility.
Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 85
 Environment and Safety

maximum allowable surface operating temperature for equip- 1. In the past 365 d, did the temperature of the fluid
ment (typically in the range of 140°F–160°F) without person- passing through the equipment get high enough
nel protection. Above this temperature, personnel protection is for a duration long enough to heat the equipment
installed. Note: ASTM’s “Standard Guide for Heated System above the acceptable surface operating temperature?
Surface Conditions that Produce Contact Burn Injuries” pro- Note: Temperature readings in the field can be used
vides guidance on how to determine acceptable surface operat- to support this—field temperature readings should
ing temperature for industrial equipment. reflect worst-case conditions (i.e., ideally, the highest
For personnel protection insulation, BP analyzed operating process and ambient temperature).
data trends to determine if equipment was operating at or above 2. Are there planned changes to the process (i.e., new
the maximum allowed surface operating temperature (FIG. 4). wells or new units) in which the temperature of the
Four questions were answered to determine the need for per- fluid is expected to exceed the acceptable surface
sonnel protection insulation: operating temperature?
3. Is the equipment normally accessible to human touch
(e.g., a height of 0 ft–7 ft above walking levels and
laterally 0 in–18 in from any walkway or walk space)?
4. Is the fluid inside the equipment stagnant or at a dead
end (e.g., relief valve inlet piping and drain lines in
which relieving or draining activity length is too short
to increase the temperature of the equipment above
acceptable surface operating temperature, or so short
that it does not result in significant risk)?

Understand insulation options and minimize CUI risk. In-

sulation is used in industry on many types of equipment, includ-
ing pressure vessels, tanks, piping, buildings, structural steel and
junction boxes. Typically, insulation has one or more purposes
based on assumptions made during design and is used to keep
the equipment from contacting the atmosphere directly.

Heat/cold conservation. Heat and cold conservation is a

common type of insulation used to decrease the heat lost to or
gained from the environment. This type of insulation is used to
help maintain process temperatures and acts as personnel pro-
tection. If insulation is required for process temperature reasons,
then choose an insulation material and design that will minimize
the chance of CUI. Some insulation considerations for minimiz-
FIG. 2. Thermal insulating coating system applied in place of
ing the impact of CUI are:
conventional insulation to prevent CUI.
Personnel
protection
evaluated
Heat conservation
evaluation
Is insulation Yes
required for heat Keep insulation
conservation?

Can heat input Is insulation

No
Yes No
be increased to make up required for personnel Remove insulation
for the heat loss? protection? Is the
Is temperature Yes Is the fluid No equipment Yes
of the fluid above in the pipe normally
maximum allowed? stagnant? accessible?
No
No Consider replacing Consider replacing
Yes
insulation with burn insulation with burn
Is there an cage or coating cage or coating
operability reason for
No
keeping insulation?
No Yes
Remove insulation
Yes
Keep insulation

FIG. 3. Heat conservation insulation flow diagram. FIG. 4. Personnel protection insulation flow diagram.

86 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com

• Ensure that a robust insulation specification and quality
control plan for installing insulation is in place.
• Choose an insulation material with low-moisture
permeability and low-water retention characteristics.
• Minimize the use of insulation blankets. Where insulation
blankets are used, ensure that they are installed with
the seam at the bottom and/or a drain hole at the
bottom to allow water to drain.
• Design insulation installation to allow water to drain.
• Minimize or eliminate insulation on flanges/bolting,
valves and instrumentation.
• Minimize insulation penetrations (e.g., supports,
nozzles). Ensure adequate spacing between insulated
equipment and adjacent structures/equipment to allow
for the installation of insulation without incurring
penetrations to the insulation jacketing. Consider using
load-bearing insulation on piping to eliminate insulation
penetration at supports.
• Ensure that coating under the insulation is appropriate
and is applied correctly.
• Consider installing shelters around high-consequence
insulated equipment to prevent precipitation from
contacting equipment.
• Design insulation supports to allow drainage and
minimize contact with equipment.
• Choose a jacket material that does not interfere
with CUI non-destructive examination (NDE).
Personnel protection. This type of protection is installed on
equipment where the temperature could cause injury if person-
nel encountered it and insulation for heat/cold conservation is
not required. Where personnel protection is required, solutions
to consider are:
1. Protective cage with standoffs
a. Choose a design that allows visual inspection
to be performed (i.e., use an expanded metal cage
and not perforated jacket)
b. Choose a design that minimizes crevice corrosion
risk between the standoff and the pipe/vessel
2. Insulative coating
a. Potential limitation with a coating is that ultrasonic
testing (UT) will not work through some of
these coatings, and the coating would have to be
removed if UT spot measurements or UT scans
were to be executed
b. Consider the temperature limit of the coating
c. Consider temperature cycles during startup/
shutdown of equipment when choosing a coating,
as coating failure can occur if the rate of temperature
change exceeds that which the coating can handle
3. Insulation
a. If insulation must be used for personnel protection,
pick a material and design that will minimize
the chance of CUI (see considerations under
heat/cold insulation)
b. Where personnel protection is required on very hot
equipment, a protective cage may not work; also, if
the equipment operating temperature is too high, a
protective cage may reach temperatures higher than
Environment and Safety
the maximum allowed surface operating temperature
c. Where insulation is installed as a barrier between
a potential release of flammable fluid and a very
hot surface, a protective cage cannot be used.
Where there is a differential temperature between the equip-
ment and the ambient air, condensation can occur and cause
external corrosion issues. Insulation (or insulative coating) to
prevent condensation can be installed on such equipment (see
considerations under heat/cold insulation).
Acoustic insulation can be used to mitigate noise from pro-
cess equipment. Typically, this type of insulation is localized
(e.g., on a valve). An alternative to insulation is mandating the
use of hearing protection or double hearing protection around
the equipment. If insulation is installed, refer to considerations
for heat/cold insulation to minimize CUI risk.
Insulation materials and their properties vary greatly. Con-
sult with your insulation vendor to determine the best insula-
tion solution for your situation. Generalized properties of typi-
cal insulations include:
• Mineral wool: Retains water, is cost effective and has
very good insulating properties.
• Closed cell foam glass: Should not retain water,
high material/installation cost and moderate
insulating properties.
• Calcium silicate: Retains water, has a moderate
material/installation cost and good insulating
properties. Note: Calcium silicate made prior to
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 87
 Environment and Safety

2002 can leach out corrosive chemicals if wet. ings, and a significant amount of capital can be saved through
• Cellular perlite: Should not retain water, has a high optimizing the installations’ insulation.
material/installation cost and moderate insulating CUI imposes high safety and financial risks to a facility. It can
properties. be seen from the methodology implemented in this work that
• Flexible elastomeric foam: Should not retain water, the risks and costs associated with CUI can be significantly re-
has a high material/installation cost and moderate duced by utilizing operating conditions and field data. Removal
insulating properties. of the insulation, where it is not required, will reduce the likeli-
• Insulation blankets: Retain water, have a high material/ hood of process safety consequences and/or financial losses due
installation cost and low insulating properties. to plant shutdowns (production losses) and repair costs.
• Insulative coatings: Should not retain water,
have a high material/installation cost and various MUHANNAD RABEH is a Principal Process Engineer in the
insulating properties Discipline Engineering Team supporting Gulf of Mexico (GoM)
operations for BP America. With 13 yr of experience
in process and facilities engineering, he specializes in process
Findings and takeaways. BP has evaluated insulation require- optimization and process safety improvement. Mr. Rabeh
ments for piping for several offshore platform assets. The results holds a Bch degree in chemical engineering and material
are shown in TABLE 1. Approximately half of the evaluated lines sciences from the University of Oklahoma.
can have the insulation removed or replaced with cages or coat-
SHAWN O’HEARN is an Inspection Engineer supporting
deepwater operations in the GoM for BP America. He has
TABLE 1. Evaluation of four offshore platforms in regards to more than 10 yr of experience in inspection, integrity
insulation requirements management and mechanical engineering in the upstream
and midstream oil and gas industry.
Platform Platform Platform Platform
1 2 3 4
Lines with insulation to 31% 24% 47% 10% JONATHAN PETERSEN is a Senior Integrity Management
be permanently removed Engineer, supporting deepwater operations in the GoM
for BP America. He has more than 25 yr of experience in
Lines with insulation to 42% 44% 14% 26% engineering and integrity management positions in the oil
be replaced with a burn and gas, refining and production industries.
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Hydrocarbon Processing

88 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com

How pipeline management becomes
part of a plant safety strategy
A typical refinery or chemical plant
contains miles of pipelines. Identifying
and correcting leaks in these pipelines
can be problematic. The potential cost of
remediation and possible financial penal-
ties due to pipeline leaks in plants has in-
creased, along with the threat of damage to
the operator’s reputation from the possible
negative environmental impact (FIG. 1).
Operators have low confidence in
commercially available leak detection
systems, so they often delay action when
an alarm is received from a leak detection
system, risking both financial resources
and corporate reputation. Fortunately,
the reliability of detection systems has
improved. These systems have been ad-
opted into an innovative new approach,
which is a hybrid leak detection solution
based on a safety integrity level 3 (SIL 3)
safety controller. By tightly integrating
safety-related hardware and monitoring
software, the solution ensures the long-
term availability and safety of a plant’s
pipelines. It also contributes to reducing
the adverse consequences of incidents,
improves safety by minimizing the size of
leaks and protects the reputation of the
plant and its operator.
The need for standards. Continued
improvement of leak detection is neces-
sary since hundreds of pipeline incidents
are reported every year, and these num-
bers have not seen improvement over the
last 15 yr. The leading causes of these in-
cidents are material defects, followed by
corrosion, excavation damage and incor-
rect operation—although excavation has
figured more significantly in past years.
The American Petroleum Institute (API)
has released a set of standards to be used
Environment
and Safety
C. LISTON, HIMA Americas, Houston, Texas
as guidelines for operators to help miti-
gate the risks and consequences of leaks.
These standards include:
• API 1160—Overall standard
to cover all pipeline integrity
management
• API 1130—Design and
implementation of leak detection
systems
• API 1149—Theoretical
calculations of possible leak
detection system performance
• API 1175—Standard for the
selection, operation, maintenance
and continuous improvement
of leak detection systems.
What to look for. Many operators do
not know what to look for when search-
ing for a reliable leak detection system. A
combination of factors exist that must be
evaluated to find the best solution. The
four primary factors include:
• Sensitivity—A combination of the
size of a detectable leak and the
time required to detect it.
FIG. 1. Leak incident cost escalation.
• Reliability—A measure of the
system’s ability to accurately assess
whether a leak exists or not.
• Accuracy—The ability of a system
to estimate leak parameters such
as leak flowrate, total volume lost
and leak location.
• Robustness—The ability of a
system to continue to function
during unusual hydraulic conditions
or when data is compromised.
The evolution of leak detection. The
industry’s response to these standards, and
to leak detection overall, has been evolu-
tionary. This evolution can be represented
as a set of four steps. The first step—which
will be referred to as Leak Detection 1.0—
uses a single method chosen from the
many available. It is worth reviewing these
alternatives, as they are not only used for
Leak Detection 1.0, but also provide the
building blocks for the more recent evo-
lutionary stages. The detection methods
must first be classified by whether they are
externally or internally based. The exter-
Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 89
 Environment and Safety
nal methods discussed are acoustic sensor,
fiber optic cable and vapor sensor.
Acoustic sensors are distributed along
the pipeline to detect internal noise levels.
Any leak produces a low-frequency acous-
tic noise at its location, which the sensors
can detect. This method’s advantage is its
sensitivity to small leaks, while its disad-
vantages include a high number of false
alarms, which can be caused by vehicles,
valves or pumps, and the fact that the
method’s efficiency and accuracy is de-
pendent on the operator’s skill level.
Fiber-optic leak sensing depends on in-
stalling a fiber optic cable along the entire
pipeline length. This cable monitors con-
tinuously for temperature changes caused
by pipeline leaks. This method’s advan-
tages are high leak location accuracy and
theft identification. However, it has a high
installation cost, leak identification times
can be slow, stability over time is unprov-
en and the entire pipeline must be exca-
vated to install the cable. Additionally, the
method does not yield any leak size data.
FIG. 2. Optimal leak detection methods.
FIG. 3. A hybrid solution for advanced leak detection.
90 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
The last external method uses a vapor
sensor. A vapor-sensing tube, installed
along the entire length of the pipeline,
contains air moving at a constant speed
toward a sensor at the end of the pipeline.
During a scan, an electrolysis cell emits
a test peak of hydrogen. If vapor from a
leak is detected, the system will calculate
where the leak is based on timing differ-
ences between the vapor peak and hy-
drogen peak arrivals at the sensor. Leak
location and size accuracy is high, but the
installation price is also steep. Scanning is
performed only once or twice a day rather
than continuously, so a leak could become
extremely large by the time it is detected.
Internal methods. Five internal or com-
putational pipeline monitoring (CPM)
methods are available. The first is a statisti-
cal analysis method that relies on the pipe-
line pressure and flow profiles reacting to
a leak in a typical manner. These profile
reactions can be calculated by using the
correlation between inlet and outlet flow,
as well as inlet and outlet pressure. Unfor-
tunately, without a steady-state condition,
this correlation does not exist. This means
that the method does not work in tran-
sient conditions, and leak location tends
to be of low accuracy, improving only as
the leak continues. However, this method
does have the advantage of utilizing exist-
ing instrumentation.
Real-time transient modeling (RTTM)
uses basic physical laws, such as conser-
vation of mass, conservation of momen-
tum and conservation of energy, to create
mathematical models of the flow within
the pipeline. The pressure and flow pro-
files are calculated in time steps. When the
measured flow deviates from the model, a
leak is identified. To design a reliable sys-
tem with minimal false alarms, the noise
level should be continuously inspected to
modify the models. RTTM works very well
in transient conditions, and can potentially
use existing flow, pressure, temperature
and density instrumentation. However, it is
very expensive to program, and continuous
tuning is required. Training costs for opera-
tors to tune the system must be allocated,
and it is not always possible to obtain all of
the parameters necessary for programming.
The volume balance method is based
on the principle of the conservation of
mass; what goes in must come out, unless
there is a leak. This method is also used in
some supervisory control and data acquisi-
tion (SCADA) systems. The compensated
volume balance variant is the optimum
variant to use in a leak detection system,
as this optimizes its functionality. This ver-
sion of the method accounts for changes in
both pressure and temperature. Rising tem-
peratures result in expansion, and building
pressures cause compression. This method
uses proven technology and algorithms,
utilizes existing instrumentation with min-
imal programming, and remains effective
in transient conditions. However, it can
estimate only the leak location.
The pressure drop method is a simple
approach that uses existing instrumenta-
tion; during shutdown conditions, a pres-
sure drop indicates a leak. This method
can detect the smallest of leaks—known
as seepages. However, it too can estimate
only the leak location.
The negative pressure wave method
works on the principle that as a leak oc-
curs, it generates a negative pressure wave
of a known velocity both upstream and
downstream of the leak. The leak loca-
tion can be calculated by comparing the
arrival times of the negative wave at each
transmitter. The method utilizes existing
instrumentation to provide extreme leak
sensitivity and excellent leak location ac-
curacy, with a reduction in false alarms.
Leak Detection 2.0 and 3.0. With
the ‘building block’ detection methods
in mind, Leak Detection 2.0 simultane-
ously uses multiple leak detection meth-
ods to provide comprehensive coverage.
The approach is a combination of the best
three internal leak detection methods:
Enhanced pressure wave, compensated
volume balance and the pressure drop
 Environment and Safety

method (FIG. 2). By applying these meth-
odologies simultaneously, system avail-
ability can be ensured for all phases of the
pipeline, while also significantly reducing
false alarms. This approach reduces pro-
gramming costs for the plant operator. Ad-
ditionally, the system requires little, if any,
tuning to compensate for changes in the
physical properties of the pipeline, such as
corrosion or debris buildup.
The next evolutionary phase, Leak
Detection 3.0, introduces the concept of
emergency shutdown (ESD) action, as
well as monitoring. It concerns detection
of ruptures, which are more serious than
leaks and must be handled accordingly.
Typically, a leak is classified as a rupture if
it reaches or exceeds approximately 30% of
the pipeline flowrate, although the precise
value is defined by each plant operator’s
individual risk analysis. Rupture detection
systems were created as standalone sys-
tems operating independently of the leak
detection implementation, and are de-
signed to shut down a pipeline in the event
of a rupture. The leak percentage threshold
at which the system reacts can be raised or
lowered as necessary. These systems are
used particularly in environmentally sensi-
tive areas where a delayed response can be
damaging to the environment.
A hybrid solution. Leak Detection 4.0
is an innovative approach that integrates
the leak detection methodologies of Leak
Detection 2.0 with an SIL 3 safety system
with ESD capability. This method creates
a hybrid solution to optimize a plant’s leak
detection system (FIG. 3).
This solution can be installed as a
complete pipeline management automa-
tion solution to help improve safety in re-
fineries and chemical plants. The solution
controls and regulates safety-related pro-
cesses for uninterrupted operation over
the plant’s entire lifecycle. It can continu-
ously monitor pipelines, shut them down
automatically in hazard situations and
prevent or significantly reduce damage.
This hybrid approach helps prevent false
alarms, and allows unlimited alterations,
modifications, extensions, improvements
and even mandatory proof tests while the
plant is in operation.
Takeaways. The use of a hybrid ap-
proach solution for pipeline manage-
ment offers plant operators consider-
able benefits. Uninterrupted operation
and maximum availability are ensured,
while the system complies with present
and upcoming global safety standards
according to SIL 3. This type of system
ensures maximum functional safety and
extremely high reliability by automati-
cally shutting down affected areas during
critical situations. As a result, it cuts pipe-
line operating costs, significantly reduces
false alarms and increases the profitability
of installations.
NOTES
a
Refers to HIMA’s FLOWorX leak detection software
b
Refers to HIMA’s HIMax system
CHRIS LISTON holds a BS degree in
civil engineering from the University
of Kansas. He has worked in the oil
and gas industry for most of his
career. As a Regional Sales Manager
for HIMA Americas for the past few
years, he has served as the subject
matter expert for pipeline management systems. In
that capacity, Mr. Liston covers midstream companies
and pipeline EPCs throughout North America.

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Measuring steam flow to flares
Refinery flare stacks are designed to
combust all manner of unrecoverable hy-
drocarbon gases and vapors to avoid put-
ting them into the atmosphere in their
original form. Steam is commonly added
to the flare feed to assist mixing, ensure
complete combustion of those hydro-
carbons and avoid the formation of ugly
plumes of black smoke.
The mixture of steam and hydrocar-
bon feed must be optimized since add-
ing either too much or too little steam
can reduce combustion efficiency and
increase the emissions of volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) that are supposed to
be consumed. For this reason, new Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency (EPA) reg-
ulations—EPA 40 CFR Part 63, subpart
FIG. 1. Two steam flowmeters are required to achieve the needed turndown.
Process Control
and Instrumentation
M. MENEZES, Emerson Automation Solutions,
Canada
CC Refinery MACT1 and 40 CFR Part
63, subpart UUU Refinery MACT2—
require accurate measurement of steam
flow to refinery flares. US refineries must
comply by January 2019, but since imple-
menting most solutions requires a pro-
cess shutdown for installation, refineries
should start planning immediately.
Although the regulation applies to
only refineries at present, many observers
expect it will be extended to chemical and
petrochemical plants with steam-assist FIG. 2. This conditioning orifice plate
flare stacks. includes a built-in flow conditioner to
minimize required straight pipe runs
upstream of the flowmeter.
Dealing with erratic volumes. The
amount of hydrocarbon flowing to the
flare can vary widely, depending on oper-
ating conditions or process upsets. A stack
FIG. 3. This multivariable steam flowmeter
with utility-grade isolation valves is suitable
for clean, low-pressure steam measurement.
Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 93
 Process Control and Instrumentation

gas flow range of 100:1 is not uncommon,
so to comply with the regulation, meter-
ing of the steam-assist flow must cover
the same range. To achieve this wide
turndown range with the required ±5%
of mass flow accuracy, two parallel steam
flow lines are necessary (FIG. 1), each with
an appropriate flowmeter:
• A large line with a high-steam
flowmeter for 0%–100% of flow.
This line probably already exists
and has some type of flowmeter.
• A small line with a low-steam
flowmeter for approximately
0%–10% of flow. This line will
probably need to be added.
• A high-steam on/off valve that
opens the large line and will be
closed at low-steam flowrates.
Measurements from the two flow-
meters are added in the control system
for total flow. A single final steam control
valve is shown for steam throttling, but in
100:1 turndown applications two control
valves may be required, one in each line.

Measurement best practices. This

parallel meter approach requires two
steam flowmeters, each with a turndown
range of approximately 10:1. This type of
performance can be achieved using multi-
variable transmitters, which must have
specific capabilities:
• Accurate and stable measurements
of differential pressure
(characterized for low flow), static
FIG. 4. This multivariable steam flowmeter is designed to accurately measure medium- pressure and temperature.
to high-pressure steam and refinery process fluid flows. • An onboard flow computer to
calculate mass flow using accurate
steam tables and gas expansion
factors. This is more accurate than
a simplified DCS calculation,
which assumes that steam follows
the ideal gas law.
Ideally, this device should be preengi-
neered, preconfigured, preassembled and
leak tested with the primary flow element.
Since the flowline is disturbed at the tee
immediately upstream of the flowmeters,
it is unlikely that the 10+ diameters of
straight pipe typically needed to ensure ac-
curacy will be available.
To obtain high accuracy without straight
pipe, the flowmeter should include a flow-
straightening primary element, such as a
conditioning plate (FIG. 2). To minimize
total installed cost with clean and low-pres-
sure steam, some users specify that the con-
FIG. 5. This multivariable steam flowmeter is designed for installation on small pipes. ditioning plate be integrated into a drop-in,
wafer-style flowmeter with utility-grade
5.0 needle-valve isolation (FIG. 3). The flow-
4.0 meter assembly should include an integrat-
3.0 ed temperature sensor and a multi-variable
transmitter. For accurate placement, the as-
Rate of accuracy, +/– %

2.0
1.0 sembly should include an alignment ring to
0.0 ensure self-centering during installation.
-1.0 For medium- to high-pressure steam,
-2.0 DP flowmeter 1 most refineries specify process-grade iso-
-3.0 DP flowmeter 2 lation valves. The meter shown in FIG. 4
Zero, flowrates unit: lb/hr
-4.0 includes fire-safe roddable valves, an inte-
-5.0 grated conditioning plate to compensate
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000
Flowrate, lb/hr for a lack of straight pipe, and 150-lb or
600-lb ANSI flanged connections.
FIG. 6. Multivariable steam flowmeter performance quantified over turndown, with and without Where small pipe diameters (< 1.5 in.)
gas expansion factor dynamic calculation.
are used, obtaining sufficient straight pipe
94 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
 Process Control and Instrumentation

to stabilize flow is usually not a concern,
so a traditional orifice plate can be used.
However, the individual installing the de-
vice should ensure the plate is correctly
centered and uses a honed-meter run.
Where small pipes are involved, variations
in the pipe’s internal diameter, roundness
and smoothness can be disruptive to flow
stability and reduce accuracy. One ap-
proach to dealing with these issues is to
use an integral orifice assembly (FIG. 5).
For any of these options, the supplier
must provide performance calculations
for each meter to confirm the EPA’s re-
quired performance of ±5% of mass flow.
These calculations must include both
flowmeters over the entire flow range un-
der the installed conditions (FIG. 6).
FIG. 6 shows how both differential pres-
sure (DP) flowmeter 1 and DP flowmeter
2 are characterized for flow, maximizing
the operating range. Moreover, DP flow-
meter 1 also includes an onboard dynamic
gas expansion factor calculation as flow
changes. Unfortunately, DP flowmeter
2 still uses older density-compensating
techniques, or it depends on the DCS
to make steam table calculations. This is
typical of older flowmeters, and it makes
the ±5% system accuracy goal difficult to
achieve at high flows. The solution is to
upgrade DP flowmeter 2 to newer tech-
nology capable of more accurate measure-
ment, thereby bringing regulatory com-
pliance along with other benefits.
Periodic meter verification. The EPA
requires a flow sensor calibration check
at least biennially. For some technologies,
this every-other-year test requires a trip to
an expensive offsite flow lab, or onsite test-
ing using inline flow-proving equipment.
Unfortunately, inline verification cannot
be performed with variable steam flow,
which exists whenever the plant is operat-
ing. For a typical refinery shutting down
less often than every 2 yr, the only way to
meet the EPA requirement for 2-yr verifi-
cation is to install the meter in a bypass.
Fortunately, in-situ verification is sim-
ple and inexpensive for a high-stability DP
flowmeter, and the process should already
be familiar to any instrument technician
who uses the same type of transmitters in
other applications. Many suppliers offer in-
situ verification as an onsite service as well.
Related applications. Refineries seek-
ing to solve the steam-to-flares monitor-
ing requirement should address other
flare-related applications, some of which
are also EPA-mandated, including:
• Positive indication that the flare is on
• Flow measurement of natural gas
used for pilot or Btu assist
• Flare temperature
• Identification of which pressure
relief devices (PRVs) or rupture
discs are causing elevated flaring.
Refineries can comply with the new
EPA requirements using simple, familiar
and cost-effective technologies. How-
ever, given the January 2019 deadline for
implementation, the work needs to begin
now. Compliance will typically involve
engineering and installing new devices
and piping, along with integrating these
devices into the control system. This can
be a substantial undertaking, but the tech-
nologies required to implement a solution
are proven and available.

