Hidden Prosody: Bridging Theory and Practice for Second Language Teachers

Tyson Bailey

Contents
1. Articulation (phonetics)
2. International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
2.1. IPA issues for Language Learners
3. Sounds to Words, then Sounds again
4. Transcription of Disordered L2 Speech
4.1. Data Example
4.2. Segments vs Gestural frameworks
5. Non-Native Prosody
5.1. Interest Groups
5.1.1. Researchers
5.1.2. Teachers
5.1.3. Learning Material Writers
5.2. Bridging Prosody
5.2.1. Word Stress
5.2.2. Articulation Rate
5.2.3. Speech Rhythm
5.2.4. Intonation
6. Conclusions
7. References
8. Online Webpages
9. Language Teacher Resources

Teachers of language acquisition who engage in career-long learning stand to benefit from both best practices and
new research. While many teachers accept traditional, clinical, and textbook evaluation models the growing
research from linguists is shifting these notions. Speech, in particular, for second language learners manifests in
complex underlying mechanics and intersecting languages. Educators of language stand to benefit their profession
and learners by diving beneath the surface and meeting researchers halfway on new findings.

Articulation (phonetics)

Producing speech begins in articulation. Within the human language, two major classes of sound arise: consonants
and vowels. Together, they form syllables, the familiar ‘ticks’ in language we can count and make beats to.

Consonants
A consonant is generated when an obstruction is made in the vocal tract. This articulatory gesture requires two
parts:

i. An active articulator (e.g. the tongue)

ii. A passive location (e.g. the teeth, the roof of the mouth)
(Mannell, R., (n.d.), Retrieved December 11, 2017, para 2-3)
Together these obstructions generate sounds such as P, D, M, N.

Articulation visualized by real-time MRI.

Vowels
Vowels are generated when our sounds are unobstructed on their passage from the lungs. They can however be
modified by the placement of the articulator, such as the tongue and lips (Mannell, R., (n.d.), Retrieved December
11, 2017). Familiar vowel sounds include A, E, I, O.

International Phonetic Alphabet

Expanding the concept of vowels and consonants, a vast number of vocal sounds generated by humans have been
notated. Each given a unique symbol to designate this unit (i.e. segment) of unique sound. Teachers, especially in
Elementary, base much of their lessons in segmented interpretations of language. When learning the Alphabet
students see the familiar A, B, Cs. When learning Phonetics students learn letter combinations with similar sounds
(ae, sh, ey) or familiar letters with an addition (ō,ĭ, etc). These are tools to help us teach, interpret, and convey
spoken language.

The International Phonetic Alphabet (I.P.A.) is a standardized interpretation of languages as a whole. It’s parent, the
International Phonetic Association, focuses on studying phonetics. According to ​Müller & Papakyritsis, it was
originally conceived by “French and English language teachers” for pedagogical purposes. (Müller & Papakyritsis,
2011, p. 950). They go on further to explain that the goal to “encapsulate the world’s languages” has had a long
history, even before this association’s birth.
The first publication of this phonetic alphabet appeared in Passy (1888), with occasional updates and additions over
the next century. An extension to the International Phonetic Alphabet (extIPA) was created in 1991 with the purpose
of assisting transcription of disordered speech.

(​The International Phonetic Alphabet - Audio Illustrations​, hosted by the UVIC Website)

IPA issues for Language Learners

Utilizing the current iteration of the International Phonetic Alphabet presents challenges in today’s multilingual
teaching context.

Müller & Papakyritsis (2011) explain that for “geopolitical, historical, and cultural reasons...the IPA is largely based
on the Roman alphabet” ​(Müller & Papakyritsis, 2011, p.950)​. For teachers using phonetics in the classroom, this
can mean that both the sound and symbols used could aid or impede students, depending on their relative L1
language. For example learners from unique families of language, like Arabic or Mandarin Chinese, may struggle
with phonetic roman symbols.

This has created a disconnect with the reality of language teaching and the segmented symbols used in the IPA
chart. It removes the vector of the speech stream, instead relying on symbols to convey a category of steady sound.

For both teachers and students, learning the limitations of phonetics will help us grow outside these boundaries as
language has many more underpinnings. “Skilled phoneticians … treat the convenience of an alphabetic notation as
just that a convenient shortcut”(Müller & Papakyritsis, 2011, pp. 950 - 951) where as the uninitiated student or
teacher may have relied on these notations for percieved precision (Müller & Papakyritsis, 2011).

Sounds to Words, then Sounds again

There is a hidden element for learners of languages in between the lines, so to speak. For most L1 learners, a
difficulty exists in escaping the written image of words to concentrate instead on the sounds and quality of one’s own
voice. Both L1 and L2 learners will sacrifice voice quality and smoothness when solving a difficult word.

