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5/22/2018 Air pollution -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia

Air pollution
Major Air Pollutants
Criteria pollutants
Clean, dry air consists primarily of nitrogen and oxygen—78 percent and 21 percent
respectively, by volume. The remaining 1 percent is a mixture of other gases, mostly argon
(0.9 percent), along with trace (very small) amounts of carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen,
helium, and more. Water vapour is also a normal, though quite variable, component of the
atmosphere, normally ranging from 0.01 to 4 percent by volume; under very humid
conditions the moisture content of air may be as high as 5 percent.

The gaseous air pollutants of primary concern in urban settings include sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen dioxide, and carbon monoxide; these are emitted directly into the air from fossil
fuels such as fuel oil, gasoline, and natural gas that are burned in power plants, automobiles,
and other combustion sources. Ozone (a key component of smog) is also a gaseous
pollutant; it forms in the atmosphere via complex chemical reactions occurring between
nitrogen dioxide and various volatile organic compounds (e.g., gasoline vapours).

Airborne suspensions of extremely small solid or liquid particles called “particulates” (e.g.,
soot, dust, smokes, fumes, mists), especially those less than 10 micrometres (μm; millionths of
a metre) in size, are signi cant air pollutants because of their very harmful effects on human
health. They are emitted by various industrial processes, coal- or oil-burning power plants,
residential heating systems, and automobiles. Lead fumes (airborne particulates less than 0.5
μm in size) are particularly toxic.

The six major air pollutants listed above have been designated by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) as “criteria” pollutants—criteria meaning that the concentrations of
these pollutants in the atmosphere are useful as indicators of overall air quality.

Except for lead, criteria pollutants are emitted in industrialized countries at very high rates,
typically measured in millions of tons per year. All except ozone are discharged directly into
the atmosphere from a wide variety of sources. They are regulated primarily by establishing
ambient air quality standards, which are maximum acceptable concentrations of each
criteria pollutant in the atmosphere, regardless of its origin. The six criteria pollutants are
described in turn below.

Fine particulates
Very small fragments of solid materials or liquid droplets suspended in air are called
particulates. Except for airborne lead, which is treated as a separate category (see below),

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they are characterized on the basis of size and phase (i.e., solid or liquid) rather than by
chemical composition. For example, solid particulates between roughly 1 and 100 μm in
diameter are called dust particles, whereas airborne solids less than 1 μm in diameter are
called fumes.

The particulates of most concern with regard to their effects on human health are solids less
than 10 μm in diameter, because they can be inhaled deep into the lungs and become
trapped in the lower respiratory system. Certain particulates, such as asbestos bres, are
known carcinogens (cancer-causing agents), and many carbonaceous particulates—e.g., soot
—are suspected of being carcinogenic. Major sources of particulate emissions include fossil-
fuel power plants, manufacturing processes, fossil-fuel residential heating systems, and
gasoline-powered vehicles.

Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide is an odourless, invisible gas formed as a result of incomplete combustion.
It is the most abundant of the criteria pollutants. Gasoline-powered highway vehicles are the
primary source, although residential heating systems and certain industrial processes also
emit signi cant amounts of this gas. Power plants emit relatively little carbon monoxide
because they are carefully designed and operated to maximize combustion ef ciency.
Exposure to carbon monoxide can be acutely harmful since it readily displaces oxygen in the
bloodstream, leading to asphyxiation at high enough concentrations and exposure times.

Sulfur dioxide
A colourless gas with a sharp, choking odour, sulfur dioxide is formed during the combustion
of coal or oil that contains sulfur as an impurity. Most sulfur dioxide emissions come from
power-generating plants; very little comes from mobile sources. This pungent gas can cause
eye and throat irritation and harm lung tissue when inhaled. It also reacts with oxygen and
water vapour in the air, forming a mist of sulfuric acid that reaches the ground as a
component of acid rain. Acid rain is believed to have harmed or destroyed sh and plant life
in many thousands of lakes and streams in parts of Europe, the northeastern United States,
southeastern Canada, and parts of China. It also causes corrosion of metals and deterioration
of the exposed surfaces of buildings and public monuments.