HONORING INNOVATION

IN THE DOWNSTREAM August 30, 2018 | Houstonian Hotel | Houston, Texas

Awards Nominations Close April 12th

The editors of Hydrocarbon Processing are thrilled to announce the 2nd
annual Hydrocarbon Processing Awards. 2018 Award Categories include:

PROJECT OR TECHNOLOGY OUR PEOPLE AWARDS

• Best Automation Technology
• Best Catalyst Technology
• Best “Digitalization”
• Best Flow Control Technology
• Best Gas Processing Technology
• Best HSE in a Project
• Best Instrument Technology
• Best Modeling Technology
• Best Petrochemical Technology
• Best Refining Technology
• Lifetime Achievement
• Most Promising Engineer
To RSVP or Sponsor
this Exciting Event:
Contact your Hydrocarbon
Processing representative or
Melissa Smith, Events Director,
at +1 (713) 520-4475 or
Melissa.Smith@GulfPub.com.

Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 95

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Badger Meter .....................................................54 (69) www.info.hotims.com/70514-56
www.info.hotims.com/70514-64
www.info.hotims.com/70514-69
Kobelco EDTI Compressors Inc. ............................ 33 (68) UOP LLC ..............................................................31 (71)
Clean Harbors ............................................... M–82 (82) www.info.hotims.com/70514-71
www.info.hotims.com/70514-82 www.info.hotims.com/70514-68
CUDD Energy Services ......................................... 52 (157) MAN Diesel & Turbo ............................................59 (79) Veolia Water Technologies ..................................47 (57)
www.info.hotims.com/70514-157 www.info.hotims.com/70514-79 www.info.hotims.com/70514-57
Curtiss-Wright EST Group ................................M–81 (159) Merichem Company............................................ 14 (84) Victaulic Company of America ........................ M–84 (160)
www.info.hotims.com/70514-159 www.info.hotims.com/70514-84 www.info.hotims.com/70514-160
Elliott Group ........................................................6 (54) Neste Jacobs Oy ..................................................11 (151) W.R. Grace & Co. ................................................ 57 (61)
www.info.hotims.com/70514-54 www.info.hotims.com/70514-151 www.info.hotims.com/70514-61
EMCOR ................................................................21 (78) Paratherm Heat Transfer Fluids ...........................43 (155) Wolseley Industrial Group...................................39 (81)
www.info.hotims.com/70514-78 www.info.hotims.com/70514-155 www.info.hotims.com/70514-81
ExxonMobil Chemical Company .............................5 (70) Pepperl+Fuchs ....................................................51 (156) York Process Systems ......................................... 18 (52)
www.info.hotims.com/70514-70 www.info.hotims.com/70514-156 www.info.hotims.com/70514-52
Gulf Publishing Company Prosernat ..........................................................20 (153) Zeeco Inc. .......................................................... 53 (158)
Circulation......................................................92 www.info.hotims.com/70514-153 www.info.hotims.com/70514-158
Marketplace ...................................................97 Rezel Catalysts Corp ...........................................45 (87) Zyme-Flow Decon Technology ............................40 (58)
Construction Boxscore Database ..................M-80 www.info.hotims.com/70514-87 www.info.hotims.com/70514-58
This Index and procedure for securing additional information is provided as a service to Hydrocarbon Processing advertisers and a convenience to our readers. Gulf Publishing Company is not responsible for omissions or errors.

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96 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
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Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 201897

ALISSA LEETON, CONTRIBUTING EDITOR
Alissa.Leeton@GulfPub.com
APRIL
Pipeline Opportunities
Conference, April 3,
Gulf Publishing Company Events,
Omni Galleria, Houston, Texas
P: 713-520-4450
kfrancis@uctonline.com
pipeline-opportunities.com
GPA Midstream, April 15–19,
JW Marriott Austin, Austin, Texas
gpamidstreamconvention.org
NACE Corrosion Conference
& Expo, April 15–19,
Phoenix Convention Center,
Phoenix, Arizona
P: +1 800-797-6223
nacecorrosion.org
API Spring Refining and
Equipment Standards Meeting,
April 16–19, Sheraton Seattle
Hotel, Seattle, Washington
(See box for contact information)
MCAA Industry Forum,
April 22–24, The Woodlands
Resort and Conference Center,
The Woodlands, Texas
P: +1 757-258-3100
mcaa@TheMCAA.org
themcaa.org
AIChE Spring Meeting,
April 22–26, Orlando World
Center Marriott, Orlando, Florida
P: +1 800-242-4363
www.aiche.org
STRATCO Alkylation
Best Practices Workshop,
April 23–26, Omni Amelia
Island Plantation Resort,
Amelia Island, Florida
www.dupontbpw.com
Offshore Technology Conference
(OTC), April 30–May 3,
NRG Park, Houston, Texas
P: 972-952-9494
meetings@otcnet.org
2018.otcnet.org
MAY 2018
Flowexpo, May 9–11,
China Import and Export
Fair Pazhou Complex,
Guangzhou, China
P: +1 00-86-1365-065-1020
info@flowexpo.asia
www.flowexpo.org
98 APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Oil, Gas and Chemicals
Filtration & Separation
Conference-Expo, May 9–11,
Houston Marriott Westchase,
Houston, Texas
P: 615-250-7792
afs@afssociety.org
www.regonline.com
AFPM Reliability and
Maintenance, May 22–25,
Convention Center,
San Antonio, Texas
(See box for contact information)
JUNE
LNG International Congress,
June 4–5, Mercure Hotels MOA,
Berlin, Germany
lng@bgs-group.eu
www.lngcongress.com
IRPC Europe, June 5–6,
Gulf Publishing Company Events,
Milan Marriott Hotel, Milan, Italy
HPIRPC.com/Europe
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(ILTA) International
Operating Conference
& Trade Show, June 11–13,
George R. Brown Convention
Center, Houston, Texas
P: 703-875-2011
www.ilta.org/AOCTS
ACHEMA, June 11–15, Messe
Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
P: +49 69-756-4100
www.achema.de
ASME Turbo Expo,
June 11–15, Norway Exhibition
and Convention Centre,
Lillestrøm, Norway
P: 281-810-5457
herreral@asme.org
www.asme.org
East Africa Oil & Gas
Summit (EAOGS), June 14–15,
The Intercontinental Hotel,
Nairobi, Kenya
P: +1 254-600-0823
wmwiti@eastafricanchamber.org
eaogs.com
World Gas Conference,
June 25–29, Walter E.
Washington Convention
Center, Washington, D.C.
P: +44 20-7978-0775
www.wgc2018.com
Pump Summit Americas,
June 26–27, George R. Brown
Convention Center,
Houston, Texas
P: +1 416-361-7030
d.morgan@kci-world.com
www.pumpsummitamericas.com
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Symposia, Sept. 18–20,
George R. Brown Convention
Center, Houston, Texas
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Events
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Gulf Publishing Company Events,
Houston, Texas
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Women’s Global Leadership
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Gulf Publishing Company Events,
Royal Sonesta, Houston, Texas
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NOVEMBER 2018
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P: +44 0-20-7903-2444
conferences@crugroup.com
www.events.crugroup.com
API 13th Annual Cybersecurity
Conference for the Oil &
Natural Gas Industry, Nov. 6–7,
Marriott Woodlands Waterway,
The Woodlands, Texas
(See box for contact information)
API Fall Refining and
Equipment Standards Meeting,
Nov. 12–15, Hyatt Regency
Orlando, Orlando, Florida
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DECEMBER 2018
Easyfairs, Stoc Expo Tank
Storage Germany, Dec. 5–6,
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BOB ANDREW, TECHNICAL EDITOR
Bob.Andrew@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Touchscreen purged
panels meet additional
UL and NFPA certifications
Ross Systems and Controls (SysCon)
recently completed the qualification to
self-certify its touchscreen purged panels
(FIG. 1) as meeting the rigorous standards
of Underwriters Laboratories’ UL-698A
Code and the National Fire Protection
Association’s NFPA-496 Code. UL-698A
covers industrial control panels designed
for hazardous locations, including the use
of intrinsically safe barriers. NFPA-496
standards relate to purged and pressur-
ized enclosures. Purge systems are an al-
ternative to traditional NEMA 7, 9 explo-
sion proof enclosures and are suitable for
most all hazardous locations, including:
• Class 1, Division 1 and 2 for gas
and vapor environments
• Class 2, Division 1 and 2
for dust environments.
Depending on regulatory or aesthetic
requirements, purge panel enclosures can
be NEMA 4 carbon steel or NEMA 4x
stainless steel.
Ross SysCon manufactures controls
for Ross Mixers and Blenders, as well as
other types of equipment and processes.
The recently acquired ability to self-cer-
tify enables Ross SysCon to offer UL and
NFPA labels on explosion-proof panels
at a lower price without the additional
cost for a third-party inspection. The new
certifications are in addition to UL-508A
(non-hazardous control panels), which
Ross SysCon has maintained.
Select 1 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
Hazardous location
transmitter sensors
meet global intrinsically
safe standards
LORD Sensing, Stellar Technology
has announced that its 4-20 mA Hazard-
ous Location Transmitter Sensors now
meet the latest global intrinsically safe
standards (FIG. 2). Certified to CSA and
ATEX certifications since 2004 and with
Innovations
more than 10,000 transmitters already in
use, the new IECEx certification provides
users, no matter their location, with a
global solution that has product perfor-
mance and reliability. This new certifica-
tion allows customers with a global reach
to benefit from a reduced inventory since
they can stock fewer part numbers.
The new certification expands LORD
Sensing’s intrinsically safe offering to near-
ly all pressure, temperature, load/force/
torque and external 4-20 mA transmitter
amplifier designs using a single set of uni-
versal electronics. The upgraded electron-
ics platform provides improved EMI im-
munity for noisier applications like drilling
and fracking. The new electronics filtering FIG. 1. Purged NEMA 4 cabinet meeting UL,
ensures low noise signals in the harshest NFPA intrinsic safety
environments without sacrificing mea-
surement fidelity and signal bandwidth.
Select 2 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
Testing tools for tube
leak detection in
heat exchangers,
condensers and boilers
Curtiss-Wright EST Group has re-
leased its G-160 Tube Testing Tools for FIG. 2. Hazardous location transmission
leak detection in heat exchangers, con- sensors available globally
densers and boilers. The new ergonomic
design features simple one-handed push- is ever needed for gasoline, diesel fuel, jet
button actuation, patent-pending grippers fuel or other refined petroleum products.
and durable lightweight cast-aluminum The latest improvement to the Red
housing. Up to 10 tubes per minute can Goose focuses on easy maintenance. The
be tested using less force, which increas- Red Goose v2 has been designed with a
es operator safety. G-160 Tube Testing unique “through valve” mounting when
Tools are capable of testing tubes ranging installed. This allows complete mainte-
from 0.28 in.–1.81 in. (7.1 mm–46 mm). nance or removal, totally independent of
Select 3 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS pipeline operations. In addition, an easy
retractable scoop is used during pigging
Pipeline inline sampling or scraping operations. If the scoop is
not retracted, a spring-loaded pivot will
system provides allow the pig to push the scoop out of
easy maintenance the way and the product sampling can
Originally developed for areas where quickly resume.
pumps could not be used, the Red Goose The Dynatrol Red Goose v2 combines
uses product velocity to sample petro- with the company’s pipeline pressure-
leum products from pipelines at flowing rated Density Cell v2 to obtain double-
conditions. The systems consists of no sealed protection against leaks.
moving parts during operation. No pump Select 4 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
Hydrocarbon Processing | APRIL 2018 98-A
MIKE RHODES, MANAGING EDITOR
Mike.Rhodes@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
R.L. (Randy) Jespersen
has been appointed
Executive Chairman,
Pipeline, for Steelhead
LNG, and will sit on its
board of directors.
Mr. Jespersen’s career
began with Dome
Petroleum, followed by
Amoco in Calgary and
Houston, Texas. In 1996,
he joined Terasen Inc.
(now FortisBC), where he
held various senior roles,
including VP of gas supply.
Mr. Jespersen assumed
the role of President and
CEO of Terasen Gas in
2002 until his retirement
in 2010. Mr. Jespersen
has also served as chair
of both the Canadian
Gas Association and the
Western Energy Institute.
Mark W. Albers, Senior VP
of Exxon Mobil Corp. has
retired after more than 38
yr of service. Throughout
his career, which began
with Exxon USA in 1979,
Mr. Albers held a variety
of senior managerial
positions in development,
operations, production
and engineering.
Porvair Filtration Group
has named Roberto
Malagoli as the new
Business Development
Manager for Southern
Europe. Mr. Malagoli
has more than 25 yr of
experience in the filtration
and process sectors, and
will support customers in
the original equipment
manufacturers (OEM),
chemical process, printing,
pharmaceutical, and food
and beverage sectors.
98–B APRIL 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
The Weir Group PLC
has appointed Graham
Vanhegan as Chief
Legal Officer (CLO) and
Company Secretary.
He joins Weir from
international exploration
and production company
ConocoPhillips, where his
roles have included Deputy
General Counsel and VP
of business development.
He will be a member of
Weir’s Group Executive,
will also lead the Group’s
corporate business
development function.
Motion Industries Inc.’s
parent company, Genuine
Parts Co. (GPC), has named
Motion Industries President
and CEO Tim Breen as
its 2017 GPC Manager
of the Year. He became
Executive VP and COO for
US operations in 2011, and
was named President in
2013 before becoming the
company’s President and
CEO the following year.
McDermott International,
Inc. (NYSE:MDR) and
Chicago Bridge & Iron
Company N.V. have
selected the executive
leadership team and
integrated organizational
structure of the combined
company, effective
upon the close of the
transaction. David
Dickson, President and
CEO for McDermott
will continue in that
role for the combined
company; Stuart Spence,
Executive VP and CFO
for McDermott, will also
continue in that role for
the combined company.
The DowDuPont board of
directors has appointed
Jim Fitterling, the former
COO for the Materials
Science Division of
DowDuPont, and President
and COO of The Dow
Chemical Co., to the role
of CEO of the intended
Materials Science Co.,
to be called Dow, upon
intended separation of
the company. Additionally,
Howard Ungerleider, CFO
of DowDuPont, and Vice
Chairman and CFO for
The Dow Chemical Co.,
will serve as President
and CFO of the intended
Materials Science Co.
Both will continue to
serve in their present
roles at DowDuPont
until the completion of
the division’s intended
separation, which is
expected by 2Q 2019.
Marathon Petroleum Corp.
has appointed Kristina A.
Kazarian as VP of investor
relations. Ms. Kazarian
will serve as a corporate
officer for both MPC and
MPLX, the master limited
partner sponsored by
MPC, and report to MPC
Chairman and CEO Gary
R. Heminger. Ms. Kazarian
previously served as
Managing Director of MLP,
Midstream and Refiners
Equity Research at Credit
Suisse. Prior to that role,
she was Managing Director
of MLP and Midstream
Equity Research at
Deutsche Bank AG. Her
career began at Fidelity
Management & Research
Co., where she served as
an analyst specializing in
various energy subsectors.
Alfa Laval Inc. has
appointed Jo Vanhoren as
President and CEO, as well
as President of Alfa Laval’s
North American “cluster.”
Previous appointments
include General Manager
for Alfa Laval’s Air
Business Center; Managing
Director of Alfa Laval
Iberica (Spain and
Portugal); and President
of the Southern Europe
“cluster” in 2017.
The Society of Protective
Coatings (SSPC) has
honored Carboline with
two awards. Carboline
Technical Director of
Innovation Mary Roley,
who has been with the
company for more than
27 yr, received the Women
in Coatings Impact Award,
which recognizes women
who have contributed
to creating a positive
impact on the culture of
the coatings industry. The
company also received the
George Campbell Award,
which recognizes a single
outstanding achievement
in the completion of
a difficult or complex
industrial coatings project.
Porvair Filtration Group
has enhanced its position
in South Asia with the
appointment of a National
Sales Representative,
Harish Shah. Mr. Shah
has more than 28 yr of
expertise in the filtration
industry, and will oversee
growth in the OEM and
process markets, focusing
on chemical process,
pharmaceutical, polymer
melt and inkjet.
People
Frans B. Roozendaal
joined the management
board at Frames in
March 2018, and will
replace Jacques Melman
as CEO, who will continue
to serve Frames as COO.
Together with Ronald
Vochteloo, who has been
CFO since 2016, they will
form the management
board at Frames.
The National Association of
Manufacturers (NAM) has
made two appointments.
James Metcalf, chairman
of the board for NCI
Building Systems Inc., and
Leandro Lecheta, chief
operating officer (COO),
NAFTA, CNH Industrial,
have been named to the
NAM board of directors.
Technical Toolboxes has
appointed Drew Lafleur
as Chief Technology
Officer. He acquired
more than a decade of
experience in a range of
engineering roles within
ConocoPhillips.
The Turbomachinery
Laboratory, a center of the
Texas A&M Engineering
Experiment Station
(TEES) and part of The
Texas A&M University
System, has named
Dr. Eric Petersen as its
new director. Dr. Petersen’s
research encompasses
gas dynamics, propulsion,
combustion, shock
waves, chemical kinetics,
optical diagnostics and
spectroscopy, laminar
and turbulent flames,
and rocket combustion.
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Select 51 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
 Technology and Business Information for the Global Gas Processing Industry

GasProcessingNews.com | MARCH/APRIL 2018

UNCONVENTIONAL
GAS PROCESSING
Challenges and opportunities for equation-based hydrates prediction
TREATING TECHNOLOGY
Proper regeneration of molecular sieves in TSA processes
TURBOMACHINERY
Supervision of gas turbine speed and axial load
to control exhaust temperature

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 EDITORIAL COMMENT
CONTENTS
At CERAWeek by IHS Markit, held GasProcessingNews.com | MARCH/APRIL 2018
in Houston in March, IEA Director Fatih
Birol said that the world would soon see a
major second wave of shale gas production
from the US in response to higher energy
prices and growing demand from India and
China. However, the issue remains that US
shale plays (FIG. 1) will require infrastruc-
A. BLUME, ture buildout to continue pumping at high
Editor rates. Infrastructure companies tradition-
ally require a commitment of 30 yr or more
to build a pipeline, but rapid decline rates for shale wells or the
exit of drillers from a region can impact pipeline utilization rates.
The IEA expects capital investment in shale drilling over the next
5 yr to significantly impact future production volumes. GP
25

SPECIAL FOCUS: UNCONVENTIONAL

GAS PROCESSING
11 Challenges and opportunities
for equation-based hydrates prediction
C. Bahubali, A. Gopalan and G. B. Nounchi

TREATING TECHNOLOGY
19 Proper regeneration of molecular sieves
in TSA processes—Part 2
S. Jain

LNG
FIG. 1. US shale plays. Source: US EIA.
25 Go East, young man: Eastern Canada
offers viability for LNG projects—Part 2
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Mozambique and Tanzania’s drive
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Egyptian firm
to buy $15 B of
Israeli natural gas
An Egyptian company will
buy $15 B of Israeli natural
gas, as announced in two 10-yr
agreements, a major deal that
Israel hopes will strengthen
diplomatic ties.
The partners in Israel’s
Tamar and Leviathan offshore
gas fields said they would
supply the private Egyptian firm
Dolphinus Holdings with around
64 Bm3 of gas over a decade.
Half of the supply will come from
each field, and the proceeds will
be shared equally.
Israel’s Prime Minister,
Benjamin Netanyahu, said the
agreements would “…strengthen
our economy (and) strengthen
regional ties.” Israel’s energy
minister, Yuval Steinitz, called
it the most significant export
deal with Egypt since the
neighbors signed their historic
peace treaty in 1979.
Israel’s Delek Group Ltd.
and Texas-based Noble Energy
Inc. have led both gas projects.
Leviathan, located about 80
mi (130 km) west of Haifa, was
discovered in December 2010
and is scheduled to start
producing by the end of 2019.
Exports from Tamar, which
began production in 2013,
are expected to start sometime
between the second half of
2020 and the end of 2021.
Delek characterized Dolphinus
as a natural gas trading
company that plans to supply
large industrial and commercial
consumers in Egypt. It added that
Egypt had amended regulations
to allow private groups to import
gas. The companies did not
specify when supplies to Egypt
would start, and the delivery
method has yet to be settled.
Egyptian Petroleum Minister
Tarek El Molla told the private
Egyptian television channel ON E
that outstanding disputes would
need to be resolved before the
deal could be finalized. Molla’s
comments refer to Egypt’s
challenge to a 2015 ruling by
the International Chamber of
Commerce ordering Egypt to
pay $2 B in compensation, after
a deal to export gas to Israel, via
pipeline, collapsed in 2012 due to
months of attacks by insurgents
on Egypt’s Sinai peninsula.
4 MARCH/APRIL 2018 | GasProcessingNews.com
GAS PROCESSING NEWS
B. ANDREW, Technical Editor
BP energy outlook: Gas demand increase through switching
In its 2018 Energy Bcf/d Gas consumption by sector Gas share by sector
Outlook, BP sees natural
gas growing strongly,
600
Industry
50%
Transport Industry
supported by broad Non-combusted Non-combusted Buildings
demand, marked increases 500 Power
40%
Power
in low-cost supplies, and
Buildings
the continuing expansion in 400
30%
LNG supplies increasing the Transport
global availability of gas. 300
In BP’s “evolving 20%
transition” scenario, natural 200
gas growth is supported
by a number of factors: 100
10%
increasing levels of
industrialization and power 0 0%
demand (particularly in 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040
emerging Asia and Africa);
continued coal-to-gas switching (especially in China); and the increasing availability of low-cost supplies
(in North America and the Middle East).
The US and the Middle East (Qatar and Iran) will contribute more than half of the incremental production.
By 2040, the US is expected to account for almost 25% of global gas production, ahead of both the
Middle East and the CIS (each accounting for around 20%).
Global LNG supplies more than double over the Outlook, with approximately 40% of that expansion
occurring over the next 5 yr.
The sustained growth in global LNG supplies will greatly increase the availability of gas around the world,
with LNG volumes overtaking inter-regional pipeline shipments in the early 2020s.
LNG market needs $200-B investment AGA to host Young
to meet demand Professionals
Program at
2018 WGC
The American Gas Association
(AGA) will host a Young
Professionals Program during
the 27th annual World Gas
Conference (WGC), to be held
June 25–29 in Washington DC.
The program provides
an excellent opportunity for
promising young professionals
In its 2018 LNG Outlook, Royal Dutch Shell forecast that more than in the energy sector to learn from
$200 B of investment in LNG is needed to meet a boom in demand top leaders in the natural gas
by 2030. industry and network with their
The LNG market is set to continue its rapid expansion into 2020 peers from around the world.
as facilities approved for construction in the first half of the decade
The agenda will include
come online. The new developments are expected to easily meet
engaging panel discussions on
sharp growth in LNG consumption.
critical industry issues, such as
While LNG demand is expected to expand from 293 MMtpy in 2017
preparing for an evolving career,
to approximately 500 MMtpy by 2030, supplies are seen slipping to
recruiting the next generation
300 MMtpy due to a lack of new projects and natural declines in
of industry leaders, and global
existing production.
perspectives on the future of
natural gas.
Anadarko announces Mozambique Additionally, participants
LNG agreement will benefit from access to the
WGC exhibition hall, where will
Anadarko announced that they will have the opportunity
Mozambique LNG1 Co. Pte. Ltd., for one-on-one interactions with
the jointly-owned sales entity exhibitors from across the globe.
of the Mozambique Area 1 To date, the following
co-venturers, has entered into a speakers have confirmed their
long-term LNG sale and purchase participation:
agreement (SPA) with Électricité • David Carroll, President,
de France SA (EDF). The offtake International Gas Union
agreement calls for the supply of 1.2 MMtpy of LNG for a term of 15 yr. • Daniel Yergin, Vice
The Anadarko-operated Mozambique LNG project will be Chairman, IHS Markit
Mozambique’s first onshore LNG development, initially consisting of • Ryan Lance, Chairman and
two LNG trains with a total nameplate capacity of 12.88 MMtpy. Chief Executive Officer,
The project will support the development of the Golfinho/Atum fields. ConocoPhillips.
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 GAS PROCESSING NEWS
B. ANDREW, Technical Editor

