The Periodic Table

This modern periodic table lists elements according to their atomic number, if they
were arranged according to atomic mass potassium and argon would be the wrong way
round.
Elements having the same number of electrons in their outermost shell are placed in
vertical columns called groups. They have similar chemical properties.

From left to right, across each horizontal row (period) of the periodic table, a
particular energy level is gradually filled up with electrons; in the next period, the next
energy level is filled with electrons.
This video explains about the Atomic Number
But how did we get to this state of knowledge?
Development of the Periodic Table
The list of elements was originally conceived in order of “atomic weight”.
Newlands – Law of Octaves. Every eighth element seemed to be similar, rather like
every eighth note in music. One example he used was Li, Na, K.
Mendeleev – He made the table two-dimensional rather than a list. He arranged the
elements in order of atomic weight but had the Newlands Octave elements underneath
each other. The vertical columns are called groups and the horizontal rows are called
periods. The term periodic refers to the fact that the properties swing to and fro like a
pendulum.
Some elements had not been discovered at the time of Mendeleev writing up his table
so he left gaps to indicate where elements ought to be. This was brave because a
theory with gaps in it looks a bit silly unless you can explain why the gaps are there.
Later chemists discovered elements to fit in the right places and they were amazed to
find that the properties were very much like those Mendeleev had predicted.
When the noble gases were discovered, argon was a problem because if the elements
are arranged in order of atomic weight, argon and potassium should swap places.
Fortunately, more detailed theories about the structure of the atom were being
proposed. If these theories (using protons, neutrons and electrons) were right, it would
be more sensible to arrange the elements in order of atomic number (number of
protons). If this is done, the problem of argon and potassium is solved. We now know
that the group number of an element tells us the number of electrons it has in its outside
shell.

The modern periodic table

Dmitri Mendeleev’s early periodic table was further

refined in the early 20th century in light of the discovery
of protons, neutrons and electrons. This allowed
elements to be placed in appropriate groups according to
atomic numbers instead of atomic masses, which
produced the periodic table we use today.

The development of the modern periodic table

Dmitri Mendeleev put the elements in order of their relative atomic
mass, and this gave him some problems.
For example, iodine has a lower relative atomic mass than tellurium,
so it should come before tellurium in Mendeleev's table.
In order to get iodine in the same group as other elements with similar
properties - such as fluorine, chlorine and bromine - he had to put it
after tellurium, which broke his own rules.
However, the discovery of protons, neutrons and electrons in the early
20th century allowed Mendeleev’s table to be refined into the modern
periodic table. It involved an important modification – the use
of atomic number to order the elements. An element’s atomic
number (also called proton number) is the number of protons in
its atoms.
All atoms of the same element contain the same number of
protons.
Henry Moseley

Using atomic number instead of atomic mass as the organising

principle was first proposed by the British chemist Henry Moseley in
1913. It explained why Mendeleev needed to change the order of
some of the elements in his table.
For example, tellurium has a higher atomic mass than iodine, but
iodine has a higher atomic number than tellurium. So, even though he
didn't know why, Mendeleev was (as it turned out) right to place iodine
after tellurium.
Basic periodic table
Back
Next

The arrangement of the modern periodic table

The modern periodic table

Columns in the table - groups

The elements in a vertical column are in the same group. The main
groups are labelled groups 1-7, with the noble gases in group 0. All
elements in a group have similar chemical properties.
The elements in a group all have the same number of electrons in
their highest occupied energy level (also referred to as the outer
shell). This is why they have similar chemical properties.
An element’s group number is the same as the number of electrons in
its highest occupied energy level (outer shell). For example, all the
metals in Group 2 have 2 electrons in their highest occupied energy
level (outer shell).

Element Symbol Electronic structure (written) Electronic structure (drawn)

Beryllium Be 2,2

Magnesium Mg 2,8,2

Calcium Ca 2,8,8,2

Rows in the table - periods

Elements in a horizontal row are in the same period. The periods are
numbered from top to bottom.
The period number is the same as the number of occupied energy
levels (shells). For example, magnesium is in period 3 – its atoms
 have three occupied energy levels. Calcium is in period 4 – its atoms
have four occupied energy levels.