Müller & Papakyritsis​ paraphrase this as: “[W]hen people learn to read, they experience a cross-modal phenomenon
that is on a par with hearing a taste or touching an odour. They see words. They also see spaces between the
words in a sentence. If the language is alphabetic, they are conditioned to notice the sound symbols – hence the
sounds – that make up words, and they additionally discover the spaces between these symbols” ​ ​(Locke, J., 2010,
as cited in ​Müller & Papakyritsis, 2011, p. 950).

Or in other words, there are elements of speech we don’t visualize that manifest as prosody and voice quality.
These parts of the spoken language are not written and traditionally blind spots in our language acquisition
education.

Transcription of Disordered L2 Speech

“Speech disorders or speech impediments are a type of communication disorder where 'normal' speech is
disrupted. This can mean stuttering, lisps, etc. Someone who is unable to speak due to a speech disorder is
considered mute.”

— ​Kennison, Shelia M, (2014), Introduction to language development

Evaluation of speech is limited if strictly interpreted in units (i.e. segments). For example “Where is the ball?” differs
from “Where IS the ball?”. Assessing these sentences as speech would yield the same results of correct segment
use. However, the hidden meaning of the speaker’s intonation is lost on paper.

For intervention efforts to improve in effectiveness, transcripts require a more holistic interpretation of their subject’s
speech stream. ​Müller & Papakyritsis (2011) attribute Martin Ball’s work for changing these “​transcription
conventions” for disordered speech ​(Ball, Müller, & Rutter, 2010, as cited in ​Müller & Papakyritsis, 2011, p. 949).

Data Example

Müller and Papakyritsis (2011) illustrate their point with data collected clinically on a subject with disordered speech.
They draw on interpretations of two frameworks; segmental and segmental with gesture considerations. Their
interpretation of gesture is defined as: “the formation and release of constrictions in the vocal tract” ​(Browman and
Goldstein, 1992, as cited in ​Müller & Papakyritsis, 2011, p. 953). In simpler terms, they are concerned with the
subtle differences in the subject’s speech stream relative to the target language.

The subject, David, is an ESL learner immersed in English at an early age. David’s parents fluently speak English
but retain a spanish accent​. ​Their child is considered marginal bilingual but produces moderate to severe speech
output. Interpretation of David’s segmental transcript is limited but notes many errors. However, combined with
broader knowledge that David’s parents were L1 Spanish allowed clinical methodology to investigate if his parent’s
variety of english impacted his L2 development (Müller & Papakyritsis, 2011. pp. ​951-954​). The broader view of the
subject’s history helps shed light on patterns within the disordered speech. A segmented transcript alone would
have resulted in an inherently reductionist finding.

Segmental vs Gestural Frameworks

Clinicians were able to find an underlying pattern in David’s speech output but it required a different framework that
did not filter the content like a traditional transcript would. This is significant as the intervention a language learner
receives is based on these segmental evaluations. If the framework is limited, it can result in a false impression of a
speaker’s output. Furthermore, the segment is also limited in that it relies solely on the scope of those who wrote it
down. A transcript is the best attempt of a trained listener to convert what is heard into terms of “articulatory
configurations” (Müller & Papakyritsis, 2011). This behavioristic mindset dominates most “research and clinical
practice” (Damico & Ball, 2010, as cited in Müller & Papakyritsis, 2011, p. 954)

Non-native Prosody

“​Prosody is the study of the tune and rhythm of speech and how these features contribute to meaning. Prosody is
the study of those aspects of speech that typically apply to a level above that of the individual phoneme and very
often to sequences of words (in prosodic phrases)”
—​Mannell, R.,, 2007, Macquarie University, Australia 2007. Retrieved from http://clas.mq.edu.au

With an understanding of the limitations of written language and the importance of interpreting gestural speech, we
can investigate how to apply current research into our pedagogy.

Interest Groups

Non-native prosody is a phenomenon of great importance to a number of interested groups: “language teachers,
language pedagogy, authors of language learning material, linguist researchers, and language application
engineers” (​Gut, Trouvain, & Barry, 2007​). Gut et al. then divides these groups into three categories:
1. Linguist Researchers who consider non-native prosody in theory
2. Teachers who are concerned with teaching non-native prosody in language classes
3. Language learning material writers, who act as intermediaries