Dominion’s Southern Gas Corridor to Europe touts energy security

Cove Point LNG
begins operations
On March 9, the Dominion
Energy Cove Point LNG facility
in Maryland exported its first
LNG cargo during its final stage
of commissioning. The cargo
was loaded on Royal Dutch
Shell’s LNG carrier, Gemmata,
which has a capacity of 3 Bft3.
Its destination and buyer were
not reported. The Federal Energy
Regulatory Committee (FERC)
granted approval for Cove Point
to officially begin commercial
operations on March 5.
Cove Point has a design
capacity to liquefy up to 0.75
Bft3d of natural gas. The gas is
sourced from the high-producing
Marcellus and Utica shale plays.
Cove Point is the only LNG export
facility on the US East Coast
and the second export facility
operating in the Lower 48 states
after Sabine Pass in Louisiana,
which began commercial
operations in 2016.
The fourth ministerial meeting
of the Southern Gas Corridor
(SGC) advisory council was
recently held in Baku, Azerbaijan.
European Commission (EC)
Vice President for Energy Union,
Maros Sefcovic, said that the EU
is ready to discuss Iran’s wish
to join the SGC with all partners
of the project. Sefcovic further
noted that for Iranian gas to be
delivered to Europe, necessary
infrastructures should be
provided in the country.
The SGC is an initiative of the
EC for natural gas supply from
the Caspian and Middle Eastern
regions to Europe. The goals of
the SGC are to reduce Europe’s
dependency on Russian gas and add diverse sources of energy supply.
The route from Azerbaijan to Europe consists of the South Caucasus Pipeline, the Trans-Anatolian
Pipeline and the Trans-Adriatic Pipeline. The total investment of this route is estimated at $45 B.
Novatek looks to Saudi Aramco for Arctic LNG-2
Russia’s Novatek is interested in Saudi Aramco joining the Arctic LNG-2 plant as a partner, according to the
Russian gas producer’s head, Leonid Mikhelson. The interest highlights the growing ties between Russia and
Saudi Arabia. Without disclosing details, Novatek—which is Russia’s largest non-state natural gas producer—
and Saudi Aramco said that they have signed a memorandum on cooperation. Both countries have been
instrumental in implementing a global pact on cutting oil production by almost 1.8 MMbpd. Novatek plans to
launch its second LNG project in the nearby Gydan peninsula in 2022–2023.

HONORING INNOVATION

IN THE DOWNSTREAM August 30, 2018 | Houstonian Hotel | Houston, Texas

Awards Nominations Close April 12th

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annual Hydrocarbon Processing Awards. 2018 Award Categories include:

PROJECT OR TECHNOLOGY OUR PEOPLE AWARDS

• Best Automation Technology
• Best Catalyst Technology
• Best “Digitalization”
• Best Flow Control Technology
• Best Gas Processing Technology
• Best HSE in a Project
• Best Instrument Technology
• Best Modeling Technology
• Best Petrochemical Technology
• Best Refining Technology
• Lifetime Achievement
• Most Promising Engineer
To RSVP or Sponsor
this Exciting Event:
Contact your Hydrocarbon
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6 MARCH/APRIL
VISIT HY 2018 | GasProcessingNews.com
DROCARBONPROCESSI NG.COM/AWARDS FOR MORE INFORMATION
 US INDUSTRY METRICS
A. BLUME, Editor

According to data from the EIA’s Petroleum Supply Monthly

publication, released in February, US production of natural gas
plant liquids (NGL) increased for the 12th straight year in 2017.
Output climbed to a record 3.74 MMbpd, representing a 6.4%
INNOVATIVE VALVE TECHNOLOGY
increase over 2016 volumes. The EIA also forecast in its Short- ENGINEERED + PATENTED
Term Energy Outlook that NGL production will increase by 15%
this year as the ethane market continues to expand. If realized,
QUARTER TURN MECHANICAL SEAL
this expansion would be the second-highest rise recorded after ZERO LEAKAGE
the 16% increase seen in 2014. GP ON/OFF & FLOW CONTROL
PROTECTED SEAT DESIGN
US gas production (Bcfd) and prices ($/Mcf)
PIGGABLE DESIGNS
100 7 100
CARTRIDGE FEATURE REDUCES DOWNTIME
6
80
5
HIGH TEMPERATURE/METAL SEAT 80

Gas prices, $/Mcf

Production, Bcfd

Production, Bcfd
60 4 2”-24” 60

40 3 40
Monthly price (Henry Hub) 2
20 12-month price avg. 20
Production 1
0 0 0
D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F
2015 2016 2017 2018
Production equals U.S. marketed production, wet gas. Source: EIA.

US natural gas spot prices at Henry Hub DOWNSTREAM

and NGL spot prices at Mont Belvieu, $/MMBtu SEAT
25
UPSTREAM 25
Natural gasoline SEAT
Isobutane
20 Butane 20
NGPL composite
Propane
Ethane
15 Natural gas spot prices (Henry Hub) 15
DOUBLE BLOCK & BLEED/DIB
$/MMBtu

$/MMBtu
10 “VERIFIABLE SHUTOFF” VALVE 10

DOUBLE BLOCK AVAILABLE

5 IN HIGH TEMP 5

0 0
Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar.
2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2018 2018 2018
Source: US EIA

US natural gas plant field production of NGL,

LPG, ethane and propane, Mbpd
50 40

35
US gas plant field production, Mbpd
US gas plant field production, Mbpd

40
30

30 25
NGL 15B S TRADE CENTER PKWY, CONROE, TX 77385
LPG
Ethane/ethylene PH (936) 539-5770 FAX (936) 539-2990 20
20 Propane/propylene
EMAIL SALES@CHROMATICINDUSTRIES.COM 15

10
WWW.CHROMATICINDUSTRIES.COM 10
Dec.- Jan.- Feb.- Mar.- April- May- June- July- Aug.- Sept.- Oct.- Nov.- Dec.-
2016 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 API & ISO CERTIFIED
Source: US EIA

Gas Processing | MARCH/APRIL 2018 7

14JULY/AUGUST 2017 | GasProcessingNews.com
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Mozambique and Tanzania’s drive
to monetize natural gas resources
Mozambique and Tanzania hold an
estimated 180 Tft3 and 57 Tft3 of proven
natural gas reserves, respectively. Al-
though the countries are two of Africa’s
biggest holders of proven natural gas re-
serves, they are grappling with uncertain-
ties surrounding hydrocarbon industry
regulations and a prolonged cycle of low
oil and gas prices. These circumstances
have forced Mozambique and Tanzania
to postpone key natural gas monetiza-
tion projects.
Mozambique instated its New Petro-
leum Law in 2015 to replace regulations
established in 2004 and updated in 2008;
however, many specifics of the law are still
unclear. In a similar scenario, Tanzania’s
recently approved oil and gas laws provide
no clear roadmap on production, com-
mercial processing, liquefaction, transpor-
tation, storage or distribution of its natural
gas resources.
Tanzania’s regulations also pose a
threat to new investment, as the govern-
ment insists that the laws be applied retro-
actively. This would give the government
the power to renegotiate already-signed
contracts, and even to throw out those
contracts not favoring national interests.
LNG plans face challenges. The imple-
mentation of the new laws comes at a time
when international oil and gas companies
operating in the two countries are at dif-
ferent stages of developing two separate
gas liquefaction export projects worth a
collective $37 B.
A late-2016 report on Tanzania’s hy-
drocarbon sector by industry research
firm Business Monitor International
stated, “Several key fiscal and regulatory
uncertainties remain, including those
relating to taxation, domestic supply ob-
ligations and local content requirements
… Further clarification will be needed
before a final investment decision can be
taken [on an LNG project].”
REGIONAL FOCUS
S. OIRERE, Contributing Writer
A consortium of ExxonMobil, Statoil,
Ophir, Shell and Tanzania Petroleum De-
velopment Corp. has agreed to develop a
10-metric-MMtpy onshore LNG export
facility valued at $30 B. The facility would
be built near the coastal city of Lindi in
southeastern Tanzania. The consortium
signed a draft agreement on the develop-
ment of the project in early 2017, although
the estimated completion and startup
dates have been moved several times.
Under the initial proposal, the project
was to be commenced in 1Q 2017 and
completed in 2024, but it is unlikely that
this deadline will be met. Analysts believe
it will take at least 5 yr for the project to
reach a final investment decision, and an-
other 5 yr to build the multibillion-dollar
LNG terminal.
Gas gains in the power sector. Tan-
zania is scaling up consumption of do-
mestic natural gas by expanding its gas-
fired electricity generation capacity. The
country plans to develop 2,000 MW of
new, gas-fired power plants by 2018.
However, compared to its neighbor,
Mozambique, development of Tanza-
nia’s natural gas resources is still in its
nascent phase, despite the modest prog-
ress achieved in the sector. Mozambique
holds an estimated 180 Tft3 of recover-
able natural gas resources, mostly in the
northern Rovuma basin.
Since 2015, Mozambique has provid-
ed a clearer regulatory framework for its
natural gas development program, with
the introduction of new petroleum laws
that apply to new concessions, new inves-
tors and international oil companies keen
to expand their operations in the country.
Project development plans submitted
by international oil companies for gov-
ernment approval must have a clause that
commits to the allocation of 25% of the oil
or gas produced for domestic consump-
tion. Unlike in Tanzania, Mozambique’s
new petroleum laws do not apply to pre-
vious contracts or concessions. As an ex-
ample, this is why South African petro-
chemical giant Sasol—the sole natural gas
producer in Mozambique at present, with
production capacity of 135 Bft3 of natu-
ral gas at the Pande and Temane onshore
fields—can allocate only 18 Bft3 (approxi-
mately 13%) of its total yield for domes-
tic consumption. Sasol exports the rest to
South Africa through an 862-km pipeline.
In addition, Mozambique’s govern-
ment has explained the procedures for
the sale of associated and nonassociated
gas, and what will happen if a concession
holder decides not to carry out the sale.
The law also creates a decommissioning
fund, and explains how interest in a con-
cession can be transferred and how a con-
cession is managed.
Upstream endeavors. Two interna-
tional exploration and production (E&P)
companies—Italy’s Eni SpA and Texas-
based Anadarko Petroleum Corp.—have
announced major discoveries in offshore
Blocks 1 and 4. After oil and gas prices
stabilize, it is expected that more inter-
national oil and gas companies will be
encouraged to seek E&P opportunities in
Mozambique, especially with the more oil
and gas investment-friendly regulations.
Even with the old petroleum laws, a
conducive environment has existed for
mergers and acquisitions in Mozam-
bique’s upstream sector. For example, the
laws accommodated the entry of lead-
ing Asian national oil companies, such
as Petronas of Malaysia, Mitsui of Japan,
CNPC of China, ONGC Videsh of India
and PTTEP of Thailand. Other partners
in Mozambique’s Rovuma basin conces-
sion areas include Bharat Petroleum Re-
sources Ventures, Tullow, Wentworth Re-
sources and Maurel & Prom.
Anadarko, the operator of offshore
Block 1 (26.5% working interest) has
Gas Processing | MARCH/APRIL 2018 9
REGIONAL FOCUS

made modest progress. It announced in
July 2017 that it had signed an agreement
with Mozambique’s government for the
FIG. 1. Location of the Anadarko-led
consortium’s proposed Mozambique
LNG terminal. Source: Mozambique LNG.
design, building and operation of marine
facilities for its proposed, two-train LNG
project (FIG. 1).
The US oil and gas E&P company,
which has partnered in Block 1 with Em-
presa Nacional de Hidrocarbonetos EP,
Mitsui E&P Mozambique Area 1 Ltd.,
ONGC Videsh Ltd., Bharat PetroRe-
sources Ltd., PTT Exploration & Produc-
tion Plc. and Oil India Ltd., is developing
the first onshore LNG plant with a capac-
ity of 12 metric MMtpy.
FLNG in Mozambique. Italy’s Eni, the
operator of Area 4, has made substantial
progress in the commercialization of Mo-
zambique’s natural gas resources.
In September 2017, Eni picked RINA
Services as the preferred certification au-
thority for the design and fabrication of
subsea structures and equipment for its
$7-B Coral South FLNG unit, which is
part of Eni’s Coral South Development
Project. RINA will also provide techno-
logical validation services for the project.
The 3.4-metric-MMtpy FLNG unit, the
first in Africa and the third globally, will
be installed in the south part of Area 4 off-
shore Mozambique, in the deep waters of
the Rovuma basin.
In June 2017, Eni said that the FLNG
project will be financed through a project
finance structure that will cover approxi-
mately 60% ($4.7 B) of its cost, making it
the first FLNG unit to be financed in this
way. At least 15 major international banks
and five export credit agencies have sub-
scribed to the financing agreement. GP
SHEM OIRERE is a
freelance journalist
based in Nairobi, Kenya.
He has spent more than
10 yr covering various
sectors of Africa’s
economy, and has had
numerous articles
published in several
international publications
and websites. Previously,
Mr. Oirere worked
for Kenyan national newspapers, including the
Daily Nation, Kenya Times and People Daily,
where he served in various capacities as
correspondent, business reporter and sub-editor.
He earned a higher degree in journalism from the
London School of Journalism, and is also a member
of the Association of Business Executives (ABE).

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Challenges and opportunities
for equation-based hydrates prediction
C. BAHUBALI and A. GOPALAN, WOOD AMEC Foster Wheeler Ltd., Chennai, India;
and G. B. NOUNCHI, WOOD AMEC Foster Wheeler and Partners Engineering Co., Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia
Gas hydrates may form in any location
where free gas, water, and the appropriate
temperature and pressure exist, such as
in natural gas production, transportation
and processing systems. Hydrates may
form and partially or completely constrict
the gas flowrate in the well bottom zone
of a layer; in the fountain tubing column
or the annular space of a well bore; in well
top pipes or near well top equipment; in
field pipelines and installations; in trans-
port gas pipelines and product pipelines;
or in underground gas storage systems.
The cost to the hydrocarbon process-
ing industry to mitigate the formation of
gas hydrates is estimated to represent 5%–
8% of total plant cost. In a survey of 110
companies, flow assurance was listed as the
biggest problem in offshore energy devel-
opment. Deep Star, a consortium of com-
panies focused on Gulf of Mexico deep-
water development technology issues, has
concluded that replacement of hydrates-
plugged lines in deepwater environments
may cost an average of $1 MM/mi.1
This article explains the various meth-
ods of hydrates prediction, and examines
empirical equations with experimental
data and hydrates formation conditions
during gas expansion. It also outlines the
technical challenges of predicting hy-
drates formation conditions.
Hydrates background. Gas hydrates
are solid crystalline compounds wherein
guest molecules are trapped, in a cage-like
framework of the host molecules, without
forming a chemical bond. As a result of
its hydrogen (H2) bond, water can form
hydrates. The H2 bond causes water mol-
ecules to align in regular orientations. The
presence of certain compounds causes
the aligned molecules to stabilize, and a
solid mixture precipitates.
The water molecules are referred to as
SPECIAL FOCUS: UNCONVENTIONAL
GAS PROCESSING
the host molecules, and the other com- Structure I gas hydrates are formed
pounds, which stabilize the crystals, are when cavities link together through their
called the guest molecules. The hydrates vertices. Since dodecahedra are unable
crystals have complex, three-dimensional to pack together precisely, a tetradecahe-
structures in which the water molecules
Size (A) Hydrate former Cavities occupied
form cages. The guest molecules are
trapped in these cages. The stabilization 3
resulting from the guest molecule entrap- No hydrates
ment is thought to be caused by Van der
Waals forces, which describe the attraction
between molecules that is not the result
of electrostatic attraction. The H2 bond
Ar
is different from Van der Waals forces in
that it is attributed to strong electrostatic Kr 512 + 512 64
4 Structure II
attraction; however, some still classify the
N2
H2 bond as a Van der Waals force. 5⅔ H2O
No bonding occurs between the guest O2
and host molecules in gas hydrates. The CH4
guest molecules rotate freely inside the
cages built up from the host molecules. Xe H2S
This rotation has been measured by spec- 512 + 512 62
5¾ H2O
troscopic means. No hydrates without 5 Structure I
guest molecules have been found in nature. CO2
Clathrates (inclusion compounds) are
stabilized by the weak attractive interac-
tions between the guest and water mole- C2H6 512 + 62
cules. However, the guest species have size 7⅔ H2O Structure I
restrictions. This arises from the fact that C-C3H6
there are a limited number of cage types 6
that encapsulate guest molecules without (CH2)3 O
deviation of the ideal H2 bond lengths C3H6
and angles. The cages are not necessarily
dependent on the temperature and pres- Iso-C4H10
sure of the guest compound being in equi- 512 + 64
librium with clathrate hydrates.2,3 17 H2O
Structure II
The formation of hydrates requires
three prerequisites: 7
1. Low temperature and high pressure n-C4H10
2. Presence of hydrates formers, such No SI or SII
hydrates
as CH4, C2H4, CO2 and H2S
3. A sufficient amount of water.2
Hydrates structures.4 The possible
types of hydrates structures are described FIG. 1. Comparison of guest molecule sizes
and cavities occupied.3
in the following sections.
Gas Processing | MARCH/APRIL 2018 11
SPECIAL FOCUS: UNCONVENTIONAL GAS PROCESSING

TABLE 1. Elements present in different types of gas hydrates

Hydrate structure type and characteristics
Structure I, all cavities filled
Structure I, small cavities empty
Structure II, small cavities empty
Substances forming gas hydrates when
in the presence of a strong hydrate former
Elements present
Argon, krypton, xenon, nitrogen, oxygen, methane, ethane, ethyne, carbon dioxide, carbon
disulfide, carbonyl sulfide, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen selenide, phosphine, nitrous oxide,
fluoromethane, difluoromethane, trifluoromethane, tetrafluoromethane
Chlorine, bromine, bromine chloride, chlorine dioxide, sulfur dioxide, arsine, methyl mercaptan,
ethane, bromomethane, chloromethane, chlorofluoromethane, chlorodifluoromethane,
fluoroethane, ethylene oxide, cyclopropane
Sulfur hexafluoride, ethane, propane, propene, cyclopropane, 2-methylpropane, cyclopentane,
cyclopentene, dimethyl ether, nitromethane, dichloromethane, chloroform, chloroethane,
1,1-dichloroethane, 1,2-dichloroethane, iodomethane, 1,1-difluoroethane, fluoroethane,
bromoethane, bromodifluoroethane, bromotrifluoroethane, dibromodifluoroethane,
fluorodichloromethane, fluorotrichloromethane, difluorodichloromethane, 1-chloro-1,1-
difluoroethane, difluorobromochloromethane, chloroethene
Radon, n-butane, 2-methylbutane, cyclopentane, methylcyclopentane, benzene, chloropicrin
(trichloronitromethane), dimethylsulfide, carbontetrachloride, trichlorobromomethane,
dibromomethane, 1,2-dichloroethane, 1,1,2-trichloroethane, 1,1,1,2-tetrachloroethane,
1,1,1-trifluoro-2-chloroethane, bromoethane, 1,2-dibromoethane, iodoethane, 1,1-dichloroethene,
1,1,2-trichloroethene, 1,1,2-trifluoroethene, bromoethene, 1,1-dibromoethene, iodoethene,
1-chloropropane, 1-bromopropane, 2-bromopropane, allylchloride (3-chloropropene),
allylbromide (3-bromopropene), 2-chlorobutane, 2-bromobutane