Trends within the periodic table

Elements within different groups within the periodic

table have different physical and chemical properties.
This determines the kinds of reactions these elements
have. Different groups also show different trends, in
terms of reactivity, as you move down a group. This can
also determine how violently a reaction occurs - or
whether it happens at all.

Group 1 Elements
The elements in group 1 are called the alkali metals. They belong to
the left-hand column in the periodic table. They are very reactive and
must be stored in oil to avoid contact with air or water.

Periodic table Group 1

The alkali metals are soft, reactive metals. They react vigorously with
water and become more reactive as you go down the group.
Common properties
The alkali metals have the following properties in common:
 they are very soft and can be cut easily with a knife
 they have low densities (lithium, sodium and potassium will float on
water)
 they react quickly with water -
producing hydroxides and hydrogen gas
 their hydroxides dissolve in water to form alkaline solutions
In general:
group 1 metal + water → group 1 metal hydroxide + hydrogen
2M9(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2MOH(aq) + H2(g)
(M stands for the symbol of a Group 1 metal)
Trends within the periodic table

Physical and chemical trends in Group 1

Melting and boiling points
The alkali metals all have low melting points and boiling points
compared to other metals. The melting points and boiling
points decrease as you go down the group.
Reactivity
As you go down the group, the metals become more reactive. Lithium
(at the top) is the least reactive, while francium (which is at the
bottom) is the most reactive.
You will probably see lithium, sodium and potassium at school, but
rubidium and caesium are considered to be too reactive to use in the
classroom. Francium is radioactive and very rare - there are only a few
grams of it in the whole of the Earth's crust at any time.
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Reactions
Group 1 metals react with non-metals to form ionic compounds. In
these reactions, the metal atom loses its outer electron and becomes a
metal ion with a charge of +1. The ionic compounds produced are
white solids which form colourless solutions when they dissolve.
For example, sodium reacts vigorously with chlorine:
sodium + chlorine → sodium chloride
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)

In the formation of sodium chloride, the electron from the highest energy level of a
sodium atom transfers to the highest energy level of a chlorine atom

Sodium burns in oxygen to form a metal oxide:

sodium + oxygen → sodium oxide
4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)
Trends within the periodic table
The transition metals
The elements in the centre of the periodic table - between groups 2
and 3 - are called the transition elements. They are all metals. They
include most of the commonly-used metals, such as iron, copper,
silver and gold.

Periodic table transition metals

Comparing the properties of the transition elements with the

Group 1 elements

Group 1 elements Transition elements

Melting Low High (except mercury, which is liquid at
points room temperature)

Reactivity High (react vigorously with water Low (do not react so vigorously with water
or oxygen) or oxygen)

Strength Soft or liquid so cannot withstand Strong and hard

force
Density Low High

Compounds White or colourless Coloured

Check you have remembered the properties of transition metals with

this activity:
Chemical Reactions
Most transition metals form coloured compounds.

Transition metal compounds

Many transition metals act as catalysts in useful processes. For

example, iron is the catalyst used catalyst in the Haber process
when Making ammonia:
hydrogen + nitrogen ammonia
3H2(g) + N2(g) 2NH3(g)
Many transition elements form ions with different charges. For
example, iron forms iron(II) ions, Fe2+, and iron(III) ions, Fe3+. This
means that iron oxide can exist in two forms, iron(II) oxide, FeO, and
iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3.
Trends within the periodic table
 Group 7 elements
The elements in Group 7 are called the halogens. They belong to the column second from
the right in the periodic table.
The halogens are all toxic, but this can be a useful property. Chlorine is used
to sterilise drinking water and water in swimming pools. Iodine is used in antiseptics to
treat wounds.