Nitrogen dioxide
Of the several forms of nitrogen oxides, nitrogen dioxide—a pungent, irritating gas—is of
most concern. It is known to cause pulmonary edema, an accumulation of excessive uid in
the lungs. Nitrogen dioxide also reacts in the atmosphere to form nitric acid, contributing to
the problem of acid rain. In addition, nitrogen dioxide plays a role in the formation of
photochemical smog, a reddish brown haze that often is seen in many urban areas and that
is created by sunlight-promoted reactions in the lower atmosphere.

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Nitrogen oxides are formed when combustion temperatures are high enough to cause
molecular nitrogen in the air to react with oxygen. Stationary sources such as coal-burning
power plants are major contributors of this pollutant, although gasoline engines and other
mobile sources are also signi cant.

Ozone
A key component of photochemical smog, ozone is formed by a complex reaction between
nitrogen dioxide and hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight. It is considered to be a
criteria pollutant in the troposphere—the lowermost layer of the atmosphere—but not in the
upper atmosphere, where it occurs naturally and serves to block harmful ultraviolet rays
from the Sun. Because nitrogen dioxide and hydrocarbons are emitted in signi cant
quantities by motor vehicles, photochemical smog is common in cities such as Los Angeles,
where sunshine is ample and highway traf c is heavy. Certain geographic features, such as
mountains that impede air movement, and weather conditions, such as temperature
inversions in the troposphere, contribute to the trapping of air pollutants and the formation
of photochemical smog.

Lead
Inhaled lead particulates in the form of fumes and dusts are particularly harmful to children,
in whom even slightly elevated levels of lead in the blood can cause learning disabilities,
seizures, or even death. Sources of airborne lead particulates include oil re ning, smelting,
and other industrial activities. In the past, combustion of gasoline containing a lead-based
antiknock additive called tetraethyl lead was a major source of lead particulates. In many
countries there is now a complete ban on the use of lead in gasoline. In the United States,
lead concentrations in outdoor air decreased more than 90 percent after the use of leaded
gasoline was restricted in the mid-1970s and then completely banned in 1996.

Air toxics
Hundreds of speci c substances are considered hazardous when present in trace amounts in
the air. These pollutants are called air toxics. Many of them cause genetic mutations or
cancer; some cause other types of health problems, such as adverse effects on brain tissue or
fetal development. Although the total emissions and the number of sources of air toxics are
small compared with those for criteria pollutants, these pollutants can pose an immediate
health risk to exposed individuals and can cause other environmental problems.

Most air toxics are organic chemicals, comprising molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen,
and other atoms. Many are volatile organic compounds (VOCs), organic compounds that
readily evaporate. VOCs include pure hydrocarbons, partially oxidized hydrocarbons, and
organic compounds containing chlorine, sulfur, or nitrogen. They are widely used as fuels
(e.g., propane and gasoline), as paint thinners and solvents, and in the production of plastics.

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In addition to contributing to air toxicity and urban smog, some VOC emissions act as
greenhouse gases (see below) and, in so doing, may be a cause of global warming. Some
other air toxics are metals or compounds of metals—for example, mercury, arsenic, and
cadmium.

In many countries, standards have been set to control industrial emissions of several air
toxics. The rst hazardous air pollutants regulated in the United States (outside the
workplace environment) were arsenic, asbestos, benzene, beryllium, coke oven emissions,
mercury, radionuclides (radioactive isotopes), and vinyl chloride. In 1990 this short list was
expanded to include 189 substances. By the end of the 1990s, speci c emission control
standards were required in the United States for “major sources”—those that release more
than 10 tons per year of any of these materials or more than 25 tons per year of any
combination of them.

Air toxics may be released in sudden and catastrophic accidents rather than steadily and
gradually from many sources. For example, in the Bhopal disaster of 1984, an accidental
release of methyl isocyanate at a pesticide factory in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh state, India,
immediately killed at least 3,000 people, eventually caused the deaths of an estimated 15,000
to 25,000 people over the following quarter-century, and injured hundreds of thousands
more. The risk of accidental release of very hazardous substances into the air is generally
higher for people living in industrialized urban areas. Hundreds of such incidents occur each
year, though none has been as severe as the Bhopal event.