50 Structure I gas hydrates have a simple

40 structure, made from two types of cag-
es—a dodecahedron and a tetradecahe-
30 dron. A dodecahedron is a 12-sided poly-
hedron where each face is a pentagon. A
20
tetradecahedron is a 14-sided polyhedron
with 12 pentagonal faces and two hexago-
nal faces. Dodecahedron cages are smaller
10 than tetradecahedron cages.
Stable hydrates can form without a
guest molecule occupying all of the cages.
5 The degree of saturation is a function of
temperature and pressure. The actual
Pressure, MPa

composition of hydrates is not the theo-

3 retical composition. The theoretical for-
Methane mula for hydrates is X × 5 (3/4H2O), where
2 X is the hydrates former. If the guest mol-
ecules occupy only large cages, then the
formula for hydrates is X × 7 (2/3H2O).
Structure II gas hydrates are formed
1 0.6
when the pentagonal dodecahedron cavi-
ties link together through face sharing. As
0.7
a result of this arrangement, a hexadeca-
0.5 0.8 hedron—a polyhedron with 12 pentago-
0.9 nal and four hexagonal faces—is created.
0.3 The hexadecahedron has a cubic cell
1.0 GG constant of 17°A, and 136 water mol-
0.2 ecules are associated in each cell. These
263 268 273 278 283 288 293
Temperature, K form 16 small and eight relatively large
cavities. A hexadecahedron is constructed
FIG. 2. The gas gravity method of hydrates prediction.5 from two types of cages—a dodecahe-
dron cage and a hexadecahedron cage.
dron—a polyhedron with 12 pentagonal Each tetradecahedron has a cubic cell Dodecahedron cages are smaller than the
and two hexagonal faces—is created. constant of 12°A. Forty-six molecules tetradecahedron cages.
Oxygen (O2) atoms of these water mol- of water constitute the unit cell, two of If the guest molecule occupies all of
ecules are arranged in such a manner that which are small and contain only one the cages, then the theoretical formula for
two pentagonal dodecahedra and six tet- guest molecule. The other six cavities can hydrates is X × 5 (2/3H2O), where X is the
radecahedra are formed. house relatively larger molecules. hydrates former. If the guest molecule oc-
12 MARCH/APRIL 2018 | GasProcessingNews.com
 SPECIAL FOCUS: UNCONVENTIONAL GAS PROCESSING

cupies only large cages, then the theoreti-
cal composition is X × 17H2O.
Structure H gas hydrates are less
common than either Structure I or Struc-
ture II hydrates. Structure H hydrates re-
quire small molecules, such as methane
and a type H former. They are construct-
ed of three types of cages—a regular do-
decahedron; an irregular dodecahedron
with three square faces, six pentagonal
faces and three hexagonal faces; and an
irregular icosahedron, a 20-sided polyhe-
dron with 12 pentagonal faces and eight
hexagonal faces. A Structure H hydrate
contains 34 water molecules.
The theoretical formula is Y × 5X ×
34H2O. Here, X represents the small mol-
ecule that enters only small cages, and Y
represents the large molecule that enters
only large cages. In Structure H hydrates,
the largest cage can accommodate up to
five argon atoms.
FIG. 1 shows a comparison of guest
molecule sizes and cavities occupied.3
TABLE 1 lists the elements present in dif-
ferent types of gas hydrates.
Hydrate prediction. The following sec-
tions explain the various methods of hy-
drates prediction for different kinds of gas
hydrates.
Gas gravity method. The gas gravity
method (FIG. 2) is used to predict gas hy-
drates forming conditions. This method
is mentioned in the Gas Processors Sup-
pliers Association (GPSA) Engineering
Data Book. The GPSA gas gravity meth-
od is accurate up to 65°; beyond that, it
slightly overestimates the temperature.
Gas gravity is defined as the molecu-
lar weight of the gas divided by the mo-
lecular weight of air. To use this chart,
the gas gravity is calculated for the lowest
temperature of the pipeline or the process
specified. The pressure at which hydrates
form is read directly from the chart at the
appropriate intersection of gas gravity
and temperature.
The chart is available for gas gravities
of 0.6 to 1. If the point is on the top left
side of the graph for the corresponding
temperature, pressure and gas gravity,
then it is in the hydrates region. If the
such as butane and isobutane, then the timates the hydrates formation tempera-
method may estimate the same hydrates ture within 1.7°C, giving an advantage
formation temperature or pressure, even over the gas gravity and K-Factor meth-
when the hydrates are of different types. ods in that it can be used for sour gases.
B. F. Towler and S. Mokhatab devel- Hammerschmidt method. The
oped an equation (Eq. 1) based on the Hammerschmidt method8 gives a good
gas gravity chart that predicts the hy- prediction with low temperature and
drates forming temperature, where P is pressure. It is used as an initial value for
pressure and GG is gas gravity:5 the prediction of hydrates condition, as
Th = 13.47 log (P) + 34.27 log described in Eq. 2:
(GG) – 1.675 [log (P) × (1) Th = 8.9 P 0.285 (2)
log (GG)] – 20.35
Motiee method. The recommended
K-Factor method. Wilcox et al.’s K- use of the Motiee method9 (Eq. 3) is
Factor method3,7 is based on distribu- when the gas gravity is less than 0.65 and
tion coefficients (K i values) for compo- the temperature is greater than 60°F at
nents on a water-free basis. It is accurate pressures greater than 2,000 psi:
for pure components and cannot predict Th = –238.24469 + 78.99667 log
hydrates for liquids. This method is (P) – 5.352544[log (P)]2 +
limited to hydrates-formation pressures 349.473877 (GG) – (3)
up to 28 MPa (4,000 psia) for meth- 150.854675 (GG)2 –
ane, ethane and propane; up to 14 MPa 27.604065[log(P)] (GG)
(2,000 psia) for isobutane and hydrogen
sulfide; and up to 7 MPa (1,000 psia) for Berge method. The Berge method8
carbon dioxide. In general, the recom- is used to predict hydrates-forming tem-
mended use of this method is 0 < T > peratures with Eqs. 4 and 5:
20°C, 0.7 < P > 7 MPa.
Baillie-Wichert method. The For 0.555 ≤ GG < 0.58: Th = –96.03
Baillie-Wichert method6,7 is a graphical + 25.37 × ln P – 0.64 × (ln P)2
method used for gas gravities between + (GG – 0.555) ÷ 0.025 ×
0.6 and 1. This method accounts for the [80.61 × P + 1.16 × 104 ÷ (4)
presence of H2S (up to 50%) and pro- (P + 596.16) – (–96.03 +
pane (up to 10%). The chart (FIG. 3) es- 25.37 × ln P – 0.64 × (ln P)2)]
50
C3 adjustment, °F
40
30
4,000
20
3,000
10
–10 10 2,000
°F–5 5 °F 1,500
0 0 1,000
0 .25 .5 .75 .9 1 2 3 4 6 8 900
°C % 800
Pressure × 10–3, psia 700
600
500
H2S, %
p s ia 400
re, 0 2 5 10 20 30 50
ssu 40
Pre 300
200
100
1.0
Gas gravity

point falls on the right side of the graph, 0.9

0.8
then it is in the hydrates-free region. 0.7
This method does not indicate the type 0.6
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
of hydrates, however. It considers only the Temperature, °F
gas gravity of the components. If two com-
FIG. 3. Estimate of hydrates-formation temperature within 1.7°C.
ponents have equal molecular weights,
Gas Processing | MARCH/APRIL 2018 13
SPECIAL FOCUS: UNCONVENTIONAL GAS PROCESSING
For 0.58 ≤ GG < 1: Th = {80.61 ×
P – 2.1 × 104 – 1.22 × 103 ÷
(GG – 0.535) – [1.23 × 104 + (5)
1.71 × 103 ÷ (GG – 0.509)]} ÷
{P – [(–260.42 – 15.18 ÷
(GG – 0.535)]}
Some researchers recorded bad per-
formance with increased GG when the
temperature was less than 50°F and the
pressure was less than 200 psi. The Berge
method gives better prediction when the
GG is equal to 0.555.
The Makogon method. Makogon
developed a correlation based on the
GG for hydrates prediction, as shown in
Eqs. 6–8:
ln P = 2.3026β + 0.1144 (T + KT 2) (6)
Where β = 2.681 – 3.811 γ +
1.679 γ2 (7)
K = –0.006 + 0.011 γ + 0.011 γ2 (8)
where P = pressure in Pa, T = temperature
in degrees Kelvin and γ = GG.
The Kobayashi method. Kobayashi
et al. developed a correlation based on
the GG for hydrates prediction. It is not
recommended for use above 62°F, above
1,500 psia or above a GG of 0.9. The cor-
relation is shown in Eq. 9:
T = 1 ÷ [A1 + A2 (ln γg) + A3 (ln P) +
A4 (ln γg)2 + A5 (ln γg) (ln P) +
A6 (ln P)2 + A7 (ln γg)3 + A8
(ln γg)2 (ln P) + A9 (ln γg) (9)
(ln P)2 + A10 (ln P)3 + A11
(ln γg)4 + A12 (ln γg)3 (ln P) +
A13 (ln γg)2 (ln P)2 + A14 (ln γg)
(ln P)3 + A15 (ln P)4]
where A1 = 2.7707715 × 10–3; A2 =
–2.782238 × 10–3; A3 = –5.649288 × 10–4;
A4 = –1.298593 × 10–3; A5 = 1407119 × 10–3;
A6 = 1.785744 × 10–4; A7 = 1.130284 × 10–3;
A8 = 5.9728235 × 10–4; A9 = –2.3279181
× 10–4; A10 = –2.6840758 × 10–5; A11 =
4.6610555 × 103; A12 = 5.5542412 × 10–4;
A13 = –1.4727765 × 10–5; A14 = 1.3938082
× 10–5; A15 = 1.4885010 × 10–6; and where
P = Pressure in Pa, T = Temperature in
degrees Fahrenheit and γg = GG.
It is recommended that all of the equa-
tions be tested with experimental values.
Hydrates formation during sudden ex-
pansion.5 During sudden gas expansion,
gas experiences the Joule–Thomson ( JT)
effect. Gas expansion charts are available
for various GGs that encourage hydrates
14 MARCH/APRIL 2018 | GasProcessingNews.com
formation conditions. For a pressure
greater than 6,000 psia, natural gas warms
up during the sudden expansion. FIG. 4
and FIG. 5 show gas expansion charts for a
0.6-gravity and 0.7-gravity natural gas.10
Specifications of the hydrates forma-
tion, as shown in FIG. 4, include:
• Initial pressure = 1,500 psi
• Molecular weight = 17.8763
• Final pressure = 600 psia
• Initial temperature = 100°F
• Carbon dioxide = 0.02
• Methane = 0.86
• Ethane = 0.06
• Propane = 0.03
• i-butane = 0.005
• n-butane = 0.005
• H2S = 0.02
The hydrates will not form at the final
condition of temperature and pressure, but
they will form below 500 psia. If the initial
temperature is higher than 110°F, then hy-
drates will not form even at atmospheric
pressure, since the isotherm of 110°F does
not intersect the 1,500-psia line.
Role of hydrates structure in predic-
tion. In all three hydrates structures, each
cavity can contain a maximum of one
guest molecule at normal pressure. At high
pressure, nitrogen, hydrogen, methane and
argon can multiply and occupy the larger
cavities of Structure II hydrates. Note: At
normal pressure (i.e., less than 30 Mpa at
approximately 260K–290K), molecules
below 3.5°A become too small to stabilize
any cavity; whereas molecules above 7.5°A
are too large to fit into any cavity of Struc-
ture I or Structure II hydrates.
Some molecules, such as propane and
isobutene, can stabilize only the larger
cavities of Structure II hydrates. When a
molecule stabilizes the small cavities of a
structure, it will also enter the large cavi-
ties of that structure. It is known that the
smallest guest molecules (Ar, Kr, N2 and
O2) form Structure II hydrates, rather
than Structure I hydrates.
The addition of a small amount of a
second, larger hydrocarbon sometimes
has a dramatic effect on the hydrates
formation pressure. For example, pure
methane forms hydrates with pure water
at 280.4 K and 5.35 MPa; yet, hydrates are
formed at 3.12 MPa with 99% CH4 plus
1% C3H8. The pressure decrease is caused
by a hydrates crystal change from Struc-
ture I (with pure methane) to Structure
II (with 99% methane plus 1% propane).
With a crystal structure change, a sig-
nificantly different thermodynamic state
(three-phase temperature and pressure)
is required for stability. Propane fits only
into the 512 × 64 cavity of Structure II hy-
drates. C3H8 is too large to occupy any
other cavity.
For CH4 , the diameter ratio in the 512
cavities of Structure I hydrates (0.86) and
Structure II hydrates (0.87) differ by 1.5%.
Pure methane is stabilized in Structure I
hydrates only by the additional stability
of molecules in the 512 × 64 cavity, with a
small amount of propane to encourage the
stability of Structure II hydrates.
The similar size ratios of methane in
the 512 cavities and the large degree of sta-
bility that propane provides (0.94) to the
large cages of Structure II hydrates enable
a structure transition. Therefore, the con-
cept of a guest-to-cavity-size ratio (and
hydrates structure change) can provide
molecular comprehension of a substantial
decrease in equilibrium pressure required
for a small composition change.
The Structure II stability from a small
amount of propane encourages most nat-
ural gases to form Structure II hydrates,
because most reservoirs contain small
amounts of propane. Gas mixtures of meth-
ane and ethane form Structure II clathrate
hydrates in certain composition ranges, de-
spite the fact that pure methane and pure
ethane gases normally form Structure I hy-
drates. Methane and ethane mixtures form
more stable hydrates for three reasons:
1. Empty Structure II hydrates have
a lower chemical potential value
than empty Structure I hydrates
2. The ratio of the number of larger
cages to the number of water
molecules for Structure I
hydrates is much larger than
that for Structure II hydrates
3. The free energy of the larger
cage occupancy for Structure II
hydrates is lower than that
for Structure I hydrates,
for both methane and ethane.
The first and third factors contribute
to the stabilization of Structure II hy-
drates, while the second factor contrib-
utes to stabilizing Structure I hydrates.
The preferential structure for a given con-
dition is determined by the competition
among these three factors.
As one illustration, simple hydrates of
C3H8 and i-C4H10 have a similar ∆Hd of
129 and 133 KJ/mol because they occupy
 SPECIAL FOCUS: UNCONVENTIONAL GAS PROCESSING

the 512 × 64 cavity, although their size-to- From the above, it was found that less • Hydration number—the number
cavity ratios are somewhat different (0.94 energy is required to dissociate hydrates of water molecules in the hydrates
and 0.98). The similarity of ∆Hd is remark- structures with both cavities filled than per guest molecule—are not
able, but it is principally due to the occupa- those with one cavity filled. It has been explained by the equations.
tion of the 512 × 62 cavity. Similarly, C2H6 suggested that collisions of the guest • Binary hydrates, ternary hydrates,
(∆Hd = 72 KJ/mol) and CO2 (∆Hd = 73 molecules with the cavity wall weaken in- multi-component hydrates, single-
KJ/mol) are in the 512 × 62 cavity. CH4 and teractions between the hydrogen bonds, component hydrates, hydrates in
H2S (∆Hd within 3% of each other) occu- which is also reflected in a high value of black oil, hydrates in gas condensate
py both 512 and 512 × 62 as simple hydrates. thermal expansion. To a fair engineering and Structure H hydrates are not
The mixture of C3H8 plus CH4 has approximation, ∆Hd is: addressed by these equations.
a value of ∆Hd = 70 KJ/mol over a wide 1. A function not only of the • Structural transitions are not
range of composition. In such mixtures, hydrogen bonds in the crystal, addressed in these equations.
C3H8 occupies most of the 512 × 64 cavi- but also of cavity occupation For example, nitrogen hydrates can
ties, while CH4 occupies only a small 2. Independent of guest form both Structure I and Structure
number of 512 × 64 and possibly 512. Most components and mixtures of II hydrates. Nitrogen will occupy
natural gases (which commonly form similar-size components within the large cages of Structure I and
Structure II hydrates) have similar val- a limited size range. Structure II hydrates. Benzene is a
ues of ∆Hd. Note: Mixtures that fill both very large molecule and, therefore,
types of Structure II cavities have a lower Limitations of empirical/graphical cannot form Structure II hydrates
value of ∆Hd (79 KJ/mol) than compo- hydrates prediction. The preceding hy- without the presence of a helper
nents such as C3H8, which fill only the 512 drates prediction strategies are character- molecule, such as methane.
× 64 cavity (∆Hd = 129 KJ/mol). ized by a number of limitations: • Molecular shape is not considered.
Similarly, over a wide range of compo- • The equations and graphs do not For example, xenon is a spherical
sitions of methane and ethane, ∆Hd values provide details about the three molecule. Xenon hydrates do not
are similar (74 KJ/mol) for components hydrates structures themselves. form beyond 3,800 bar pressure;
entering both cavities of Structure I hy- • The equations and graphs do however, hydrates do form at
drates. Identical arguments may be used not provide details about the 356K and 8,578 bar.
to explain similar ∆Hd values of 79.5 KJ/ cage occupancy; however, the • Retrograde behavior is not
mol +/– 7 KJ/mol for Structure H binary occupancy ratio shows different addressed.
mixtures with methane, since all three trends at different pressure and • The equations do not consider the
cavities are occupied. temperature conditions. inhibitor type—i.e., the natural
10,000 10,000
175 189
8,000 8,000
Initial
temperature, °F 170 Initial 184
6,000 6,000
160 temperature, °F 180
5,000 5,000
4,000 170
4,000
150 160
3,000 3,000
140
130 150
120 140
2,000 2,000 130
110 120
1,500 100 110
1,500
Initial pressure, psia

Initial pressure, psia

90 100
80 90
1,000 1,000
70
800 80
800
60 70
600 600
500 500
50 60
400 400

300 50
40 300

200 200
40
150 150
32
100 100
100 150 200 300 400 600 800 1,000 1,500 2,000 3,000 4,000 100 150 200 300 400 600 800 1,000 1,500 2,000 3,000 4,000
Final pressure, psia Final pressure, psia

FIG. 4. Gas expansion chart for a 0.6-gravity natural gas. FIG. 5. Gas expansion chart for a 0.7-gravity natural gas.

Gas Processing | MARCH/APRIL 2018 15

SPECIAL FOCUS: UNCONVENTIONAL GAS PROCESSING
inhibitor associated with well fluids,
such as brine and salts.
• The equations do not consider
the presence of surfactants.
• Transient fluid flow conditions
and environmental factors are
not considered.
Prediction challenges. Several hydrates
thermodynamic areas exist for which
data are urgently needed to make accu-
rate predictions:
• At higher process pressures,
the database will require pressures
higher than 10,000 psia. Generally,
the hydrates database stops at
4,000 psia.
• Many gases contain considerable
amounts of acid gases, carbon
dioxide and hydrogen sulfide.
Insufficient data have been obtained
on acid gas systems for an accurate
comparison of prediction programs.
Especially lacking is water content
data for acid gases in equilibrium
with hydrates, without free water.
• More black oil data is needed.
• No hydrates phase fraction data is
available in the literature against
which to compare these predictions.
Future directions. The authors suggest
several directions for future clarifica-
tion and study of gas hydrates prediction
methods:
• The effects of subcooling,
agglomeration rates (i.e.,
mechanical agglomeration, fast
sintering via continued freezing,
slow sintering via diffusion),
additives and corrosion inhibitors
are not yet completely understood
by the scientific community.
• In the case of gas-liquid multiphase
flow, the effects of solids in
hydraulics (e.g., pressure drop,
liquid holdup, gas-liquid flow
regime) call for a detailed study.
• The misting droplet deposition
rate, size and effect of the presence
of liquid hydrocarbons, and the
relationships between these factors,
must be studied in further detail.
• In the case of slurry flow, the
rheological study of the relationship
between viscosity vs. crystal shape,
size and volume fraction, with
respect to hydrates formation and
growth, must be studied.
16 MARCH/APRIL 2018 | GasProcessingNews.com
• In the case of solid flow regimes,
the impacts of cohesion and plug
formation via slugging dropout and
pickup must be studied.
• The impact of condensed water
vs. produced water, rust, sand or
asphaltenes must be studied, along
with emulsification.
• The role of biology must be studied.
• In the case of pump hydraulics,
the enhanced breakage rate, the
different agglomeration due to
differing turbulence, the impacts
of increases in pressure drop,
the impacts of constant rate vs.
constant pressure pumping,
and the impacts of materials of
construction must be studied.
Due to the dearth of information avail-
able on these subjects, hydrates prediction
can become complex and inaccurate.
Recommendations. During their investi-
gation, the authors found that none of the
empirical equations predicted hydrates for-
mation conditions accurately. The Motiee
method predicts hydrates formation con-
ditions with less error, with the exception
of propane hydrates. The Motiee method
was most accurate at a gas gravity of less
than 0.65, a temperature greater than 60°F
and a pressure greater than 2,000 psi.
The Hammerschmidt method slightly
overestimated the hydrates-formation
conditions for methane and propane hy-
drates, resulting in a wide deviation from
the experimental results. In the case of
ethane hydrates, the Hammerschmidt
equation gave various degrees of deviation
with respect to various pressure tests. This
equation resulted in high degrees of error
for propane hydrates.
The Makogen equation showed a
mixed response (underestimates and, in
some cases, overestimates), and the de-
gree of error was quite high. B. F. Towler’s
correlation, based on the GPSA’s GG
chart, largely overestimated hydrates for-
mation conditions in all cases.
The Berge method also largely over-
estimates hydrates formation conditions.
It usually showed poor performance with
increasing GG, a temperature of less than
50°F and a pressure of less than 200 psi.
However, it gives better performance
when the GG is equal to 0.55.
Kobayashi’s equation largely overesti-
mates hydrates formation conditions in
all cases.
Hydrates formation conditions have
been predicted with the use of GPSA gas
expansion charts, which have their own
pressure and GG limitations. With care-
ful selection of empirical equations, these
equations can be used for the initial estima-
tion of hydrates-formation conditions. GP
LITERATURE CITED
1
Welling and Associates, “Flow assurance still leading
concern among producers,” Offshore, October 2000.
2
Taylor, C. E. and J. T. Kwan, Advances in the Study
of Gas Hydrates, Kluwer Academic Publishers, New
York, New York, 2004.
3
Sloan, Jr., E. D., Clathrate Hydrates of Natural Gases, 2nd
Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, January 1998.
4
American Petroleum Institute, Technical Data Book,
6th Ed., 1997.
5
Tower, B. F. and S. Mokhatab, “Quickly estimate
hydrate formation conditions in natural gases,”
Hydrocarbon Processing, April 2005.
6
GPSA, GPSA Engineering Data Book, 11th Ed.,
1998.
7
Carrol, J. J., Natural Gas Hydrates: A Guide for
Engineers, Gulf Professional Publishing, 2003.
8
Fattah, K. A. A., “Evaluation of empirical correla-
tions for natural gas hydrate prediction,” Oil and Gas
Business, 2004.
9
Motiee, M., “Estimate possibility of hydrates,”
Hydrocarbon Processing, July 1991.
10
Elgibaly, A. A. and A. M. Elkamel, “A new correla-
tion for predicting hydrate formation conditions for
various gas mixtures and inhibitors,” J. of Fluid Phase
Equilibria, Vol. 152, 1998.
CHANDRAGUPTHAN BAHUBALI
is a Principal Process Engineer
at WOOD AMEC Foster Wheeler
Ltd. He has more than 14 yr of
post-graduate experience on oil
and gas projects. He holds an
MS degree in refining and
petrochemical engineering from the University
of Petroleum and Energy Studies in Dehradun, India,
and a BS degree in chemical engineering from
Madras University in Chennai, India. He has authored
a number of articles on flow assurance, gas hydrates,
fixed-bed reactors and economics.
ASHWIN GOPALAN is a Process
Engineer at WOOD AMEC Foster
Wheeler Ltd. He holds a BS degree
in chemical engineering from the
National Institute of Technology
in Tiruchirappalli, India. His areas
of interest include mathematical
modeling, simulation, and the process design of heat
exchangers and special-case depressurization and
vent systems. He has presented papers at national
symposiums on the sustainability of natural resources.
GIRISH BABU NOUNCHI is a
Senior Pipeline Engineer at WOOD
AMEC Foster Wheeler and Partners
Engineering Co. in Al-Khobar,
Saudi Arabia. He has more than
12 yr of post-graduate experience
in oil and gas pipelines. He holds an
MS degree in pipeline engineering from the University
of Petroleum and Energy Studies, and a BS degree
in mechanical engineering from Andhra University
in Visakhapatnam, India. He has published a number
of papers on flow assurance and gas hydrates.
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Proper regeneration of molecular sieves
in TSA processes—Part 2
S. JAIN, Arkema France, La Garenne-Colombes, France
The regeneration of molecular sieves is the most crucial step
in temperature swing adsorption (TSA) processes. It deter-
mines the performance and operating cost of molecular sieves
over a given lifetime. It is well known that molecular sieves age
with each regeneration cycle. The adsorption process on the
molecular sieve is a complex phenomenon and often poses chal-
lenges for the design and operation of the units, due to a num-
ber of parameters that govern the efficiency of such processes.
Poor design decisions and deviations from design conditions
can cause a wide range of operating issues in a molecular sieve
unit. Most of the damage from these upsets or deviations from
design conditions usually occurs during the regeneration step.
If not addressed properly, these upsets can result in reduced
lifetime, increased pressure drop across beds, loss of product
quality, formation of hydrates, increased system corrosion or
increased plant downtime—all of which have cost implications.
It is, therefore, important to properly design and operate the re-
generation phase of molecular sieves.
The main design principles and recommendations for the
regeneration step in TSA processes are presented here, along
with ways to address key issues concerning troubleshooting,
optimizing and adapting plant operations under different con-
straints. Part 1, published in the January/February 2018 issue,
focused on the general design philosophy and key operating
parameters. Part 2 concentrates on the regeneration gas and
contaminants.
Type of regeneration gas and flow. Different types of gases
can be used to perform regeneration. In natural gas applications,
the product gas is often used as the regeneration gas that is re-
cycled upstream of the process. In petrochemical and refinery
units, the regeneration gas (e.g., fuel gas, H2 , CH4 , N2 , tail gas,
residue gas, offgas, C2 /C3 /C4 , etc.) can be used.
Physical properties of regeneration gas—including molecu-
lar weight, heat capacity, temperature, pressure, density, viscos-
ity and, sometimes, the contaminants present in gas—are im-
portant to determine flow.
The flow regime is a key design parameter. The fluid velocity
should be in the acceptable range to prevent any channeling or
bed lifting:
• For gas streams, the regime should not be more than
7,000 lb/hr-ft2 (maximum velocity around 5 m/min).
• For liquid streams, the turbulent flow plus maximum
velocity should be approximately 0.6 m/min–0.8 m/min
for good contact between the liquid and solid phases.
TREATING TECHNOLOGY
A good design ratio of height to diameter (H/D) is also im-
portant to optimize pressure drop and regeneration gas flow re-
quirements. As a general rule, an H/D ratio of 0.7–3 for gas ap-
plication, and of 1.5–5 for liquid application, is recommended.
The flow direction is equally important. To optimize the
vessel diameter and the flow pattern, adsorption is generally
performed downflow for gas feeds and upflow for liquid feeds.
Heating is always preferred as the countercurrent of the adsorp-
tion to prevent the bulk water desorbed from the equilibrium
zone from entering into the mass transfer zone (MTZ). This
setup provides the lowest residual loading at the end of regen-
eration and ensures a low outlet impurity content during the
adsorption phase.
Cooling is also a preferred countercurrent of the adsorption
to minimize piping and instrumentation, unless some impurity
is susceptible to adsorption; in this case, cooling can be co-cur-
rent to avoid adsorption in the MTZ. For liquid applications,
heating is performed by a gas or vaporized dry product flowing
downward. The cooling flows downward also, unless liquid is
used to cool the bed or the cooling gas contains some impurity
that is susceptible to adsorption.
In some cases, a higher flowrate is required. For example, a
higher flowrate may be needed if the regeneration is performed
at high pressure, or if the residence time needs to be reduced to
minimize the coadsorption of certain impurities or side reac-
tions (e.g., if ethylene is present in the regeneration gas).
The design and operation of the regeneration phase will gov-
ern whether the residual water remains stable or increases with
time, thereby affecting the capacity for adsorption during the
adsorption phase and, therefore, affecting the lifetime of the mo-
lecular sieve. Regeneration flowrates are significantly lower than
the feed flowrates during the adsorption phase and are more
susceptible to fall into the channeling regime. As a result, suf-
ficient flowrate and pressure drop per length are crucial to avoid
channeling in the bed during the regeneration phase, which can
avoid rapid residual water buildup. In gas applications, channel-
ing can occur if the pressure drop per unit length is below 0.01
psi/ft. On the other hand, lifting of the bed can occur if the pres-
sure drop per unit length is greater than 0.25 psi/ft.
Channeling is less critical during the cooling phase; how-
ever, if present during the heating phase, channeling can lead
to incomplete regeneration. This may result in high localized
and overall residual impurity content inside the bed at the end
of regeneration, which will affect the performance and lifetime
of the unit.
Gas Processing | MARCH/APRIL 2018 19
TREATING TECHNOLOGY