Periodic table Group 7

Common properties
The halogens have the following properties in common:
 they are non-metals
 they have low melting and low boiling points
 they are brittle when solid
 they are poor conductors of heat and electricity
 they have coloured vapours
 their molecules are diatomic (each contain two atoms) - eg chlorine, Cl2
Trends within the periodic table
Physical and Chemical trends in Group 7
Melting point and boiling point
The halogens have low melting points and low boiling points. You can
see from the graph that fluorine, at the top of Group 7, has the lowest
melting point and lowest boiling point in the group. The melting points
and boiling points then increase as you go down the group.

Graph shows the melting and boiling points of halogens

Colour
The halogens become darker as you go down the group. Fluorine is
very pale yellow, chlorine is yellow-green and bromine is red-brown.
Iodine crystals are shiny purple-black but easily turn into a dark
purple vapour when they are warmed up.
Reactivity
The halogens become less reactive as you more down the group.
Fluorine (at the top of the group) is the most reactive, while astatine
(at the bottom) is the least reactive.
Reactions
Halogens react with metals to form ionic compounds. In these
reactions, the halogen atoms each gain one electron to form ions with
a charge of –1.
Trends within the periodic table

Displacement reactions in the halogens

Halogens react with metals to form ionic compounds, which dissolve in
water. The reacting of the halogens also decreases as you move down
the group.
These two principles can be used to explain displacement reactions. In
these reactions, a more reactive halogen can displace a less reactive
halogen from an aqueous solution of its salt.
For example, chlorine is more reactive than bromine, so it can displace
bromine from bromide compounds:
chlorine + sodium bromide → sodium chloride + bromine
Cl2(g) + 2NaBr(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
A displacement reaction

You can see that the Cl and Br have ‘swapped places’, forming sodium
chloride and bromine (which turns the mixture brown).
In the exam, make sure your answers avoid terms like
‘stronger’ and ‘weaker’. Instead, write ‘more reactive’ and ‘less
reactive’.
Reactivity series
If you test different combinations of the halogens and their salts you
can work out a reactivity series for the halogens.
The most reactive halogen displaces all the other halogens from
solutions of their salts, while the least reactive halogen is always
displaced. It works just the same whether you use a sodium salt or a
potassium salt.
Test your understanding using this animation in which chlorine,
bromine and iodine are added to various halogen salts. Note carefully
the products which are present in the test tube after each reaction.
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Trends within the periodic table

Trends in reactivity – Higher tier

The reactivity of an element depends on how easily its atoms lose or gain electrons.
Remember that only the electrons in the highest occupied energy level (outer shell) of an
atom are used in bonding.
Metals
Metal atoms lose electrons when they react with non-metals.
For example, elements in Group 1 lose the electron from their highest occupied energy
level (outer shell) to form ions with a +1 charge.
As you go down the group, the number of occupied energy levels (filled shells) increases.
The higher the energy level of the outer electrons, the greater the distance from
the nucleus, and the more easily electrons are lost. This is why elements in Group 1
become more reactive as you go down the group.
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Non-metals
Non-metal atoms gain electrons when they react with metals.
For example, elements in Group 7 gain one electron into their highest occupied energy
level (outer shell) to form ions with a –1 charge.
As you go down the group, the number of occupied energy levels (filled shells) increases.
The higher the energy level of the outer electrons, the greater the distance from the
nucleus, and the less easily electrons are gained. This is why elements in Group 7 become
less reactive as you go down the group.
The electron from the second energy level of a lithium atom transfers to the second energy level of a fluorine
atom. This creates a positively charged lithium ion and a negatively charged fluoride ion
The electron from the fourth energy level of a potassium atom transfers to the third energy level of a chlorine
atom. This creates a positively charged potassium ion and a negatively charged chloride ion

The quest for a systematic arrangement of the elements started with the discovery of
individual elements.

The Law of Triads

German chemist Johann Dobereiner (1780-1849) grouped elements based on

similarities.

Law of Triads - the middle element in the triad had atomic weight that was the
average of the other two members.

For example:

Calcium (atomic weight 40), strontium (atomic weight 88), and barium (atomic
weight 137) possess similar chemical prepares. Dobereiner noticed the atomic weight
of strontium fell midway between the weights of calcium and barium:
Ca (40), Sr (88), Ba (137) = (40 + 137) ÷ 2 = 88.