Other than in cases of occupational exposure or accidental release, health threats from air
toxics are greatest for people who live near large industrial facilities or in congested and
polluted urban areas. Most major sources of air toxics are so-called point sources—that is,
they have a speci c location. Point sources include chemical plants, steel mills, oil re neries,
and municipal waste incinerators. Hazardous air pollutants may be released when
equipment leaks or when material is transferred, or they may be emitted from smokestacks.
Municipal waste incinerators, for example, can emit hazardous levels of dioxins,
formaldehyde, and other organic substances, as well as metals such as arsenic, beryllium,
lead, and mercury. Nevertheless, proper combustion along with appropriate air pollution
control devices can reduce emissions of these substances to acceptable levels.

Hazardous air pollutants also come from “area” sources, which are many smaller sources that
release pollutants into the outdoor air in a de ned area. Such sources include commercial
dry-cleaning facilities, gasoline stations, small metal-plating operations, and woodstoves.
Emission of air toxics from area sources are also regulated under some circumstances.

Small area sources account for about 25 percent of all emissions of air toxics. Major point
sources account for another 20 percent. The rest—more than half of hazardous air-pollutant

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emissions—come from motor vehicles. For example, benzene, a component of gasoline, is


released as unburned fuel or as fuel vapours, and formaldehyde is one of the by-products of
incomplete combustion. Newer cars, however, have emission control devices that
signi cantly reduce the release of air toxics.

Greenhouse gases
Global warming is recognized by almost all atmospheric scientists as a signi cant
environmental problem caused by an increase in levels of certain trace gases in the
atmosphere since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the mid-18th century. These
gases, collectively called greenhouse gases, include carbon dioxide, organic chemicals called
chloro uorocarbons (CFCs), methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and many others. Carbon dioxide,
although not the most potent of the greenhouse gases, is the most important because of
the huge volumes emitted into the air by combustion of fossil fuels (e.g., gasoline, oil, coal).

Carbon dioxide is considered a normal component of the atmosphere, and before the
Industrial Revolution the average levels of this gas were about 280 parts per million (ppm). By
the early 21st century the levels of carbon dioxide reached 384 ppm, and they continue to
increase at a rate of almost 2 ppm per year. Many scientists think that carbon dioxide should
be regulated as a pollutant—a position taken by the EPA in 2009 in a ruling that such
regulations could be promulgated. International cooperation and agreements will be
necessary to reduce carbon dioxide emissions worldwide.

Air Pollution And Air Movement


Local air quality typically varies over time because of the effect of weather patterns. For
example, air pollutants are diluted and dispersed in a horizontal direction by prevailing
winds, and they are dispersed in a vertical direction by atmospheric instability. Unstable
atmospheric conditions occur when air masses move naturally in a vertical direction, thereby
mixing and dispersing pollutants. When there is little or no vertical movement of air (stable
conditions), pollutants can accumulate near the ground and cause temporary but acute
episodes of air pollution. With regard to air quality, unstable atmospheric conditions are
preferable to stable conditions.

The degree of atmospheric instability depends on the temperature gradient (i.e., the rate at
which air temperature changes with altitude). In the troposphere (the lowest layer of the
atmosphere, where most weather occurs), air temperatures normally decrease as altitude
increases; the faster the rate of decrease, the more unstable the atmosphere. Under certain
conditions, however, a temporary “temperature inversion” may occur, during which time the
air temperature increases with increasing altitude, and the atmosphere is very stable.
Temperature inversions prevent the upward mixing and dispersion of pollutants and are the
major cause of air pollution episodes. Certain geographic conditions exacerbate the effect of
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inversions. For example, Los Angeles, situated on a plain on the Paci c coast of California and
surrounded by mountains that block horizontal air motion, is particularly susceptible to the
stagnation effects of inversions—hence the infamous Los Angeles smog. On the opposite
coast of North America another metropolis, New York City, produces greater quantities of
pollutants than does Los Angeles but has been spared major air pollution disasters—only
because of favourable climatic and geographic circumstances. During the mid-20th century,
governmental efforts to reduce air pollution increased substantially after several major
inversions, such as one weeklong air pollution episode in London in 1952 that was directly
blamed for more than 4,000 deaths.

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