A case was studied using a CFD model,14 wherein the break-
through time of aged molecular sieves was compared with a
case where the regeneration flowrate was 10 times lower (in
the channeling regime). FIG. 10 shows the influence of a low gas
flowrate (leading to channeling) on the residual water content
on the molecular sieve bed after regeneration. In the first case,
a higher gas flowrate (0.13 m3/sec) is used, which results in
an average residual water content of 2% (kg of water/100 kg
of molecular sieve) and a maximum of 3.8% (usually observed
near the wall, due to the radial temperature gradient).
In the second case, a lower gas flowrate (0.013 m3/sec) is
used with a longer heating time. This results in an average re-
sidual water content of 2.6% and a maximum of 8.5% (usually
observed near the wall, due to the temperature gradient). It can
be deduced that using a lower gas flowrate (in the channeling
regime) not only leads to a higher residual water content, but
also widens the gap between the maximum and minimum re-
sidual water content across the bed that can adversely impact
the performance (i.e., outlet impurity specification).
FIG. 11 illustrates three breakthrough curves. The red curve
represents the fresh molecular sieve, the green curve represents
0.16
0.14
0.12
Q gas = 0.013n3/s; mean
Q gas = 0.013no3/s; max
Q gas = 0.013n3/s; mean
Q gas = 0.013no3/s; max
the regenerated molecular sieve with the appropriate flowrate,
and the blue curve represents the molecular sieve regenerated
with a low regeneration flowrate in the channeling regime. As
expected, the residual water buildup with the lower regenera-
tion flowrate was significantly higher as compared with the base
case; the breakthrough time decreased by approximately 1 hr.
Note: With this low regeneration flowrate (corresponding to
the channeling regime), sometimes no significant reduction in
residual water is seen, even with a longer heating time, especially
when the regeneration pressure is very high, as shown in FIG. 10.
The obvious impact of a decreased adsorption time, which
leads to an increased number of cycles, is an approximate 10%
decrease in the lifetime of a molecular sieve. An approximate
5% increase of regeneration duty (due to increased heating tem-
perature and heating time) was required to limit the impact, al-
though not significantly.
In adsorption, if premature breakthrough is seen on only one
vessel out of several vessels in parallel, it may be due to unequal
flow distribution resulting from the bed configuration. Possible
contributing factors are differences in bed loading amounts or
dates, coking, liquid carryover, grid failure on a bed or fluidi-
zation. Unequal flow distribution can also be detected through
the pressure drop across the vessels in adsorption. FIG. 12 shows
a three-vessel configuration with two vessels in adsorption in
parallel. The pressure drop across Vessel A is shown to be lower
than that across Vessels B and C.

Presence of olefins. As previously mentioned, the molecular

Absorbed H2O, kg/kg

0.10
sieve ages with time, and its capacity decreases slowly. One of
the main reasons is that the porosity is partially fouled by car-
0.08
bonaceous components. These compounds, often referred to as
0.06
“coke,” are caused by either heavy hydrocarbons (HC) present in
the feed and which sometimes remain in the bed along the cy-
0.04
cles, or by olefins (e.g., ethylene, propylene, etc.) that polymerize
in contact with the molecular sieve to form long-chain polymers.
0.02 As a result of fouling, the MTZ is lengthened and the overall
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 porosity is decreased. Normal fouling is taken into account in
Time, hr
the unit design, among other factors that define the product ag-
FIG. 10. Influence of channeling (low gas flowrate) on residual water ing rate. However, in some cases, fouling is more significant than
after regeneration. anticipated, leading to premature breakthrough. The real issue is
that a part of the deposit is not removed during regeneration and
350 is subject to cracking and “polymerization.” It ultimately forms
Before regeneration heavy, growing carbonaceous deposits that build up in the po-
300 After regeneration/base flowrate rosity,15,16 especially at zeolite acidic sites.
After regeneration/low flowrate

250
Pressure drop, Vessel A Pressure drop, Vessel B Pressure drop, Vessel C
H2O concentration, ppmv

200

150
Pressure drop

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time, hr Time

FIG. 11. Channeling during regeneration phase. FIG. 12. Unequal flow distribution shown by difference in pressure drop.

20 MARCH/APRIL 2018 | GasProcessingNews.com

This problem is quite common in cracked gas drying appli-
cations, where olefins (especially ethylene) are not only present
in feed, but also sometimes in the regeneration gas. The use of
3A (3-angstrom-pore) molecular sieves in such applications is,
therefore, mandatory to selectively adsorb water and minimize
ethylene coadsorption and the side reactions resulting from it.
In spite of this precaution, fouling of the molecular sieve still
occurs, especially when ethylene is present in the regeneration
gas. When ethylene comes into contact with the polar surface of
the molecular sieve at high temperature, it has the tendency to
open its double bond and combine with other molecules, lead-
ing to long-chain polymers. This is why the molecular sieve of-
ten appears greyish/black at the end of its lifetime in cracked gas
drying applications, as shown in FIG. 13.
The heating procedure can be adapted in such cases, depend-
ing on the concentration of ethylene in the regeneration gas. For
an ethylene concentration of less than 0.5 mol%, no particular
precaution is required. For a concentration between 0.5 mol%
and 1 mol%, the coking damage is limited, and it is sufficient to
take some design margin on the adsorption capacity during the
design process. Sometimes, a decrease in regeneration tempera-
ture from 230°C to 210°C can also be helpful.
For a concentration above 1%, which tends to occur when
one or two expanders are down, resulting in an ethylene concen-
tration of 0.5%–5%, the heating procedure should be adapted. If
the deviations last for only a couple of cycles, then it is recom-
mended to regenerate at 170°C–180°C. This process will limit
the ethylene reaction to polymers, but at the same time give a
high residual water content in the molecular sieve bed at the end
of heating. It will also reduce the adsorption capacity in the con-
secutive adsorption cycle, and water will continue to accumulate
during approximately two more cycles. At the end of a couple
more cycles, when the ethylene concentration is back to normal,
FIG. 13. Molecular sieve with coking.
230°C (3A)/280°C (4A)
170°C
Temperature, °C
Main heating step to minimize
reaction and remove at bulk
100-120°C of adsorbed water
Intermediate step
to avoid retro
condensation
Heating time, hr
FIG. 14. Multistep heating to minimize side reactions and maximize
water desorption.
TREATING TECHNOLOGY
an exceptional regeneration should be performed at high tem-
perature (230°C) and a longer time. This can be repeated until
all residual water is removed and the unit returns to normal op-
erating conditions.
However, if the concentration lasts above 1 mol% for a lon-
ger duration (or, in some cases, 2 mol%–2.5 mol% can be pres-
ent throughout the lifetime), in those cases, a multistep heat-
ing, as illustrated in FIG. 14, is recommended. The first step, at
100°C–120°C, is done to prevent retrograde condensation. The
second step, at 170°C, lasts for the majority of the heating time
and removes the bulk of the adsorbed water. The third step, at
230°C, lasts for 1 hr–2 hr and is the finishing step to decrease
the residual water, especially from the MTZ, to respect the out-
let specifications.
FIG. 15 illustrates the water concentration (Xi = Initial, Xe =
End) inside the molecular sieve bed, in equilibrium, in the MTZ
and in the fresh zone, for a new sieve (A), after adsorption (B),
after heating at a high temperature of 230°C (C), after heating
at 170°C instead of 230°C (D), and after multistep heating at
170°C followed by 230°C (E).
It can be seen that, for the new sieve, very little water is pres-
ent (typically less than 0.5%) when it is delivered from a mo-
lecular sieve supplier (Case A). After the first adsorption cycle
(when the adsorption capacity is at a maximum), the water
content in the sieve is approximately 23%, with the equilibrium
zone completely saturated (Case B). This sieve, when heated at
230°C, will desorb most of the water, and the residual water after
heating is about 3% (Case C). The outlet specifications of 0.1
ppmv–1 ppmv can be easily obtained.
However, if the heating was performed at 170°C instead of
at 230°C, then the higher residual water is left both in the equi-
librium as well as in the MTZ, with the bed average at about 5%
(Case D). This bed, when switched to adsorption, may not be
Finishing heating
step to reduce
residual water
Temperature inlet
FIG. 15. Water concentration in molecular sieve as a function of the
heating temperature profile.
Gas Processing | MARCH/APRIL 2018 21
TREATING TECHNOLOGY
able to meet a stringent specification of 0.1 ppmv–1 ppmv, and
the adsorption time will decrease due to the lower adsorption
capacity. This will increase the number of regenerations and re-
duce the lifetime.
To avoid this scenario, multistep heating is preferred, with the
majority of the heating step at 170°C followed by a finishing step
at 230°C. Here, the residual water is decreased both in the equi-
librium and in the MTZ (more importantly in the MTZ, as the
heating time at 230°C is short), giving a bed average of 4% (Case
E). The advantage of this step is that the ethylene reactions are
limited at 170°C, while the bulk of the water is removed. When
heated at 230°C for 1 hr–2 hr, even though ethylene reactions
take place, the residual water is decreased significantly, at least
from the MTZ, to continue respecting the stringent outlet speci-
fications. FIG. 16 shows the evolution of residual water in the mo-
lecular sieve over time for the preceeding five cases.
Presence of oxygen. The presence of O2 , especially in natural
gas from a pipeline, is sometimes reported (generally at low lev-
els in the range of 10 ppmv–50 ppmv, but sometimes as high as
100 ppmv–1,000 ppmv). The reasons for the presence of O2 are
not always obvious, and several possible explanations related to
processes or equipment (e.g., compressors, pipe maintenance)
are found. O2 can be present in the feed and/or in the regenera-
tion gas, which often have the same origin.
O2 has two potential negative effects. The first includes
oxidation reactions—i.e., the partial or complete combustion
of HCs.17 In natural gas drying, the regeneration gas is mainly
composed of methane; most of the time, a slipstream of the
dried gas is used. When passing through the heater, iron ox-
ides—which cover the steel surfaces, and are favored by the
presence of O2 —can catalyze the oxidation of the HCs at typi-
cal regeneration temperatures (250°C–300°C).
Once initiated, and if O2 is present, the combustion reac-
tions continue and propagate in the vessel. Methane and O2
form water and carbon dioxide, which impact the desired final
specifications by increasing the residuals in the reactivated bed.
Reactions involving heavier HCs are more complex and can
lead to intermediates, such as oxygenates and olefins, which ul-
timately form heavy coke deposits. As a result, the MTZ length
and the overall adsorption capacity of the molecular sieves are
rapidly affected. In serious cases, pressure drop can rapidly and
significantly increase. It has been shown that up to 50% of the
25
20 A
Residual water, kg H2O 100 kg MS
B
C Presence of methanol. The presence of methanol during the
15 D adsorption phase not only generates competition for water by
E
10
5
0
Heating time, hr
FIG. 16. Evolution of residual water in the molecular sieve, with time
as a function of the heating temperature profile.
22 MARCH/APRIL 2018 | GasProcessingNews.com
O2 can be converted, and that significant problems start with O2
concentrations in the feed as low as 15 ppmv–20 ppmv.
The second effect is that, in the presence of sulfur com-
pounds like hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and even at ambient tem-
perature, O2 forms sulfur dioxide and water, and, ultimately, el-
emental sulfur. This elemental sulfur is deposited in the porous
structure, and clusters can form and partially block the flowrate,
leading to channeling, high pressure drop and, eventually, pre-
mature breakthrough.
While the second problem is difficult to address, except by
minimizing sulfur and O2 levels as much as possible, efficient an-
swers exist for the first issue. A closed-loop regeneration scheme
or the use of O2 and sulfur removal adsorbent are often cited in
literature.18 However, these solutions involve high capital and op-
erational cost, with little proof of meeting the stringent specifica-
tion of 0.1 ppmv. Recommendations for the design are as follows:
• If O2 content in the regeneration gas is lower than 20
ppmv–30 ppmv, then no specific action or design margin/
provision is required because the effect is not significant.
• The “grey zone” is 50 ppmv–100 ppmv. This needs to
be taken into account within a robust design. For such
a level of O2 , the recommendations are as follows:
o A multistep heating procedure, with most of the
time spent at a temperature of 170°C, that prevents
O2 conversion but allows most of the water to be
desorbed. It should include a 1 hr–2 hr finishing step
at the end at a higher final temperature. This will allow
some of the O2 to convert, but it is still necessary to
desorb water from the sieve down to low residuals that
are compatible with the LNG specification.
o The use of a 3A molecular sieve is recommended
because it minimizes the residual “O2 origin” water
pickup on the sieve during regeneration, and also
because 3A generally shows lower catalytic behavior
compared to any other type of sieve.
o Some design margins need to be taken with regard to
the vessel diameter (to allow a slightly higher pressure
drop evolution) and the length of the MTZ.
• High values of 100 ppmv–1,000 ppmv often come from
pipeline specifications. However, in reality, the values
are significantly lower. These measurements can be
ascertained only through analytical measurements. In
the case of high values, the same recommendation must
be applied. However, the total number of regeneration
cycles over the lifetime should be reduced during the
design process.
extending its MTZ due to the coadsorption of methanol, but
it can also potentially damage the molecular sieve during the
regeneration phase, as methanol has a strong tendency to form
coke at a high temperature.
The recommendation for the design of the adsorption phase
is to take into account the coadsorption of methanol and the
eventual reduction of the MTZ for water. For the regeneration
phase, two precautions need to be taken: (1) The temperature
ramps need to be further decreased to 1°C/min–2°C/min,
and (2) the intermediate heating step should be performed at

80°C–100°C, instead of at 100°C–120°C, for the case where
only water is present.
Presence of HC retrograde condensation. Molecular sieves
can be exposed to liquid HC through a phenomenon known
as “retrograde condensation.” This phenomenon is difficult to
diagnose, but is scientifically proven and admitted by a majority
of authors.19,20,21,22
FIG. 17 shows two cases—a lean gas and a heavier one—with
the corresponding phase diagrams (also known as the “PT en-
velope.”)15,23 It shows that a heavy gas at HC dewpoint, when
operated at high pressure, can be subject to HC condensation
when the pressure is decreased. For such a gas, liquids can be
expected to form due to the pressure drop across the bed (see
the dashed arrow in FIG. 17).
Although this can be numerically simulated, it is difficult to
accurately estimate how much liquid is formed and stays in the
molecular sieves’ porosity. The HC deposit blocks access to mi-
cropores, and therefore extends the MTZ, which results in an
overall decrease in adsorption capacity. In addition, the heavier
HC can crack and polymerize during the regeneration, thereby
building up and worsening the problem. Pressure drop increas-
es, and channeling may appear. For such gases at HC dewpoint,
the most efficient solution is to preheat the inlet stream by 3°C–
5°C and adapt the regeneration pressure, if required.
COS formation. When “sour” natural gas containing H2S and
CO2 comes into contact with a molecular sieve, COS and water
are formed.15 Normally, COS should be avoided or minimized
as much as possible, with the main concern being if it converts
back to H2S in the presence of water in some downstream pro-
cesses, it causes corrosion problems. The higher the concentra-
tion of H2S and CO2 , the higher the COS formation. The COS
formation also increases with increasing temperature, pressure
and residence time. However, the COS formation rate is re-
duced in the presence of water.
To minimize COS formation, temperature and pressure
should be kept as low as possible. Lower regeneration tempera-
ture will also result in high residual water and less COS forma-
tion. This reduced temperature can be compensated by increas-
ing the gas flowrate, which will eventually decrease the residence
time and reduce COS formation. Furthermore, during the ad-
sorption phase, the maximum bed should be utilized for water
adsorption. Ideally, this is a breakthrough time operation instead
of a fixed adsorption time operation. Finally, proper selection of
the molecular sieve type can also reduce COS formation.
Other contaminants. A number of other contaminants15 and
process deviations, like water carryover, amines carryover, acid
attack, caustic attack, salts (NaCl), oils (typically from com-
pressor lube systems), amine-based corrosion inhibitors, heavy
sulfurs, glycols, etc., can potentially impact molecular sieve per-
formance. However, little can be done to adapt the regeneration
procedure when the issue needs to be addressed elsewhere in
the upstream process.
Takeaway. Molecular sieves are an efficient, reliable and
proven separation/purification technology. However, the ad-
sorption and regeneration phases are complex and require pre-
TREATING TECHNOLOGY
120
At HC dewpoint, a slight decrease
in pressure leads to liquid
100
Heavy gas MW 22.2 g/mol
80
Pressure, Atm.
Lean gas MW 17.4 g/mol
60
L+G for heavy Gas
G only for lean
40
Liquid L+G
20
0
100 150 200 250 300 350
Temperature, K
FIG. 17. PT envelope for natural gas.
caution during design and troubleshooting. This article series
focuses on the TSA processes, used in the majority of units in
the oil and gas industry, where the regeneration is performed by
increasing temperature.
Regeneration is the most crucial step that determines the
performance and the operating cost of molecular sieves over a
given lifetime. The main design principles and recommenda-
tions for the regeneration were discussed. Major parameters,
including temperature, time, pressure, regeneration gas type,
flow-related issues and contaminant-related issues, were ad-
dressed, along with how these parameters can be adapted under
process deviations.
The recommendations in this article series will help not only
EPC companies in designing new projects, but also natural gas,
petrochemical and refinery operators in optimizing and trouble-
shooting existing units to increase their lifetime, control pres-
sure drop, control product quality and decrease plant downtime,
which will bring significant CAPEX and OPEX savings.
End of series. Part 1 of this article appeared in the January/
February issue of Gas Processing. GP
LITERATURE CITED
14
Jain, S., T. Boucheres, L. Gomes and A. Ghoussoub, “Use of CFD modeling to
optimize capital and operational costs of molecular sieve units,” GPA Europe
Annual Conference, Athens, Greece, May 2016.
15
Terrigeol, A., “Molecular sieves contaminants: Effects, consequences and mitiga-
tion,” GPA Europe Annual Conference, Berlin, Germany, May 2012.
16
Wang, B., “Zeolite deactivation during hydrocarbon reactions: Characterisation
of coke precursors and acidity, product distribution,” PhD Thesis, University of
London, UK, December 2007.
17
Bancroft, W. G., K. R. Clark and G. Corvini, “Beware of oxygen during gas drying,”
Hydrocarbon Processing, 1975.
18
McIlroy, C. et al., “Successful mitigation of oxygen and higher hydrocarbon pres-
ence in treating pipeline natural gas for North American LNG projects,” Gas
Processors Association Conference, San Antonio, Texas, April 2015.
Complete literature cited available at GasProcessingNews.com.
SANDEEP JAIN is a Global Technical Sales Manager at Arkema
Group. He joined Arkema Group in 2009 and spent 6 yr in the
acrylics business as a Process Engineer and a Projects
Coordinator. He joined Arkema’s CECA Molecular Sieve
Department in 2015 as Market Manager, Oil and Gas. He is now
Global Technical Sales Manager for CECA’s worldwide oil and
gas project activity. He is also the Global Technical Manager and
Area Manager for sales in Africa. Dr. Jain’s experience includes sales, marketing and
project management. Also, his strong engineering and research and development
(R&D) background has led to the publication of more than 30 articles, chapters
and patents. He holds a PhD in process engineering, an MS degree in process
engineering and a BS degree in chemical engineering.
Gas Processing | MARCH/APRIL 2018 23
 86 YEARS OF BRINGING THE
GAS INDUSTRY TOGETHER

27th WORLD GAS CONFERENCE

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 LNG

Go East, young man: Eastern Canada

offers viability for LNG projects—Part 2
J. G. BAGULEY, LNG Ltd., Houston, Texas; and S. ATHA, Houston, Texas