The law of triads worked for alkali metal triad (Li/Na/K) and the halogen triad
(Cl/Br/I) but couldn't be applied to all other elements.

Law of Octaves

English chemist John Newlands (1837-1898), having arranged the 62 known elements
in order of increasing atomic weights, noted that after interval of eight elements
similar physical/chemical properties reappeared.

Law of Octaves - elements exhibit similar behaviour to the eighth element following
it in the table.

Newlands was the first to formulate the concept of periodicity in the properties of the
chemical elements.

Problem of law of octaves

1. The positions of some pairs of elements are reversed when ordered by mass (K
and Ar).
2. Not all elements had been discovered at the time and Newlands left no
spaces for undiscovered ones.
3. Some groups contained elements with differing properties.

Mendeleev's Periodic Table

In 1869, Russian chemist Dimitri Mendeleev (1834-1907) proposed arranging

elements by atomic weights and properties (Lothar Meyer independently reached
similar conclusion but published results after Mendeleev).

Mendeleev's table exhibited similarities not only in small units such as the triads, but
showed similarities in an entire network of vertical, horizontal, and diagonal
relationships.

Mendeleev’s ordered the elements by their relative atomic mass.

In order to make similar elements line up in the same group:

1. He swapped the positions of certain pairs of elements (e.g. Ar and K, I and Te).
2. He also had to leave gaps in certain places, e.g. between gallium and arsenic
 3. He predicted the properties of the missing elements and was proved correct in
each case.

Arranging the elements according to increasing atomic numbers and not atomic
masses eliminated some of the inconsistencies associated with Mendeleev's table.

Group 1 (alkali metals) elements

Properties of alkali metals

1. Soft, reactive metals with low density which must be stored under oil
2. Have one electron in the outer shell
3. Exhibit metallic bonding in which the outer electron from each atom is lost into
a delocalised ‘sea of electrons’ free to move between a lattice of metal ions
4. Relatively low melting points as the solid lattice is held together by the
electrostatic forces between the metal cations (1+) and a single delocalised
electron (1-) per atom
5. Good conductors of heat and electricity due to the ‘free’ electrons (lost from
the outer shell) which can ‘flow’ between the metal ions in the solid lattice.

Reactions with halogens

Alkali elements react with non-metals to form white, soluble, crystalline ionic
compounds which have high melting points due to the strong attraction between the
metal cations (1+) and the negatively charged non-metal anions.

Reaction with water

React with water to form hydrogen gas and the metal hydroxide which dissolves in
water to give an alkaline solution.

2 Na(s) + 2 H2O(l) → 2 NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

Reactivity

Alkali elements are more reactive going down the group as the outer electron (further
from the nucleus) is less strongly attracted to the positive nucleus and hence more
easily lost.
Group 7 (halogens) elements

Properties of halogens

1. Atoms have seven electrons in the outer shell

2. Share an electron with another atom to complete the outer shell and form
diatomic molecules (X2)
3. Poor conductors of heat and electricity as all electrons are held tightly
4. Low melting and boiling points (due to weak intermolecular forces of attraction
which increase down group)
5. Change in state as you go down group - fluorine and chlorine (gases), bromine
(liquid) to iodine and astatine (solids)
6. Coloured molecules F2 (pale green); Cl2 (yellow); Br2 (red); I2 (dark grey,
sublimes to give purple vapour).

Reactivity

React with metals (gaining an electron in the outer shell) to form ionic compounds
which have high melting points due to the strong attraction between the metal cations
(positive) and the halide anions (-1).

React with non-metals (sharing one electron in the outer shell) to form covalent
molecular compounds which have low melting points due to the weak intermolecular
forces of attraction.

Trend in reactivity

Halogens become less reactive going down the group as the outer electrons (further
from the nucleus) are less strongly attracted to the positive nucleus and hence
additional electrons are less easily gained.