Researchers

Second language (L2) prosody is of interest to linguist researchers. Language data is analysed through empirical
research to create predictive “models and theories” (Gut et al. 2007, p. 2). Normally, findings in theoretical language
research is shared to the public by way of “publications and conference presentations” (Gut et al. 2007, p. 4). For
language teachers a conference or convention may be the ideal opportunity to learn directly from researchers.
Teachers
Second language teachers draw on many sources and methodologies to achieve the target language’s prosody
within their scope (Gut et al. 2007, p. 4). Gut et al. continues to promote best practices, including investigating
“theoretical knowledge, raising awareness for language structures, practical production exercises and perceptual
training” (Gut et al. 2007, p. 4). Notably, Gut et al. discuss how most language teachers are limited to a modified or
partially expanded language education.
Learning Material Writers
Those writing language materials, like coursebooks, act as intermediates for researchers to deliver theory to
language teachers. This means as writers they need to be qualified to interpret and translate relevant theoretical
research in a manner that is useful for instructors (Gut et al. 2007, p. 5). Naturally, few professionals meet these
qualifications.

Bridging Prosody
The different attributes that constitute prosody have generated varying harmonies between the theoretical research
and the teaching practice. Reviewing these aspects will help lead teachers to a conclusion on how best to bridge the
two fields (​Gut, Trouvain, & Barry, 2007​). For consideration, there exist other interpretations of Prosody attributes
thus this is not yet a finalized model.

Prosodic Attributes

1. Word stress
2. Articulation rate
3. Speech rhythm
4. Intonation

1. Word Stress

“the manner in which stresses are distributed on the syllables of a word — called also word accent”
— ​"Word stress", (2017), Retrieved Nov 20, 2017 from Merriam-Webster.com.

Word stress varies between languages. Gut et al. explains that in some languages the position is fixed while in
others it is unpredictable. Depending on the language being taught, different rule sets should be reviewed. In
Turkish, for example, the last syllable is stressed. ​Comparatively, Japanese belongs to a category of language
where word stress does not exist as a “phonological category” ​(Beckman, 1986, as cited in Gut et al., 2007, p. 7).

A lack of exposure to perceived stressed syllables can result in “stress deafness”(Dupoux, Pallier, Sebastian, &
Mehler, 1997, as cited in Gut et al., 2007) a phenomenon worth considering when teaching L2 learners.

English is an example of a language with low predictability for word stress. (Gut et al. 2007) For ESL learners this
presents difficulties, especially if their native language follows a fixed position of syllable stresses. Consider how the
two languages ‘map’ onto one another, where there might be overlays and loose rules.

Incorrect stress patterns in the L2 of learners tend to persist, despite long term exposure to the correct form. (Gut et
al. 2007) Considerations can be made for how well the native and target languages coincide in word stress rules
(Archibald, 1995, as cited in Gut et al., 2007). As a rule of thumb, “raising awareness”(Gut et al., 2007, p. 4) of
prosody varieties assists language acquisition.

To manage these many rules a language teacher requires a set of phonological rules to best convey contrasting
stress patterns.This type of material can be difficult for teachers to acquire, explains Gut et. al., while theoretical
research associated is characterized by debate and controversy surrounding the subject. With no consensus,
theoretical models are rendered accessible only to the most readed teachers​.

2. Articulation Rate

“Everyone who starts learning a foreign language, incidentally, has the impression that its native speakers use an
exceptionally rapid tempo.”
—​ Abercrombie, 1967, as cited in Gut et al., 2007

Gut et al. proposes that listeners are capable of processing their native language at relative high (i.e. fast) rates.
This high proficiency of familiar languages can create the notion for learners that speech in foreign languages are
fast in their delivery. This discrepancy can create a “false impression” (Gut et al., 2007, p. 9) on one’s adequacy
speaking an L2. Articulation rate, for this reason, plays “a significant role”(Gut et al., 2007, p. 9) in both speech
comprehension and speech production.

Proper evaluation of articulation requires a modified means of measuring. Gut et al. suggests that “rate
variations”(Gut et al., 2007, p. 10) needs to be considered when evaluating L2 learners. For example, in sections
with pictures and new words the rate may naturally slow down. In other sections of a text, the rate may increase. In
place of averaging their rate, teachers can consider sectioning different parts of the text to be clocked by their
specific difficulty and/or word density.

A commonly held view is that articulation rate increase is a natural byproduct of a language learner’s improvement.
(Gut, 2003, as cited by Gut et al., 2007)

3. Speech Rhythm

“The arrangement of spoken words alternating stressed and unstressed elements.”

—​ WordNet 3.0, 2008, Retrieved 20, 2017 from wordnet.princeton.edu

In theory, speech rhythm is a concept still actively being investigated by researchers. Guts et al. describes findings
by Daeur who explains that language used to be classified into different classes based on their rhythm. Languages
are now considered be along a continuum (Dauer, 1983, as cited in Guts et al., 2007).