In Part 1 of this article, which appeared the western route, despite initially look- as the region has been highly
in the January/February 2018 issue, the ing like the wrong direction. industrialized for generations.
history of Canadian natural gas develop- The map in FIG. 5 shows possible gas Expanded industry generates more
ment, key technical considerations and paths into the Bear Head LNG site at jobs and an improved tax base to
the case for the West were addressed. Point Tupper on Cape Breton Island on enable communities to grow and
Part 2 develops the case for moving Ca- the eastern tip of Nova Scotia, including thrive, and provides opportunities
nadian gas exports eastward by comparing the proposed pathway from the western for young adults to raise their
and contrasting key elements in “West vs. shale fields to the site. children nearer to their families.
East” LNG export opportunities. • First Nations support. Key to
Advantages of going east. A number any development in Canada, the
Canadian exports: The case for the of compelling advantages exist to mov- First Nations bands in Eastern
East. A quick glance at the map (FIG. 5) ing Western and Central gas eastward, Canada are collaborative,
shows why proponents of the Alberta including: organized, cohesive and supportive
and British Columbia shale gas fields • Regulatory climate. East Coast of responsible industrial
have typically looked west—the shortest project sites in established, highly developments through mutual
distance between two points is always a industrialized zones can be utilized, benefit agreements, which
straight line. In addition, the shipping dis- thereby reducing the concerns document project commitments
tances to traditional, premium Asian mar- and environmental approval for long-term benefits to their
kets are shortest from Western Canada. uncertainties challenging West groups. These benefits commonly
However, monetizing stranded gas assets Coast projects. include specialized training,
is anything but a straightforward process. • Regional community support. technical training and internship
In this case, that straight-line pathway has Communities on the East Coast opportunities, in addition to
become paved with difficulty. are generally more accepting of business opportunities and
As highlighted in Part 1 of this article, responsible industrial development, JV relationships.
to date, many have tried but all have
failed to deliver on the promise of West-
ern Canadian LNG exports, with liter-
ally hundreds of millions invested to no
avail. LNG project opportunities have
a shelf life; demand windows of oppor-
tunity can be closed by developments
in other regions [e.g., US Gulf Coast
(USGC), Mozambique, Tanzania, Rus-
sia], not to open again for years. Western
Canada project proponents have been
forced to delay, defer, redesign, optimize,
relocate, negotiate and campaign in their
quest to monetize their increasingly
stranded reserves.
All is not lost, however, as an alternate
path is emerging. Transporting the gas
east instead of west provides a viable op-
portunity to reach markets. The world is
indeed round, and the “case for the East”
FIG. 5. Gas paths to Eastern Canada.
has several compelling advantages over
Gas Processing | MARCH/APRIL 2018 25
LNG
• Labor market. Nova Scotia,
in particular, has an extensive
industrial history and is home to a
large, skilled labor pool, including
workers who have been supporting
projects in Canada’s oil sands and
are eager to work closer to home.
Union “no-strike” provisions can
be negotiated to provide project
delivery certainty.
• Site access and regional
infrastructure. Unlike the
areas around northwest Pacific
project sites, substantial regional
infrastructure is available in the
Nova Scotia tidewater area. Cape
Breton Island is home to several
industrial developments, and all-
weather roads provide ready access
to industrial parks and job sites.
Electrical power, freshwater and
housing are readily available, and
industrial services providers are
present in the region.
• Plant siting. Excellent project site
opportunities are widely available,
and are commonly located in
existing industrial parks zoned for
facilities development. Extensive
site preparation is not required, as
these areas are generally relatively
level and on firm rock foundations,
negating the need for massive soil
and civil works commonplace at
West Coast sites.
• Marine siting. Similar to the
plant sites, the marine zones
are commonly located within
existing deepwater ports and/or
shipping zones. They are ice-free
or all-weather zones, with minimal
marine infrastructure development
requirements, enabling reduced
overall facility costs to be realized.
• Seismic zones. Projects on the
Pacific Coast sit on the “ring
of fire” and are subject to very
stringent earthquake and tsunami
design parameters. East Coast
projects sit in a benign seismic
zone, reducing both construction
risks and project costs while
increasing LNG delivery certainty.
• Pipeline route. Pipelines to
the west require crossing the
Rocky Mountains and sensitive
wilderness areas. The route east
would leverage almost 2,000 mi of
existing, underutilized pipelines
26 MARCH/APRIL 2018 | GasProcessingNews.com
that are in search of a new business
purpose after the US shale gas
revolution. The new sections of
the pipelines necessary to reach
the Canadian Eastern Seaboard
would traverse more benign
landscapes and largely fall
within existing rights of way.
• Regional synergy. Canada is
engaged in a national program
to phase out all coal-fired power
plants by 2030 on the basis of
environmental concerns. One
of the barriers to this goal is that
Atlantic Canada (the maritime
provinces of Nova Scotia, New
Brunswick, Prince Edward Island,
and Newfoundland and Labrador)
face declining gas availability as
existing fields (i.e., Sable Island)
are depleting, and new exploration
is limited.
In Nova Scotia, for example,
2016 natural gas production was
less than half of that measured
in 2005.9 In 2007, Nova Scotia
produced 76% of its electrical
power from coal, 13% from natural
gas/oil, 9% from renewables and
3% from imported power. The
early 2017 breakdown saw coal at
68%, but natural gas down to just
8%. By 2020, the target is to reduce
coal further, to 38%, with natural
gas/oil falling to 6% on continually
eroding supply. Achieving the 0%
coal target by 2030 without the
opportunity to increase the natural
gas component appears impossible,
and is further complicated by the
need for gas in support of home
heating and other industrial use. By
initiating LNG exports out of Nova
Scotia, the availability of natural
gas in the region will actually
increase, rather than decrease.
• Investment capital and cash
flow. Proponents of Western
British Columbia projects would
be required to finance, build and
operate the liquefaction plants
and associated infrastructure.
Conversely, a tolling structure
would be applied to projects
in Eastern Canada, freeing up
the balance sheet investment
obligations faced by the West
Coast projects. This would enable
Western gas producers to monetize
their sizeable gas investments
without having to tap corporate
capital or credit lines.
Eastward challenges and solutions.
Despite the significant advantages high-
lighted in this work, the challenges that
accompany Canadian East Coast oppor-
tunities must be recognized and accom-
modated. These challenges include:
• Gas supply. Four potential gas
supply paths could service East
Coast projects:
1. US export gas/Marcellus.
At present, two proposed
Eastern Canada export
plants have shared approval
for the export of up to 0.82
Bsft3d of US-sourced natural
gas through the Maritimes
& Northeast Pipeline into
Goldboro, Nova Scotia, to
both US free trade agreement
(FTA) and non-FTA nations.
While this is a significant
supply that approaches
commercially practical
quantities (i.e., nominally
6 Mtpa of LNG), the
existing East Coast pipeline
infrastructure lacks the
ability to access the low-cost
portion of the Marcellus
Shale and is insufficient to
guarantee continuous flow
of this gas during the year,
particularly during the
winter when consumption
in Boston, Massachusetts
and Portland, Maine is
seasonably high. An expansion
of the pipeline infrastructure
and/or an alternate route
would be necessary to
enable this gas supply, and
is problematic in the present
(but possibly evolving)
US regulatory climate.
2. Existing offshore Canadian
gas fields. The Sable gas
field has brought gas into
the Goldboro/Point Tupper
area since the late 1990s, but
production is declining and
decommissioning is imminent.
Associated gas from the White
Rose oil field, located 350
km east of Nova Scotia, is
potentially available; however,
 LNG

a pipeline is not considered

technically feasible from this
location, and CNG delivery
SAULSBURY
to an onshore LNG facility
is not economic at present.
DEPENDABLE, DIVERSIFIED SERVICE
3. New deepwater offshore gas.
Limited exploration is Providing client-focused, self-performed EPC
underway in potential new services with exceptional safety RECORDS and
fields offshore Nova Scotia. It is
anticipated that the associated
optimized cost and schedules
gas from these fields will
eventually develop into a viable Our multi-faceted, fully-integrated expertise
LNG plant feed gas source, but helps you achieve project planning and funding
with an extended timeframe of
unknown duration.
requests, engineering and construction, as well
4. Western Canadian shale gas. as startup and maintenance.
The existing Canadian
mainline gas transmission
network is available to carry
natural gas from the Western
PRE-PLANNING
gas fields to the vicinity of the
Ontario–Quebec provincial
border (FIG. 4). An additional FEED
pipeline of approximately
1,600 km (length dependent
on the routing) would be
necessary to bring gas from SCHEDULING
that point into Goldboro,
near the East Coast. Canada
is home to a massive
infrastructure of 510 Mkm of ENGINEERING
transmission and distribution
pipelines, of which 78 Mkm
are high-pressure transmission
pipelines. The existing PROCUREMENT
TransCanada mainlines run
a total of 14.1 Mkm.10 The
terrain for the new lines is non-
mountainous, and additional URY CONSTRUCTION
SAULSB
offtake opportunities are
LOOK FOR M
available along the route,
0 1 8 G P A MIDSTREA
further enhancing economics 2 N
while mitigating project risks. CONVENTIO 5-18 STARTUP, COMMISSIONING, &
PRIL 1 MAINTENANCE
• Pipeline transportation costs. AUSTIN, A AL
As the US shale expansion took A F P M IN TERNATION NCE
2018 FERE
hold and flows in the TransCanada
E T R O C H E MICAL CON H 25-27
mainlines decreased, toll fees P NIO, MARC
regulated by the Canadian SAN ANTO
National Energy Board (NEB)
were initially increased to account
for the declining revenues at
the expense of the remaining
customers. Firm transportation visit SAULSBURY.COM/SERVICES today
(including fuel) tolls between to learn HOW WE CAN BEST HELP you.
the Alberta Dawn hub in Eastern
Canada increased by 73% between
2006 and 2013. Subsequently, the
NEB has approved new, reduced SAFETY, INTEGRITY, EXCELLENCE, RELATIONSHIPS, COMMUNITY
pipeline tolling rates. Increased
Gas Processing | MARCH/APRIL 201827
LNG

TABLE 3. Summary comparison of project parameters on West Coast and East Coast
Challenge West Coast LNG solution
Gas supply Gas reserves located in Horn River, Montney and other
regional shale areas
Environmental Stringent environmental regulations, broad concerns,
problematic and challenging approval conditions,
highly conditional
Community Mixed; generally supportive, but with highly vocal and
visible pockets of strong community opposition, including
from some of the 32 First Nations bands in British Columbia
concerned with direct and indirect upstream impacts
LNG regulatory Unfamiliar with LNG, rigid regulatory system with delays
framework in approvals, uncertain tax treatment, uncertainties
regarding electrical power supply and use obligations
GHG emissions Costly GHG emissions mitigation measures required by
limits projects to meet provincial requirements, substantial import
power from renewable sources necessary if levels are to be
achieved in practice
Seismic Project sites are on the seismic "ring of fire" and are subject
to very stringent earthquake and tsunami design parameters
Gas pipelines Pipelines transit difficult Rocky Mountain terrain and pristine
wilderness environment, with no complimentary offtake
markets along the route
Labor Limited and expensive skilled craft labor market compounded
by highly remote site locations, leading to higher labor costs
Shipping Closer to mature Asian markets with limited growth potential
Site infrastructure Greenfield locations with minimal existing industrial
infrastructure and services, leading to increased project costs
Project economics Significant balance sheet exposure with LNG plants and
pipelines financed, built and operated by gas reserve owners
Project cost High cost due to extensive infrastructure necessary to
enable both construction and long-term operation; CAPEX/t
expected to be nominally four times that of USGC projects
East Coast LNG solution
Primary supply expected from Western Canada shale plays,
with additional opportunities from offshore Nova Scotia
and regional associated and non-associated supplies,
plus Marcellus US shale gas
Stringent environmental regulations, available industrial
park sites with established history of heavy industrial
development facilitates environmental assessment approvals
Cohesive and collaborative First Nations bands supportive
of responsible development; general community
acceptance of responsible development bringing jobs
and opportunities to industrial areas
Existing regional regulatory framework with Canaport
LNG import terminal in New Brunswick in operation
since 2008; demonstrated ability to secure key permits
to enable construction initiation
GHG emissions intensity limits achievable using a
combination of Nova Scotia power grid supply, together
with a highly efficient LNG process technology using
ammonia precooled mixed-refrigerant liquefaction, coupled
with combined-cycle refrigeration drivers
Benign seismic zone, reducing construction and project
costs; no tsunami threat
Pipelines pass relatively benign landscapes and existing
rights-of-way; existing opportunities to improve regional
availability of natural gas along pipelines, further reducing
use of coal and other higher-carbon fuels
Available skilled craft labor market; collaborative trade
unions provide negotiated labor rates for project
construction cost certainties
Optimum to many markets and growth areas in Europe,
South America, the Middle East and India; the Suez Canal
and the Panama Canal provide global transit routes
Existing industrial regions with ready access to electrical
power, freshwater, housing and industry services
Gas reserve owners can use a tolling model for transport
and liquefaction, minimizing balance sheet investment
obligations
Moderate costs due to ease of site access, greater regional
infrastructure, lower construction costs and favorable site
conditions; CAPEX/t equivalent to USGC project costs
is achievable

usage on the lines holds the
potential for further reductions,
as the cost can be spread across
more flowing molecules.
• Momentum. Substantial
investments were made by both
Canadian and international
energy companies (i.e., Petronas,
KOGAS, Mitsubishi, PetroChina,
CNOOC, Repsol, Sinopec,
Shell and Woodside). Oil and
gas acquisition deals involving
Canadian companies have run into
the tens of billions of dollars. For
example, between 2005 and 2015,
28 MARCH/APRIL 2018 | GasProcessingNews.com
investments by Chinese private
and state-owned companies
into Canadian oil and gas assets
reached CAD 40 B. Much of this
investment was made with a view
toward West Coast LNG exports.
In the corporate world, to change
direction completely can be
difficult; it takes time and
careful consideration.
• USGC competition. The best
project locations on the USGC—
particularly expansion projects and
those brownfield facilities with
existing LNG storage and loading
systems—are able to deliver LNG
projects at CAPEX levels of less
than $800 Mtpy–$1,000/Mtpy.
The best projects (i.e., Magnolia
LNG) are able to approach the
$500/Mtpy level. Canadian
projects must deliver a “cost stack”
(i.e., cost of gas plus transport
plus CAPEX plus OPEX plus
equity plus financing) that is
competitive with that which can
be achieved on the USGC.
• Shipping distances. LNG shipping
distances from the Canadian
maritimes to Asia are obviously

longer than those from British
Columbia’s West Coast. Conversely,
shipping to Europe, South America
and even parts of India are shorter.
Cross-basin cargo swaps should be
much easier to execute, given the
close proximity to the European
market (roughly half the distance
relative to USGC producers) can
also be utilized to offset excessive
shipping differentials.
Overall, despite the longer physical
distance from the prolific Western Canada
shale gas plays to the Canadian East Coast,
compared to the West Coast, compelling
advantages (including regulatory certain-
ty) point to the east, representing a new
opportunity for gas producers (TABLE 3).
Canadian East Coast case study:
The Bear Head LNG project. In 2004,
Anadarko Petroleum Corp. acquired a
255-acre (103-hectare) tract of land and
water lot property in the Point Tupper
Industrial Park on Cape Breton Island in
Richmond County, Nova Scotia.
Anadarko’s intent was to site the Bear
Head LNG import terminal for gas sup-
ply to the regional and Eastern US mar-
kets. Bear Head was one of nearly 50
import terminals proposed for North
America in the face of rapidly declining
conventional onshore and offshore natu-
ral gas production.
The site was ideal for industrial de-
velopment for a number of reasons, with
the established Industrial Park having
an existing coal-fired power plant, an oil
storage terminal, an NGL fractionation
plant, a paper mill and a coal import ma-
rine terminal.
The LNG import terminal received
its environmental permits in 2005. Con-
struction was started, including site clear-
ing and preparation, and the building of
roads, drainage, fencing and foundations
for two LNG storage tanks. However,
rapid evolution in the energy markets
(i.e., shale gas) caused the project to be
put on hold in 2007.
LNG Ltd., the Australia-based parent
company of both Bear Head LNG and
Magnolia LNG, acquired the project site
7 yr later, in 2014. LNG Ltd. initiated
design works for the Bear Head LNG
export plant and expanded the property
package to 327 acres to accommodate an
eventual 12-Mtpy LNG production ca-
pacity (FIG. 6).
FIG. 6. The Bear Head project site today.
The specifics of the Bear Head LNG
project demonstrate many advantages of
a Canadian East Coast location:
• Regulatory certainty. The Bear
Head LNG terminal and the
associated Bear Paw feeder pipeline
(a 63-km, 42-in., high-pressure line
from Goldboro to the project site)
have secured all necessary permits
and authorizations to construct,
ship and export the gas. These
permits include Environmental
Assessment, Transport Canada/
TERMPOL marine permits,
Fisheries and Oceans Canada
authorization, Navigable Waters
Protection Act Authorizations,
NEB Import/Export Approval,
construction permits and, if US-
sourced gas is used, US Department
of Energy non-FTA export
authorization. The project is ready
for construction, from a regulatory
standpoint.
In addition, the project
continues to put in place approvals
for associated documentation,
including the Greenhouse Gas
Management Plan, Emissions
Management Plan, Avian
Management Plan, First Nations
Communications Plan and regional
Complaint Resolution Plan.
• First Nations support. The project
has established an MOU, followed
by a Mutual Benefits Agreement
with the Nova Scotia Mi’kmaq
LNG
chiefs, resulting from a collaborative
process to ensure First Nations
participation in the project and
benefits for the community.
In addition, the Native Council
of Nova Scotia (NCNS) has been
closely involved in the overall
regulatory and agreements
processes. Both Nova Scotia
Environment and the Nova
Scotia Office of Aboriginal
Affairs have approved the project
Communications Plan with the
Mi’kmak chiefs and the NCNS.
Bear Head has made an early
demonstration of its commitment
to the community by using a
First Nations-owned company to
provide site safety and security
since LNG Ltd.’s acquisition of the
property in 2014.
• Union agreement. Bear Head has
put in place a formal agreement
between the project, the Nova
Scotia Construction Labour
Relations Association Ltd. (CLRA)
and regional labor organizations
(12 in total), laying out the
conditions and agreements under
which the Bear Head and Bear Paw
projects will be built.
• Regional community support.
Point Tupper, an industrial park near
Port Hawkesbury, is home to heavy
industry, including an oil storage
terminal, a gas processing facility,
a paper mill and a coal-fired power
Gas Processing | MARCH/APRIL 2018 29
LNG
A few projects will likely find a commercial path
at some point in the future, but, in the meantime,
producers are able to contemplate a viable and
complementary near-term solution to the east.
station. The region is welcoming to
responsible industrial development.
• Regional infrastructure
availability. The Bear Head
project site is located in an existing
industrial park near the town of
Port Hawkesbury, and is accessible
by all-weather roads maintained
by Richmond County. Municipal
water, sewage, electricity, phones,
cellular, internet and medical
services are available.
The site is close enough to
existing population centers to be
readily accessible, yet sufficiently
remote to enable excellent
safety and security separation.
Neighboring facilities are all heavy
industrial. The region is a 3-hr drive
from Halifax, and a 2.5-hr transit
from the Halifax international
airport, making it highly accessible
from anywhere in the world.
• Job site. The job site is ideal for
siting and construction. It is clear
and level due to earlier site prep
activities, and roads and drainage
are in place. The facilities are fenced,
on rock with no piling required, and
sufficiently elevated above sea level
to enable good drainage without
affecting marine shipping access.
The site is of sufficient size to enable
the eventual installation of up to six
2.5-Mtpy mid-scale LNG trains.
• Marine site. The site is located on
the Straight of Canso and is ideal
for LNG loading and shipping.
The straight is ice-free all year,
due to the construction of a rock-
filled causeway to Cape Breton
Island in the 1950s that blocks ice
flows. No breakwater is needed,
no construction or maintenance
dredging is required, and the straight
is wide enough that a turning circle
does not need to be constructed.
Existing marine traffic is light.
The seabed is rock, and deep
water is available very close to shore,
requiring the construction of only a
30 MARCH/APRIL 2018 | GasProcessingNews.com
nominal jetty, 150 m long, from the
shoreline to the loading platform,
to reach the 15-m water depth.
An adjacent material offloading
facility will be installed for modules
and materials, tug docking and
ongoing services support.
Economics. The focus of this work is
technical, but a brief discussion of eco-
nomic issues provides a more complete
profile. Compared to proposed British
Columbian West Coast projects, Bear
Head LNG provides a number of substan-
tial economic advantages:
• Low-cost, energy-efficient, patented
liquefaction process technology
• CAPEX ($/t) comparable with the
best of the USGC projects
• Compact, five-module, mid-scale
design, with minimal site hookups
• Optimal site location and civil/
environmental/seismic conditions
• Available skilled labor pool and
no camps
• Existing infrastructure and prior
civil improvements
• Lower OPEX due to higher
efficiency, better site accessibility
and greater available regional
infrastructure
• Low-risk pipeline featuring existing
rights-of-way, no mountain range
crossing and markets along the route
• No capital outlay by gas producers
(i.e., all-tolling model)
• Viable and current monetization
solution for Western Canada
gas reserves
• Ability to “book” stranded gas
reserves, increasing revenue
replacement value and share price
• LNG cargo arbitrage opportunities
within the Atlantic Basin and
across the Middle East and
Pacific Rim markets
• Diversity into resource holder’s
global LNG supply portfolio.
Overall, it is anticipated that the Bear
Head project can put LNG on the water
in Nova Scotia for a lower total cost than
West Coast projects, despite the longer
pipeline transport requirements.
Takeaway. Substantial investments have
been made by multiple parties intent on
monetizing Western Canada shale gas
resources via LNG projects on British
Columbia’s coastline. These investments
amount to many billions of dollars, includ-
ing acreage acquisitions. Extensive infra-
structure development needs, high project
costs, environmental concerns and com-
munity issues have combined to effectively
close this route as a viable solution to date.
A few of these projects will likely find a
commercial path at some point in the fu-
ture, but, in the meantime, producers are
able to contemplate a viable and comple-
mentary near-term solution to the east.
Gas producers have the opportunity to
bring these resources to market now, by
following the advice of Horace Greeley
and looking in a new direction—this time,
East instead of West.
End of series. Part 1 of this article ap-
peared in the January/February issue of
Gas Processing. GP
LITERATURE CITED
9
Canada National Energy Board, Government of
Canada, “Marketable natural gas production in
Canada,” December 4, 2017, online: https://www.
neb-one.gc.ca/nrg/sttstc/ntrlgs/stt/mrktblntrlg-
sprdctn-eng.html
10
Gomes, I., “Natural gas in Canada: What are the
options going forward?” Oxford Institute for Energy
Studies, May 2015.
JOHN G. BAGULEY serves as
Chief Operating Officer for the
Magnolia LNG and Bear Head
LNG projects, and as Chief Technical
Officer for LNG Ltd. His involvement
in international LNG project
development and delivery spans
nearly 37 yr and includes project management,
engineering, construction and commissioning roles.
He holds a BS degree in chemical engineering from
Michigan State University in East Lansing, Michigan,
and is a registered Professional Engineer in Texas.
SCOTT ATHA was formerly
Director of LNG Marketing
and Commercial Strategy
for Bear Head LNG in Houston,
Texas. He joined Bear Head
from Gazprom Marketing
and Trading, where he was
responsible for leading the commercial
development of long-term LNG supply and
marketing opportunities in the Americas from
2007 to 2014. Mr. Atha has 15 yr of experience in
the oil and gas industry, with concentrations in the
LNG, midstream and upstream sectors. He holds
a BS degree in industrial engineering from the
Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta, Georgia.