More reactive halogens will displace non-metals of lower reactivity from their salts

Cl2(aq) + 2KBr(aq) → Br2(aq) + 2 KCl(aq)

Transition metals

1. Electrons are being added to the d – orbital

2. Exhibit metallic bonding in which more than one electron from each atom is
lost into a delocalised ‘sea of electrons’ free to move between a lattice of metal
ions
 3. Have high melting points as the solid lattice is held together by strong
electrostatic forces between the metal cations and sea of delocalised electrons
4. Hard, tough and strong because of the large forces holding the lattice together
5. Good conductors of heat and electricity due to the ‘delocalised’ electrons which
can ‘flow’ between the metal ions
6. Malleable and ductile as layers of metal ions slide over each other in the lattice
without disrupting the attractions which hold the lattice together

Reactivity of transition metals

1. Less reactive than group 1 metals (because their outer electrons are less easily
lost), reacting much more slowly with air and water
2. Form ionic compounds with various charges or oxidation states
3. In general, form coloured compounds
4. Produce insoluble hydroxides with characteristic colours when reacted with
sodium hydroxide.

Uses of transition metals

1. Used in construction due to their strength and resistance to corrosion

2. Used in the electrical industry due to their high conductivity
3. Used in the pigment industry (paints e.t.c) due to their coloured compounds
4. Used as catalysts due to their variable oxidation state
 Structure of an Atom
All matter is composed of atoms. An atom is composed of 3 types of sub-atomic
particles:

1. Protons
2. Neutrons
3. Electrons
The protons and neutrons are present in the center of an atom, forming a small
nucleus. The electrons orbit around the nucleus in shells or energy levels.

The simplified structure of a Lithium atom is shown below:

Atoms have no overall electrical charge, however the particles contain specific charge,
listed below:

Protons --- Positive (+) charge

Neutron --- Neutral (0) no charge

Electron --- Negative (–) charge

Atomic structure diagram

The atomic structure is drawn with the nucleus in the center, and electrons arranged
outside in circles called energy levels or shells. The electrons in an atom occupy the
innermost available shells, i.e. the lowest available energy levels.
The innermost shell, or the first shell, can hold only 2 electrons.
The second and third shells can hold up to 8 electrons each.

First shell (closest to nucleus) 2 electrons

Second shell: 8 electrons

Third shell: 8 electrons

Atomic Number
Each atom of a specific element contains the same number of protons. For example, all
the atoms of carbon contain 6 protons in their nucleus.

The number of protons in an atom of an element is called

Atomic number.

Each element has a unique atomic number, which is also used to arrange the elements
in the Periodic Table.

Atomic Number = Number of protons

=6
Carbon has 6 protons; therefore the atomic number of carbon is 6.
Next: Atomic Mass
Atomic Mass
As we already know that nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons.

The number of protons and neutrons in an atom of an

element is called Atomic mass, or Mass number

Protons and neutrons have the same mass of 1 unit, while electrons are very light and
their mass can be ignored and taken as zero.

Atomic Mass = number of protons + number of neutrons

= 6 + 6 = 12
Therefore, the mass number of carbon is 12.
Calculating sub-atomic particles from
atomic number and mass number
We can calculate the number of sub-atomic particles (i.e. electrons, protons, neutrons)
if the atomic mass or atomic number is provided for an element. Similarly, the atomic
number and mass number can be calculated for any element if the number of
subatomic particles is known.

From the definitions of Atomic number and Atomic mass, we know:

Atomic number = the number of protons

Mass number = the number of protons + the number of neutrons
From these, we can deduct:

Number of neutrons = Mass number – Atomic number

Atom has no overall charge, which means the there are equal number of negatively
charged electrons and positively charged protons. If we know the number of protons (or
atomic number) of an atom, this will be equal to the number of electrons of that atom.
Number of electrons = Number of protons
Example Question:

Calculate the sub-atomic particles for

Solution:
From the provided data, we know:

Mass number: 23
Atomic number: 11

As we know:
Number of protons = Atomic number
Therefore,
Number of protons = 11
Since, Number of electrons = Number of protons
Therefore, Number of electrons = 11
As we know:

Mass number = number of protons + neutrons

and, Atomic number = number of protons

Therefore,

Number of neutrons = Mass number – Atomic number

= 23 – 11

Number of neutrons = 12
Isotopes
All the atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons. This proton
number or atomic number determines the chemical properties of an atom. However,
the number of neutrons may vary within the atoms of an element.