In practice, for language teachers and learners, speech rhythm is “unburdened” (Guts et al., 2007) by the
complexities of the “underlying research”(Guts et al., 2007). Instead, language teachers turn to more intuitive and
practical concepts of rhythm. Examples include musical beat or poetry as mediums for rhythm instruction.

Language learning material and course books may vary in producing desired results for the learner’s L2 target
language. To connect to research, instructors need to focus on awareness of the “utterance rhythm”(Guts et al.,
2007, p. 13). In other words, by varying the context of word sequences, in song or readings, practitioners will pick-up
the rhythm more effectively.
4. Intonation

“.. linguistic and paralinguistic features such as tempo, voice quality and loudness which signal the emotional
state of the speaker”
​ ​ Anthony Fox (Fox, 2001, as cited in Gut et al. 2007 )
—

Unlike the previous features of prosody, the theoretical state of intonation it less controversial. Nonetheless, it is still
an integral part of L2 learners language acquisition.

In teaching practice, the use of auditory technology can help visually compare the “intonation curves”(Guts et al.,
2007, p. 15) generated by the learner’s L1 and target language. (Guts et al., 2007)

Similar to the previously mentioned artificulation rate, the acquisition of intonation is viewed as a byproduct of
improvement. Often teachers will focus less on intonation specifically and more on general acquisition.

Conclusions

A strictly written transcript has limited capacity in evaluating an L2 learner. Segments (using the IPA) are
disconnected from speech streams. Furthermore, underlying vocal gestures in the L1 language can be missed.

In terms of prosody, the practical application of research depends on researchers understanding the learner’s tasks
and making content understandable for teachers.

L2 classrooms are themselves not well researched. By bridging this gap, both language teachers and researchers
stand to benefit. Technological advances make analysing language data more accessible to research groups,
paving the way for non-intrusive collaboration between teachers and researchers. (Gut, Trouvain, & Barry, 2007​)​,
2007, pp. 15-16)
 References

Esling, J., (n.d). Multimedia IPA chart. Retrieved Nov 20, 2017 from

​https://web.uvic.ca/ling/resources/ipa/charts/IPAlab/IPAlab.htm

Gut, U., Trouvain, J., & Barry, W.J. (2007). ​Non-native prosody: Phonetic description and teaching practice.​New

York;Berlin;: Mouton de Gruyter. 1-15.

M​üller, N., & Papakyritsis, I. (2011). Segments, letters and gestures: Thoughts on doing and teaching phonetics and

Transcription. ​Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics.​ 949-955. ​doi:10.3109/02699206.2011.618583

 Online Webpages

Kennison, S. M., (2014), Introduction to language development, as cited in Wikipedia.org,(n.d.), Speech Disorder,

Retrieved Nov 20, 2017 from ​https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_disorder#cite_note-Kennison_2014-1

Mannell, R., (n.d.), ​Phonetics and Phonology. Vowel Articulation, para. 1,​ Retrieved December 11, 2017 from

​http://clas.mq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/phonetics/vowelartic/index.html

Mannell, R., (n.d.), ​Phonetics and Phonology.​ ​Place of Articulation​, para. 2-3, Retrieved December 11, 2017 from

​http://clas.mq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/phonetics/consonants/place.html
Mannell, R.,(2007), ​Phonetics and Phonology, para. 1, ​Introduction to Prosody Theories and Models. Retrieved December

11, 2017 from ​http://clas.mq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/phonology/intonation/prosody.html

Real-time MRI, (2011), ​Speaking (English)​, Retrieved Nov 20, 2017 from

​https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Real-time_MRI_-_Speaking_%28English%29.ogv

WordNet 3.0, (2008), Retrieved 20, 2017 from ​wordnet.princeton.edu

 Language Teacher Resources

The International Phonetic Alphabet - https://web.uvic.ca/ling/resources/ipa/charts/IPAlab/IPAlab.htm

Audio Illustrations

“​We are very luck in the UVic

Linguistics department to have
access to so many wonderful
resources for studies in the
phonetics sciences, thanks to Prof.
John Esling and the rich legacy that
he has left us.”

- UVIC

uvic.ca/humanities/linguistics/resour
ces/ipa/index.php

Handbook of the IPA https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/handbook-ipa

“This book is a comprehensive guide

to the International Phonetic Alphabet,
widely used for over a century to
transcribe the sounds of languages.
The Handbook is in three parts: Part I
contains an introduction to phonetic
description and exemplification of the
use of phonetic symbols; Part II
consists of twenty-nine "Illustrations"
of the application of the International
Phonetic Alphabet to a range of
languages; and Part III covers speech
pathology, computer codings, and the
history of the IPA. This is an essential
reference work for phoneticians and
linguists more generally.”
- International Phonetic
Association