Supervise gas turbine speed and axial load
to control exhaust temperature
S. BOULANOUAR, A. HAFAIFA and K. ABDELLAH, Applied Automation and
Industrial Diagnostics Laboratory, University of Djelfa, Algeria
Supervision and control of gas turbines are complex tasks
that require expert experience. However, it is difficult to ensure
the availability of experts at all times and at all sites.
This article proposes the building of an expert system,
based on practical, cumulative experiences and system knowl-
edge, to regulate and ensure the supervision and control of gas
turbine variables. This system would enable the prediction
of abnormal turbine operating scenarios, thereby reducing
turbine downtime, limiting production losses and reducing
maintenance costs.
Introduction. The complexity of the supervision of a gas tur-
bine lies in the difficulty of obtaining a detailed mathematical
model, as well as in the randomness and fluctuating behaviors
of the variables to be controlled in this machine. During gas
turbine operation, the monitoring system is provided to ensure
its control and protection. However, a suitable monitoring sys-
tem must be developed to monitor the gas turbine parameters
and to achieve the necessary flexibility for meeting the differ-
ent types of loads imposed on the turbine.1–3
Gas can be fired and burned only within a narrow ratio of
air to fuel. The temperature is dependent on the percentage of
intake air. On the other hand, if the speed of the gas turbine
cannot be measured, then the amount of absorbed air cannot
be measured with sufficient precision so that it can be used in
the control of the exhaust temperature.4–6
This article proposes artificial intelligence techniques, based
on the use of fuzzy logic, for the design and implementation of
an intelligent controller for a gas turbine. A mathematical mod-
el based on thermodynamic variations is used to describe the
behavior of a gas turbine to improve its operation.
Gas turbine supervision system. The performance of a
gas turbine is influenced by the temperature of the intake air,
which varies considerably during different seasons. This sen-
sitivity to seasonal and temperature variation adversely affects
the operation of the gas turbine.1,7–10 During proper gas turbine
operation, increases in speed rate and exhaust temperature are
limited to protect turbine components against excessive ther-
mal and mechanical stresses.
Increases in acceleration and temperature are independently
controlled by the closed loop of the temperature and speed con-
trol systems. These operating rates are limited by the control
circuit, and the fuel control signals are sent by the control soft-
ware launch. In addition, the software sets the maximum and
TURBOMACHINERY
minimum fuel stroke reference (FSR) and allows manual con-
trol of the FSR. FIG. 1 shows a simplified diagram of a gas turbine
and its control system. Input and output signals include the ro-
tational speed (N), the temperature of the absorbed air (T0 ),
the exhaust temperature (TX ) and the mechanical power. The
gas turbine speed depends on the intake air and the gas volume.
Fuzzy logic is a suitable tool for building the supervisory
control laws with the following objectives:
• Determine the fuel flow (the reference signal controlling
the fuel flow FSR), depending on the rotational speed
• Obtain the exhaust temperature control over a range
of ambient temperatures.
Overheating manifests in the increase in exhaust tempera-
ture (TExhaust ). Beyond certain overheating limits, a destruction
risk exists for the hot part, particularly the internal combustion
chamber of the gas turbine, the nozzle of the gas turbine and
possibly the moving blades of the turbine (FIG. 2).11
Overheating is a more frequent occurrence at the startup
stage due to startup anomalies—e.g., rapid acceleration can
cause overheating. However, permanent overheating is pos-
sible if the efficiency of the compressor and the gas turbine are
deteriorated. Therefore, the measuring and recording of TExhaust
is classified for simple display, for alarm or to halt startup.
In any case, the cause of overheating must be uncovered if
the startup overheating exceeds certain limits. The startup
Speed
Exaust gas temperature
Air
Compressor Turbine
Load
Cumbustion system
Wf
Inlet guid vane and positioner Fuel system
Signal to the IGV positioner
Control unit
Signal to the
fuel system
FIG. 1. Control system of a gas turbine.
Gas Processing | MARCH/APRIL 2018 31
TURBOMACHINERY
must be stopped, and the fuel accumulation in the combustion
chamber must be purged.11–13 In this case, limits for TExhaust can
be classified for simple display, for alarm or for shutdown.
The typical process flow of a gas turbine is shown in FIG. 3.
In this study, the gas turbine supervision consists of three con-
trol loops:
• Room temperature control—i.e., temperature at the
compressor intake, T1 = TA
• Turbine combustion chamber temperature control, TCC
• Turbine shaft rotational speed control, N.
Temperature and speed controls are activated during an
abnormal operating state, where the maximum power of a gas
turbine exceeds the operating limit, which depends on the shaft
speed and the ambient temperature. A simplified representa-
tion of a gas turbine model is shown in FIG. 4.
Controlling the temperature of a gas turbine limits the tem-
perature of the exhaust gas by reducing the fuel flow, as the air
flow decreases with the speed of the shaft. For a given gas tur-
bine, the reference temperature is 513°C. The maximum tem-
FIG. 2. Gas turbine showing side intake air and side exhaust.
Fuel flow
Air flow
Gas turbine
Inlet air temperature
Atmospheric air pressure
FIG. 3. Control variables of a gas turbine.
Temperature
control
Speed Minimum value
control selection
Min
Acceleration
control Power
Gas turbine
FIG. 4. Simplified representation of a gas turbine model.
32 MARCH/APRIL 2018 | GasProcessingNews.com
perature during the transition period should not exceed 80%
above the reference temperature.
In FIG. 5, the evolution of the temperatures in the gas tur-
bine is shown. The temperature due to air compression reaches
approximately 115°C, and the outlet of the low-pressure wheel
temperature reaches approximately 450°C.
The low-pressure compressor, the high-pressure compres-
sor, the combustor and the high-pressure impeller (HPI) tem-
peratures reach 115°C, 500°C, 1,200°C and 840°C, respectively.
Thermodynamic cycle of a gas turbine. The thermody-
namic cycle is represented in a temperature vs. specific entropy
(T–s) diagram, based on a Brayton cycle of temperature and
shown in FIG. 6. The theoretical cycle gas turbine comprises:
Input temperature, T1 , which represents the compressor intake
value T1 = TA ; and the temperature (T2 ) representing the end of
the isentropic compression. The gas temperature increases in the
combustion chamber from T2 to T3 , and the temperature value
T3 is determined from the balance of the combustion chamber.
In the last step, the gases expand adiabatically in the turbine (step
T3 to T4 ). These transformations are expressed in Eqs. 1–4:
ΔW + ΔQ = ΔH (1)
WComb = M × CP × (T2 – T1 ) (2)
Q Comb = M × CP × (T3 – T2 ) (3)
WExpansion = M × CP × (T3 – T4 ) (4)
FIG. 7 shows the temperature evolution in different sections
of the gas turbine, from the temperature from air compression
(approximately 115°C) to the temperature of the output wheel
of low pressure (approximately 450°C).
Gas turbine variables control. The control of TExhaust is
performed with a computer that receives signals from the 12
thermocouples (TC ) distributed on the second-stage turbine
blade. The computer interprets and compares different val-
ues, and then calculates the average temperature and sends it
to the PLC.
When the input turbine temperature is high, the turbine
blades become deformed. To limit T4 , a temperature control
Mechanical power is implemented. The output temperature of the power turbine
Measured exhaust gas is often used as a control variable because the measurement of
temperature T4 is difficult to obtain. Temperature control can be achieved
Measured shaft speed
1,200
LPC
1,000 HPC
DLE
800 HPT
LPT
Fuel system 600
dynamics
400
200
0
FIG. 5. Evolution of the temperatures in various turbine components.
 TURBOMACHINERY

by using a proportional-integral (PI) controller. The transfer The gas turbine torque characteristics are a function of the
function for this controller is shown in Eq. 5: fuel flow, and the turbine speed is essentially linear, as de-
⎛ 1 ⎞ scribed in Eq. 10:
G(s) = k2 × ⎜ 1 + (5)
⎝ T2 s ⎟⎠ f2 = 1.3 × (Wf – 0.23) + 0.5 × (1 – N) (10)
The transfer function describing the characteristics of the ther- For acceleration control, the gas turbine can easily pack
mocouples can be expressed as shown in Eq. 6: when its speed increases rapidly. However, the acceleration
1 control is introduced to avoid such overspend. The tempera-
G(s) = (6) ture control and acceleration control of the subsystem are per-
2.5s + 1 formed using a PI regulator. The transfer function is shown in
The exhaust temperature is expressed by Eq. 7. It is depen- Eqs. 11 and 12:
dent on the reference temperature, the fuel and the initial speed.
TExhaust 79.19S 2 + 344.5S + 372.3
f1 = TExhaust = TR – 700 × (1 – Wf ) + 500 × (1 – N) (7) G3 (s) = = (11)
F(S) S 2 + 3.266S + 0.9384
Temperature control can be achieved based on the control TExhaust (S) –119S 2 + 312.2S – 148.6
block presented in Eq. 8: G4 (s) = = (12)
IGV(S) S 2 + 3.266S + 0.9384
TExhaust (S) 0.7975S 2 + 0.8849S −1.42 The fuel flowrates are the outputs for the three control sub-
G1(s) = = 2 (8)
TAmb (S) S + 3.266S + 0.9384 systems. After selection by a minimum selector, the final result
is used to control the parameters of the gas turbine. Under nor-
As the compressor intake temperature increases, the spe- mal circumstances, the shaft speed control subsystem has the
cific compression work increases, while the air mass flowrate decisive effect. The temperature control and acceleration con-
decreases due to a decrease in specific gravity. Accordingly, trol are generally ineffective, except under special conditions.
the turbine efficiency and the useful work (and, therefore, the
power) decrease. 10 1,000 Temperature, °C
If the temperature decreases, the reverse scenario occurs. 9 900
FIG. 9 shows an example of how power, specific fuel consump- 8 800
tion and exhaust gas flow are influenced by the ambient tem- 7 700
perature.3,10,14–20 The variation of the reference temperature, Tυ , 6 600
Pressure, bar

depends on the fluctuation of the ambient temperature, TAmb . Temperature

5 500
For the shaft speed control, the difference setting mode is 400
2
applied to the shaft speed control subsystem. A proportion
3 300
control method is used in the proportional integral-derivative
2 200
(PID) controller. It is reasonable to consider the controller as a Pressure
1 100
control loop proportion of single control inertia. The transfer 0 0
function is given in Eq. 9:
1 2 3 4 5 6
2
TExhaust (S) 21.98S + 207.6S + 327.2 FIG. 7. Temperature evolution in different parts of the gas turbine.
G2 (s) = = 2 (9)
N(S) S + 3.266S + 0.9384
Measured exhaust Corrected exhaust
temperature 1 1 – GSH temperature
GSH
1 + TTR S 1 + TSH S
T
3 Thermocouple Radiation shield

FIG. 8. Exhaust temperature measurement block.

TRelease

120
TComb

Specific consumption
Variation, %

4 105
Condition
100
2 95
TEscape

Power produced
TComp

1 270 285 290 325

Temperature, °C
S
FIG. 9. Influence of ambient temperature on the performance
FIG. 6. Diagram from temperature Brayton cycle. of a gas turbine.

Gas Processing | MARCH/APRIL 2018 33

TURBOMACHINERY

NM NS Z PS PM This article proposes the implementation of an intel-

1.0
ligent controller for the gas turbine, based on fuzzy logic
0.8 (TABLE 1).21–25 The fuzzy membership function structure of
the selected controller is shown in FIG. 10. To achieve the pro-
Membership, °

0.6 posed approach, a simulation model is required that is able to

0.4 describe the behavior of the gas turbine to ensure the opti-
mum behavior of the system under study. The gas turbine sys-
0.2 tem has two variables—input variables and output variables:
0.0
• Input variables: The ambient air temperature (TA ),
combustion chamber temperature (TCC ) and the
–1.0 –0.8 –0.6 –0.4 –0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 shaft rotation speed of the gas turbine (N).
Input variable, TA, speed and TCC
• Output variables: The fuel flow signals (DSC).
NM NS Z PS PM
1.0
TABLE 1. Interference (fuzzy logic) rules
0.8
Temperature Ambient
of combustion temperature, TAmb
Membership, °

0.6
chamber, TCC
NM NS Z PS PM
0.4
Speed of NM PB PB PM PM PS
0.2 rotation, N
NS PM PM PS PS Z
0.0 Z PM PM PS Z Z
–1.0 –0.8 –0.6 –0.4 –0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 PS PM PS PS Z Z
Output variable, FSR
PM PS PS Z Z Z
FIG. 10. Membership function of different linguistic variables. Note: NB = Negative big, NM= Negative mean, NS = Negative small, PS = Positive small,
PM = Positive mean, PB = Positive big

FIG. 11. Change in working capital, according to the TCC and speed, with the variation of FSR function of TCC and TA.

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
FSR

-0.05

-0.10

-0.15

-0.20
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
Tcc

FIG. 12. Variation of the FSR, depending on the ambient temperature and the speed of rotation, with the variation of the FSR function of the
combustion chamber temperature.

34 MARCH/APRIL 2018 | GasProcessingNews.com
 TURBOMACHINERY

0.15 0.3

0.10 0.2

0.05 0.1

0.00 0.0
FSR

FSR
-0.05 -0.1

-0.10 -0.2

-0.15 -0.3

-0.20 -0.4
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
Ta Speed

FIG. 13. Variation of the FSR, depending on the ambient temperature, with the variation of the FSR function of the shaft speed of rotation
of the turbine.

Simulation results. Validation tests were performed to evalu- Radiation shield

1.00
ate the performance and the capacity of the proposed control System: G1
approach. FIGS. 11–13 show the three-phase function of tem- 0.95 Time, sec: 48.9
Amplitude

perature. In these results, the DSC is adapted to the combus- Amplitude: 0.997
0.90
tion system of the gas turbine for the application in different
0.85
phases of operation (startup, overheating, acceleration and
0.80
the normal operating conditions of a gas turbine) and under 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
climate effects. Changes in the DSC from the temperature of Time, sec
the combustion chamber and the ambient temperature of the Thermocouple
1.0
intake air, as well as from the shaft speed of rotation of the gas System: G2
turbine, are shown in FIGS. 14 and 15, respectively. Settling time, sec: 6.65
Amplitude

FIG. 16 shows the temperature response of the exhaust gas 0.5

speed and the fuel flow by IGV. The temperature reaches
constant value at the steady state after the transitory period.
0.0
The increasing value during the transient temperature does 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
not exceed the thresholds of protection; therefore, the gas Time, sec
turbine does not come out of the operating mode during the FIG. 14. Radiation response of the shield and thermocouple.
startup stage.
From the control system used, it can be concluded that:
• During the initial startup period, the FSR is maintained Step response
350
at zero until it reaches the ignition speed and the purge
System: G
of the gas turbine is completed 300 Settling time, sec: 12.2
• The ignition FSR level is required and the ignition
is applied 250
• After the heating period, the fuel supply to the gas 200
Amplitude

turbine is gradually increased at a predetermined rate

until the FSR reaches a fixed limit of acceleration 150
• As the gas turbine accelerates to reach the rated speed,
the airflow increases to provide more fuel. 100
When the FSR of the gas turbine is under speed control,
50
the fixed limit of fuel is transferred from the level of accel-
eration to the maximum level. However, the FSR that is ef- 0
fectively applied is kept at the required level by the speed 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time, sec
control system.
FIG. 15. Step response of the speed.
Takeaway. Fuzzy logic has been used to control the gas tur-
bine at various stages of operation (launch, startup and accel- bine operation. Its output can be increased by reducing the
eration) by the optimization of the FSR and the minimization compressor intake temperature, which is achieved by intro-
of the energy absorbed by the gas turbine. ducing cooling air into the compressor. The temperature of
An increase in ambient temperature will slow the gas tur- the exhaust gas is also controlled by increasing the air flow.
Gas Processing | MARCH/APRIL 2018 35
TURBOMACHINERY

Exhaust temperature of the 1st International Conference on Applied Automation and Industrial
Diagnostics (ICAAID), Djelfa, Algeria, March 29–30, 2015.
13
Halimi, D., A. Hafaifa, E. Bouali and M. Guemana, “Use modeling as part of a
Amplitude

System: G compressor maintenance program,” Gas Processing, September/October 2014.

Settling time, sec: 11.7 14
Hafaifa, A., B. Rachid and G. Mouloud, “Modeling of surge phenomena in a
centrifugal compressor: Experimental analysis for control,” Systems Science and
0.80 Control Engineering, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2014.
0 5 10 15 20 25
15
Hafaifa, A., G. Mouloud and B. Rachid, “Fuzzy modeling and control of
Time, sec centrifugal compressor used in gas pipeline systems,” Multiphysics Modeling
Speed and Simulation for Systems Design and Monitoring (series), Applied Condition
Monitoring, Vol. 2, 2015.
16
Sica, F. C., F. G. Guimarães, R. Duarte and A. J. R. Reis, “A cognitive system for
Amplitude

fault prognosis in power transformers,” Electric Power Systems Research, Vol.

System: G
Settling time, sec: 12.2 127, 2015.
17
Tsai, G.-C., “Rotating vibration behavior of the turbine blades with different
0.80 groups of blades,” Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 271, No. 3–6, 2004.
18
Wang, W. Q., M. F. Golnaraghi and F. Ismail, “Prognosis of machine health con-
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time, sec dition using neuro-fuzzy systems,” Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, Vol.
18, No. 4, 2004.
Inlet guide vanes 19
Chen, X., J. Yu, D. Tang and Y. Wang, “A Novel PF-LSSVR-based framework for
failure prognosis of nonlinear systems with time-varying parameters,” Chinese
Amplitude

Journal of Aeronautics, Vol. 25, No. 5, 2012.

System: G
Settling time, sec: 13.5
0.80
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time, sec
FIG. 16. Response of the exhaust temperature, speed and IGV.
Validation tests based on a fuzzy logic system improved the
fuel demand of the FSR in the combustion chamber. Fuzzy
logic control rules ensure the oscillation damping of the sys-
tem response, with better recorded performance. GP
LITERATURE CITED
1
Benyounes, A., A. Hafaifa and A. Daoudi, “Takagi Sugeno models identification
based on fuzzy data construction: Gas turbine investigation,” Proceedings of the
1st International Conference on Applied Automation and Industrial Diagnostics
(ICAAID 2015), Djelfa, Algeria, March 29–30, 2015.
2
Hafaifa, A., M. Guemana and A. Daoudi, “Vibration supervision in gas turbine
based on parity space approach to increasing efficiency,” Journal of Vibration and
Control, Vol. 21, June 2015.
3
Ewins, D. J., “Control of vibration and resonance in aero engines and rotating
machinery—An overview,” International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping,
Vol. 87, No. 9, 2010.
4
Mohamed, B. R., A. Hafaifa and G. Mouloud, “Vibration modeling improves
pipeline performance, costs,” Oil & Gas Journal, Vol. 113, No. 3, 2015.
5
Grondahl, C. M., M. E. Guiler, G. E. Jurczynski and R. Zell, “Performance and
reliability improvements for MS3002 and MS5001 turbines in pipeline appli-
cations,” Proceedings of the 37th Annual Petroleum and Chemical Industry
Conference, Industry Applications Society, Houston, Texas, 1990.
6
Kanoglu, M., I. Dincer and M. A. Rosen, “Understanding energy and exergy
efficiencies for improved energy management in power plants,” Energy Policy, Vol.
35, No. 1, 2007.
7
Saadat, B., A. Hafaifa and K. Abdallaha, “Modélisation des vibrations appliquée
à la prise de décision pour le diagnostic d’une turbine à gaz,” Proceedings of the
1st Colloque International sur les Hydrocarbures, Energies et Environnement
(HCEE), Ouargla, Algeria, November 23–24, 2014.
8
Forbes, G. L. and R. B. Randall, “Simulated gas turbine casing response to rotor
blade pressure excitation,” Proceedings of the 5th Australasian Congress on
Applied Mechanics, ACAM 2007, Brisbane, Australia.
9
Kessentini, S., S. Choura, F. Najar and M. A. Franchek, “Modeling and dynam-
ics of a horizontal axis wind turbine,” Journal of Vibration and Control, Vol. 16,
No. 13, 2010.
10
Cuffaro, V., F. Curà and R. Sesana, “Advanced life assessment methods for gas
turbine engine components,” Procedia Engineering, Vol. 74, 2014.
11
Guemana, M., S. Aissani and A. Hafaifa, “Use a new calibration method for gas
pipelines: An advanced method improves calibrating orifice flowmeters while
reducing maintenance costs,” Hydrocarbon Processing, Vol. 90, No. 8, 2011.
12
Saadat, B., A. Hafaifa and K. Abdallaha, “Analyse des vibrations dans les turbines
à gaz par une approche d’optimisation basée sur un système expert,” Proceedings
20
Pan, Y., M. J. Er, X. Li, H. Yu and R. Gouriveau, “Machine health condition
prediction via online dynamic fuzzy neural networks,” Engineering Applications of
Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 35, 2014.
21
Hafaifa, A., A. Daoudi and K. Laroussi, “Application of fuzzy diagnosis in fault
18 20 detection and isolation to the compression system protection,” Control and
Intelligent Systems, Vol. 39, No. 3, 2011.
22
Li, D., W. Wang and F. Ismail, “Enhanced fuzzy-filtered neural networks for mate-
rial fatigue prognosis,” Applied Soft Computing, Vol. 13, No. 1, 2013.
23
Liu, Q., M. Dong, W. Lu, X. Geng and Y. Li, “A novel method using adaptive
hidden semi-Markov model for multi-sensor monitoring equipment health prog-
nosis,” Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, Vol. 64–65, 2015.
24
Stetter, R., P. Witczak, C. Spindler, J. Hertel and M. Witczak, “Intelligent Systems
for the Prognosis of Energy Consumption in Manufacturing and Assembly,”
Procedia CIRP, Vol. 33, 2015.
25
Tran, V. T., B.-S. Yang and A. C. C. Tan, “Multi-step ahead direct prediction for
the machine condition prognosis using regression trees and neuro-fuzzy sys-
tems,” Expert Systems with Applications, Vol. 36, No. 5, 2009.
SAADAT BOULANOUAR holds BS and MS degrees in
electrical engineering. He is preparing his PhD thesis on
automatic control at the University of Djelfa. The aim of his
PhD research is improvement of the reliability of industrial
systems, based on the development of a prognostic system.
AHMED HAFAIFA holds a state engineering degree in applied
automation, and an MS degree in applied automation and
control systems. He also holds a PhD in applied automation
and signal processing from Boumerdes University. He is a
Professor in Reliability Engineering at the Science and
Technology Department at the University of Djelfa in Djelfa,
Algeria. Dr. Hafaifa is also the founder of the Applied
Automation and Industrial Diagnostic Laboratory at the University of Djelfa.
He supervises PhD students and coordinates several industrial research projects
for applied automation and reliability of industrial systems. His research interests
include modeling and control of industrial systems, reliability engineering, fault
detection and isolation in industrial systems, intelligent systems based on fuzzy
logic and neural networks. Dr. Hafaifa also serves on several national and
international commissions and collaborative research activities.
KOUZOU ABDELLAH holds a state engineering degree from
the University of Tiaret, an MS degree from the University
of Boumerdes and a PhD from the Polytechnics Superior
National School. He is the Dean of the faculty of Sciences and
Technology at Djelfa University in Algeria, where he has been
the President of the scientific council of the faculty since
June 2014. He is also a collaborator and researcher at Texas
A&M University at Qatar, and he was a researcher with Technische Universität
of Muenchen in Germany from 2010–2012. Dr. Abdellah is a senior member of
the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, a senior member of the
International Association of Computer Science and Information Technology
and a member of the International Association of Engineers.

36 MARCH/APRIL 2018 | GasProcessingNews.com

Minimize flaring with modifications
to flare gas recovery unit
H. R. KALAT JARI and A. BORHANI, Sazeh Engineering Consultants, Tehran, Iran
Every refinery has a pressure relief and
flare system to enable safe handling and
disposal of hydrocarbon vapors and liq-
uids. The flare gas recovery unit (FGRU)
provides many benefits to the end user,
including a reduction of plant fuel and
steam consumption, an increase in flare
tip life, a rapid return on investment, a
decrease in plant emissions and a reduc-
tion in continuous flare operation.
A variety of strategies exist for mini-
mizing flaring. These strategies include
the use of plant practices and existing
equipment to control processes that pro-
duce waste gases. Equipment must be
properly maintained to minimize leaks
into the waste gas header. Another strat-
egy encompasses an improved under-
standing of how waste gases are produced
under a given set of conditions, so that
those conditions can be avoided.
This might mean recycling waste gas-
es back into the process or using alterna-
tive technologies that produce less waste.
Another example is the FGRU (FIG. 1),
which can capture waste gases that would
have been flared, either for use in the
plant or for sale.
Plant practices: FGRU study rules.
The consideration of flare gas recovery in
a low-pressure (LP) flare package system
in a typical gas plant is discussed here. As
per the utility summary for the plant, flar-
ing is divided into two main categories:
normal continuous LP flaring and inter-
mittent flaring.
The definition of the flare gas recov-
ery unit covers only the recovery of nor-
mal continuous flaring streams, including
flash and stripping gas. Intermittent flar-
ing includes gases flared during unex-
pected shutdowns or in abnormal unit
operating conditions. Intermittent flaring
cases (e.g., emergency depressuring in the
FLARING
high-pressure or medium-pressure flare)
should be considered during the design
of seal drums and connection facilities.
Based on the data shown in TABLE 1,
the designer should review options for
reducing backpressure. For example,
backpressure should not exceed 10% of
set pressure for the conventional valve;
balanced or pilot valves may be consid-
ered if backpressure is excessive. Other
possible remedies include making jump-
overs to relieve local backpressure, re-
placing pipes and pressure safety valves
(PSVs), running a parallel flare line, and
moving a load to a different part of the
flare system. The data in TABLE 1 may be
useful for the selection of FGRUs during
plant retrofitting.
Typical scenarios for FGRU. In
an FGRU with a water seal drum
FIG. 2,
is shown for a hypothetical Scenario 1.
The FGRU could be installed at the bot-
tom of the flare stack or on a water seal
Purge gas
Knockout drum
Flare knockout drum
Existing
New
Flare knockout drum pump
FIG. 1. Typical flare gas recovery unit.
drum located a short distance away from
the flare stack. Water seals can be used
only for a conventional pipe flare tip and
are not compatible with a high backpres-
sure. They must avoid discharging gas to
the sewer and through the vent that is
used as a vacuum breaker on the seal leg.
Water seals protect the upstream
headers and flare drum against air in-
gress, mainly when the purge gas is
stopped and particularly during mainte-
nance. In addition to increasing the ef-
ficiency of the FGR operation, deep seal
drums provide a higher level of safety in
the overall system design.
If the volume of flare gas that is re-
lieved to the flare system exceeds the
capacity of the FGRU, then the pressure
in the flare header will increase until it
exceeds the backpressure exerted on the
header by the liquid seal. In this event,
excess gas volume will pass through the
liquid seal drum and to the flare, where it
will be burned. The seal drum should be
Flare stack
Flare seal drum
CWR
Knockout drum
Fuel gas
system
Compressor CWR Compressor
stage 1 stage 2 CWS Fuel gas treater
CWS
Pump out
Gas Processing | MARCH/APRIL 2018 37
FLARING

TABLE 1. PSV specifications in LP flare system in gas processing plant

Set Relative Back- Calculated Delta back-
Capacity, Tail pipe pressure, temperature, pressure, maximum allowable pressure,
Unit Tag no. kg/hr size, in. barg °C barg backpressure, barg barg
MEG regeneration PSV-46 180 2 3.5 150 0.01 0.25a 0.24
unit
PSV-36 4,000 6 3.5 37 0.18 1.35 1.17
Condensate PSV-06 A/B 21,000 12 3.5 170 0.14 0.24a 0.1
stabilization unit
PSV-08B 13,500 8 0.6 36 0.08 0.2 a
0.12
Sulfur recovery PSV-11 4,500 4 5 165 0.07 0.3 a
0.23
unit
PSV-09 15,000 8 6 214 0.2 0.27 a
0.07
PSV-12 52,000 18 3.5 205 0.28 0.29a 0.01
Backup stabilization PSV-07 43,000 12 3.5 245 0.05 0.05 a
0
unit
PSV-09B 7,000 8 0.7 17 0.04 0.55 0.51
Propane and butane PSV-51 16,000 6 3.5 0.6 0.25 1.2 0.95
treatment units
PSV-41 7,000 6 3.5 39 0.07 0.27a 0.2
Sour water PSV-15 980 3 12 200 0.02 0.22 a
0.2
stripping unit
PSV-75 980 3 12 200 0.02 0.22 a
0.2
PSV-76 18,500 12 3.5 150 0.02 0.55 0.53
PSV-17 2,700 6 8 182 0.04 0.24a 0.2
PSV-26 1,500 6 3.5 155 0.04 0.2 a
0.16
PSV-86 1,500 6 3.5 155 0.03 0.13a 0.1
a
The type of PSVs and the related backpressure will be rechecked during the engineering stage.

Gas outlet
Gas inlet
Water
inlet
Water level
Water
overflow
FIG. 2. Seal drum schematic.
of a similar design philosophy as that in
API Recommended Practice (RP) 521. A
vertical configuration may be preferable
to a horizontal one, for spatial reasons.
Rather than using a baffle weir and drain
system, a liquid level regulation and pref-
erential hydrocarbon skimming may be
accomplished using multiple standpipes
of differing heights.
Experience has shown the need for
attention to vessel internals to prevent
troublesome wave action of the dis-
turbed seal fluid. Such disturbances may
occur due to an excursion in flare flow
38 MARCH/APRIL 2018 | GasProcessingNews.com
that breaks the seal, or to incorrect tun-
ing of compressor controls. In general,
the compressor should be placed so that
the effect of process unit shutdowns will
not affect its availability. Conventional
compressor control strategy calls for an
adjustment to the (net) discharge flow of
the compressor to maintain constant suc-
tion pressure. A suction pressure of ap-
proximately 1 psig is high enough to pre-
vent air ingress and low enough to allow
the existing relief valves to perform prop-
erly. The suction pressure is determined
by the seal liquid height in the seal drum.
In a deep seal drum, the depth of the
sealing fluid is designed to be equal to
the staging pressure of the staged flare
system. The overflow chamber can be
designed to automatically flow back into
the sealing chamber after the gas veloc-
ity decreases below the rate required for
closing off the second stage. The depth
of the liquid seal drum must be consid-
ered when calculating the relief header
backpressure. The height of the liquid
seal can be determined using Eq. 1:
h = 144 × p/ρ
where:
h = Net height of liquid seal, ft
p = Maximum allowable header
backpressure, psi
ρ = Sealing liquid density, lb/ft3.
The vessel-free area for gas flow above
the liquid level should be a minimum of 3
ft, or three times the inlet pipe cross-sec-
tional area, to prevent surges of gas flow
to the flare and to provide space for dis-
engagement. API RP 521 states that surg-
ing in seal drums can be minimized with
the use of V-notches on the end of the dip
leg. If the water sloshes in the seal drum,
it will cause pulsations in the gas flow to
the flare, resulting in noise and light dis-
turbances. For this reason, most facilities
prefer to use either a displacement seal or
a perforated anti-slosh baffle.
Scenario 2 describes a fast-opening
valve (FIG. 3). The flare stack should be
isolated from the part of the flare system
where gas is recovered by a fail-open,
quick-opening shutoff valve that opens
only during abnormal or emergency flar-
ing. This valve should be provided with a
bypass loop containing a bursting disc, as
a secondary form of protection, to avoid
the flare system becoming dependent on
(1)
instrumentation and valve operation.
The recovery line between the flare
system and the main process should be

TABLE 2. Comparison of seal drum and FOV in LP flare system
Case Seal drum
Advantages
Maximum allowable back PSV replacement
pressure is mandatory
Vacuum design Not applicable; seal drum size
will be increased based
on vacuum design
Relief system Rupture disk (or pin valve)
is necessary
Liquid carryover Not applicable
Freezing (or ice balling) Not applicable
Disadvantages
Utility water supply Required
Sump water drum Required
Civil, piping and Applicable
construction works
Liquid carryover May occur
equipped with a valve that closes when
flaring gas. Where a flare gas recovery
system is provided, the recovery system
should be sized to accommodate the sum
of the normal flow of gas into the flare
or vent system (if one exists) plus the
anticipated leakage from relief valves,
blowdown valves and process pressure
spill-off valves. The opening mechanism
must react quickly and safely to handle
the dynamic effects associated with the
opening of blowdown valves or large re-
lief valves. The opening mechanism must
prevent excessive pressure buildup in the
flare system while opening. The compo-
nents considered for closure of the flare
system are the actuated fast-opening
valve (FOV), the bursting disc (BD) and
the buckle pin valve (BPV).
The opening time for an FOV is ap-
proximately 2 sec. Once activated, the
FOV remains open until it is manually
reset after normal operating conditions
have been reestablished. The opening
function of a BPV is similar to that of a
PSV; however, the BPV does not close
after opening, as the guard pin is perma-
nently buckled. The BPV has a very fast
reaction. Also, the distribution of activa-
tion pressure is quite narrow and is there-
fore considered suitable as a first level of
protection in addition to the active device.
The BD is extremely fast-opening,
but it suffers from a relatively wide dis-
tribution of the actual bursting pressure.
Replacement of the BD after activation
requires isolation of the BD fixture from
Fast-opening valve
PSV replacement should be reviewed
during the engineering stage
During vacuum conditions,
FOV automatically closes
Rupture disk (or pin valve)
is necessary
No impact
Not applicable
Not applicable
Not applicable
Applicable
Not applicable
the system pressure by closing the block
valves. The BD rupture pressure is less
defined compared with a BPV. Not only
is the BD more complicated to change
out when activated, but it is also consid-
ered to be more suitable as a second level
of protection to the active device.
The BPV should be set as low as
possible without being activated by the
regular dynamic behavior of the system.
The BD should be set as high as possible
to prevent activation and simultaneously
avoid overpressure of the closed part
of the flare system. Continuous purge,
normally by nitrogen, is required down-
stream of the FOV when it is closed to
prevent air ingress into the main flare
stack, and also to remove any residual,
unburned hydrocarbon gas.
Compressors in FGRU package. Slid-
ing vane compressors operate with a
variable speed drive unit and, therefore,
offer high efficiency. The location of
a compressor in an FGRU package is
shown in FIG. 4. A sliding vane compres-
sor can include a built-in 3:1 turndown.
The maximum outlet pressure for slid-
ing vane compressors is approximately
150 psig, and the heat of compression is
passed into the gas, so gas after-cooling is
required. The advantages of sliding vane
compressors lie in their efficiency (ap-
proximately 65%–75%), their low power
usage and their flexibility of operation.
Liquid ring compressors are the in-
dustry standard for FGR systems. They
FLARING
To flare stack
with ignition system
Bursting disc
CSO CSO
FOV
To flare gas recovery system
Flare knockout drum
FIG. 3. Fast-opening valve schematic.
To flare stack
Flare gas from process units
Recovered
Liquid
flare gas seal drum
Compressor Surge tank
FIG. 4. Location of compressor in an FGRU.
are well-suited for discharge pressures
up to approximately 150 psig, but their
efficiency is not as high as other tech-
nologies at approximately 25%–30% of
full load. These compressors work by
mixing gas with liquid (normally water)
and, therefore, require a separation ves-
sel post-compression. These compres-
sors have the advantage of being able
to accept some liquids and particulates
in the gas. Additionally, they operate at
relatively low speeds and have low main-
tenance demands.
Water seal drum or FOV. The advan-
tages and disadvantage of seal drums and
FOVs are shown in TABLE 2. GP
HAMID REZA KALAT JARI is
Head of the process department
at Sazeh Consultants in Tehran, Iran.
He has worked at the Sazeh process
department for more than 16 yr.
Previously, he worked at Total Fina
Elf and National Iranian Gas Co.
ALI BORHANI is the Lead
Process Engineer in the process
department at Sazeh Consultants.
He has worked at the Sazeh
process department for more
than 5 yr. Previously, he worked
at Iranian Oil & Gas Co.
Gas Processing | MARCH/APRIL 2018 39
 Liquefied Natural Gas

REAL-TIME LNG DATA

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enables users to access worldwide facility and project data.

Actionable Data
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• Project status information

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• Shareholder data • Global Natural Gas Pipelines

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YESCO introduces
Schneider Electric
software solution
YESCO Co. Ltd., a South
Korea-based natural gas supplier,
has implemented a Schneider
Electric Monitoring and Control
software solution, part of
Schneider Electric’s Industrial
Software Platform. Benefits
include improved operational
efficiency, and greater access and
visibility to operational data.
The Industrial Internet of
Things (IIoT), combined with
modern supervisory control
and data acquisition (SCADA)
systems, offers the potential to
gain greater access and insights
from a broader array of assets
and devices for improved data-
driven decision support. This IIoT
application allows oil and gas
companies to be more proactive
with maintenance and safety
management programs.
YESCO implemented
Schneider Electric’s System
Platform as a SCADA solution to
gain better access to data that
was often not readily available
to improve performance. After a
5-mos deployment and 9 mos of
utilization, the following benefits
were achieved:
• Increased customer
satisfaction, brought about
through a streamlined
and more holistic systems
management solution.
With this solution,
asset management and
equipment trends can be
more proactively managed,
helping reduce unplanned
downtime and service
disruptions.
• A heightened level of
safety management
through better visibility
and understanding of
when maintenance
activities should be
scheduled and performed.
• Reduced personnel
time with more efficient
predictive maintenance
and data analysis, which
frees resources to perform
other, value-added tasks.
Lower boiloff rate LNG containment system
NEW IN GAS PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY
B. ANDREW, Technical Editor
Global support extended for remote facility operations
One year after the launch of its first remote operations center in
France, Air Liquide has inaugurated its Smart Innovative Operations
(SIO) Center for the Southeast Asia-Pacific region, located in Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia.
The SIO Center enables the remote management of production
for 18 Air Liquide large-industries production units spanning eight
countries across the region. It also enables the optimization of energy
consumption and the improvement of reliability at these sites.
The SIO Center integrates, optimizes and remotely controls the operations of Air Liquide’s production
units, leveraging predictive analytics and digital technologies. These capabilities allow Air Liquide to better
predict and accommodate changing customer needs across the region, especially for the supply of oxygen,
nitrogen, argon and hydrogen.
The new SIO Center complements the facility the Group opened in Shanghai in September 2017,
dedicated to production units in China.
Through big data combined with human intelligence, the workflow of each Air Liquide production unit
linked to the SIO Center is adapted in real time to the needs of each customer. The SIO Center enables
ongoing responsiveness to customer demand, improves production unit energy efficiency, and leverages
predictive maintenance to ensure continuous facility run time.
In the connected plants, new digital technologies are being deployed to simplify maintenance and
inspection management operations. For example, connected eyeglasses allow operators to interface with
experts located elsewhere, as they are assisted in their daily tasks by virtual reality-based training.
LNG transfer with emergency Optimize gas
release coupling turbine efficiency
Alpha Process
Controls has expanded
its family of Emergency
Release Collar (ERC)
Couplings to support
the transfer of LNG
to floating storage
and regasification
units (FSRUs).
With the increased
use of FSRUs as
moored storage
terminals, Alpha has
Orbital Gas Systems North
developed a 10-in. America’s GasPTi device is used
version of its field-
in process control applications to
tested, mechanical emergency release coupling system, capable of optimize efficiency and minimize
managing the ship-to-ship transfer of 2,250 m3 of LNG per hour per line.
maintenance for gas-fired
This will enable, when operating across multiple lines, the ERC systems to compressor turbines.
support the optimum transfer flow for an FSRU of 10 m3/hr–12,000 m3/hr. GasPTi combines two patented
The technology incorporates an engineered solution to manage gas technologies—the GasPT
low-pressure drops, which ensures that the transfer can achieve high analyzer and the VE Technology
flowrates. Installed aboard the FSRU, Alpha Process Controls’ coupling sample probe and system—
will be part of the pipeline that connects to the LNG carrier. to create a method to
It features a two-stage operation that enables the controlled determine natural gas quality
shutdown of internal valves (ESD1) and the coupling separation in a cost-efficient manner.
(ESD2), and can be operated mechanically or through an operator- First deployed in 2015, the
controlled separation. The ERC can be specified with a pre-ESD1 alarm, speed and accuracy of the GasPTi
which detects ship separation, and is linked to the ESD1 system to shut device allows customers to
down flow lines. precisely control the air-to-fuel
This safety feature complements the ERC’s innovative, inbuilt ratio injected into its turbines to
damping system to reduce the effects of pressure spikes, should the decrease fuel consumption, reduce
coupling be called upon to separate during full flow transfer in the emissions and improve turbine
case of a separation event, such as vessel drift. efficiency and life expectancy.
Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering has developed Solidus, a membrane-type cargo containment
system. Solidus maximizes containment system safety with two metallic barriers and an insulation material
developed in cooperation with BASF.
Solidus is said to have a daily LNG boiloff rate of 0.049%, which is 30% higher than the lowest level
of 0.07%. This means that a 170-Mm3 LNG carrier can transport its cargoes more efficiently and can deliver
more LNG each year.
According to Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering, the total LNG cargo that can be saved by
using the Solidus system is estimated to be worth approximately $11.25 MM during its 25-yr operation.
Gas Processing | MARCH/APRIL 2018 41

Axens completes
study for gas
supply to Curaçao
Axens will perform pre-FEED
engineering work to supply natural
gas from Venezuela to Refineria
Isla Curaçao B.V. in Curacao. The
project is part of the Refineria Isla
modernization project. The overall
objective is to provide positive
impacts on both the environment
and refinery economics. These
benefits will be achieved through
the conversion of fired equipment
from heavy fuel oil to natural gas.
SOX, NOX and particle emissions
will be reduced to under stringent
international standards.
The required gas treatment
facilities comprise a molecular
sieve dehydration unit,
hydrocarbon dewpointing and
gas compression. Treated gas
will be transported through a
16-in. subsea pipeline,
approximately 90 km in length.
Pipeline construction and the
upgrade of fired equipment inside
the refinery are expected to be
completed by 2021.
Catherine Watkins, Publisher
Phone/Fax: +1 (713) 520-4421
E-mail: Catherine.Watkins@GulfPub.com
www.GasProcessingNews.com
SALES OFFICES—NORTH AMERICA
EASTERN UNITED STATES, EASTERN CANADA
Merrie Lynch
Phone: +1 (617) 357-8190
Mobile: +1 (617) 594-4943
E-mail: Merrie.Lynch@GulfPub.com
GULF COAST, SOUTH TEXAS
Tom Witte
Phone: +1 (713) 525-4626
E-mail: Tom.Witte@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
MIDWEST, NORTH TEXAS
Josh Mayer
Phone: +1 (972) 816-6745
E-mail: Josh.Mayer@GulfPub.com
WESTERN UNITED STATES,
WESTERN CANADA
Rick Ayer
Phone: +1 (949) 366-9089
E-mail: Rick.Ayer@GulfPub.com
DATA PRODUCTS
J’Nette Davis-Nichols
Phone: +1 (713) 520-4426
E-mail: Jnette.Davis-Nichols@GulfPub.com
42 MARCH/APRIL 2018 | GasProcessingNews.com
NEW IN GAS PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY
B. ANDREW, Technical Editor
Global patents for LNG with no external refrigerant
UK-based Gasconsult Ltd. was awarded a patent
in China for its ZR-LNG liquefaction technology. This
award complements its existing UK patent and pending
applications in Australia, Canada, Europe, India, Japan,
Korea, Malaysia, Mexico and the US.
ZR-LNG achieves liquefaction without external
refrigerants, using feed natural gas in an optimized system
of expanders. The elimination of external refrigerant
infrastructure reduces cost, weight and footprint, making
the process well-suited to FLNG.
The absence of nitrogen or mixed hydrocarbon
refrigerants makes the process particularly suited for
remote locations where refrigerant supply cost and
logistics may be problematic.
ZR-LNG is said to achieve a power demand equal to or lower than single mixed-refrigerant processes,
and approximately 25% lower than dual nitrogen-expander schemes.
Air Products acquires Shell coal gasification technology
Air Products has agreed to acquire Royal Dutch Shell’s coal gasification technology business, as well as
Shell’s patent portfolio for liquids (residue) gasification. Air Products has extended its onsite supply model to
use coal gasification to generate synthesis gas (syngas) for major projects.
Shell has been at the forefront of gasification innovation over the past 50 yr. Gasification technologies
offer a way to convert various, lower-value feedstocks in a lower-emissions manner into syngas. Air Products
can then provide this syngas to customers to make higher-value products.
Air Liquide emphasized that the acquisition supports its continued focus on providing a full scope of
industrial gases, rather than a strategic shift into technology licensing.
In addition, Air Liquide and Shell have also formed a strategic alliance in liquids gasification to provide a
range of solutions to the market, including engineering, procurement and construction activities and plant
operations, as well as technology licensing.
SALES OFFICES—EUROPE ADVERTISER INDEX
ITALY, EASTERN EUROPE
Fabio Potestá Air Products..................................................... 5
Mediapoint & Communications SRL
Phone: +39 (010) 570-4948 Chromatic Industries..................................... 7
E-mail: Fabio.Potesta@GulfPub.com
Gulf Publishing Company
TURKEY, WESTERN EUROPE
Hamilton Pearman
Circulation ....................................................17
Phone: +33 608 310 575
Data—Energy Web Atlas ................. 18, 40
Hamilton.Pearman@GulfPub.com
Events—HP Awards .................................... 6
UNITED KINGDOM, SCANDINAVIA
Patrick Djuma Events—WGLC 2018 .................................43
Phone/Fax: +44 20 3409 2243
E-mail: Patrick.Djuma@GulfPub.com Linde Engineering North America ............ 8
Merichem Company ...................................... 2
SALES OFFICES—OTHER AREAS
NACE International...................................... 10
CHINA—HONG KONG
Iris Yuen Pentair Filtration & Process ..................... 44
Phone: +86 13802701367 (China)
Phone: +852 69185500 (Hong Kong) Saulsbury Industries ................................... 27
E-mail: Iris.Yuen@GulfPub.com
World Gas Conference 2018 .....................24
INDIA
Manav Kanwar This index and procedure for securing additional information are
Phone: +91-22-2837 7070/71/72 provided as a service to advertisers and a convenience to our readers.
Mobile: +91-98673 67374
Gulf Publishing Company is not responsible for omissions or errors.
E-mail: India@GulfPub.com
JAPAN
Yoshinori Ikeda
Pacific Business Inc.
Phone: +81 (3) 3661-6138
E-mail: Japan@GulfPub.com
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The conference program is developed by an outstanding advisory

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