Atoms of the same element that have the same number of

protons but different number of neutrons are called isotopes
of that element.

Or in other words,

Atoms of the same element with the same atomic number

but different atomic masses are called isotopes of that
element.

Example
The atomic number of carbon is 6. All carbon atoms have the same atomic number, but
their mass number might differ because of different number of neutrons.

Most of the carbon atoms contain 6 protons and 6 neutrons, and has a mass number
12. However, some carbon atoms also exist with 6 protons and 8 neutrons, which gives
it a mass number 14.

12
C and 14C are isotopes of carbon.
Comparison of two isotopes of carbon

Electrons 6 6 Same

Protons 6 6 Same

Neutrons 6 8 Different

Atomic number 6 6 Same

Mass number 12 14 Different

Relative Atomic mass
Different types of atoms have different masses. This mass is too small to measure using
a conventional scale, therefore we compare their masses to each other. A carbon atom
having a mass number 12, i.e. (12C) is taken as standard for this comparison and its
relative atomic mass is 12.

The relative atomic mass of an element compares the mass

of atoms of the element with the 12C isotope.

It is written as Ar or R.A.M.
Some of the elements exist in nature as a mixture of their isotopes in specific
proportions. The R.A.M of such elements is the average mass of the different proportions
of each isotope in the mixture.

R.A.M. of some elements:

hydrogen 1

oxygen 16

copper 63.5

iron 55.8

It’s important to note that atomic number and mass number are always whole numbers
because they are based on the number of sub-atomic particles, while the R.A.M. can
have fractions because it is the average mass of different isotopes.
Example
A sample of chlorine gas is a mixture of 2
isotopes, chlorine-35 and chlorine-37. These
isotopes occur in specific proportions in the
sample i.e. 75% chlorine-35 and 25% chlorine-
37. Calculate the R.A.M. of chlorine in the
sample.

Solution
The average mass, or R.A.M. of chlorine can be
calculated using the following equation:

(mass of isotope-A x % of isotope-A) + (mass of isotope-B x % of isotope-B)

R.A.M. =
100

(35 x 75) + (37 x 25)

=
100

3550
=
100

R.A.M. = 35.5
Electron arrangement of the first 20
elements
The table below shows the electron arrangement for the first 20 elements in the
Periodic Table along with their Atomic number and symbols:

Element Electrons diagram and configuration

H
hydrogen

He
helium

Li
lithium

2.1
4

Be
beryllium

2.2

B
boron

2.3

C
carbon

2.4

N
nitrogen

2.5
8

O
oxygen

2.6

F
fluorine

2.7

10

Ne
neon

2.8

Element Electrons diagram and configuration

11

Na
sodium
 2.8.1

12

Mg
magnesium

2.8.2

13

Al
aluminium

2.8.3

14

Si
silicon

2.8.4

15

P
phosphorus

2.8.5
16

S
sulfur

2.8.6

17

Cl
chlorine

2.8.7

18

Ar
argon

2.8.8

19

K
potassium

2.8.8.1
20

Ca
calcium

2.8.8.2
Group 1 – Alkali Metals
The Group 1 elements are placed in the vertical column on the left-hand side of the
periodic table. Group 1 elements form alkaline solutions when they react with water,
which is why they are called alkali metals. Lithium, sodium and potassium all belong to
alkali metals. All Group 1 elements have 1 electron in their outer shell.
 Chemical Symbols:
Element Symbol Atomic No.

Lithium Li 3

Sodium Na 11

Potassium K 19

Rubidium Rb 37

Caesium Cs 55

Francium Fr 87

It is important to learn the physical and chemical properties of the first three elements
in this group. Francium is radioactive and is formed during the radioactive decay of
actinium. Its isotopes are exceedingly short-lived and thus little is known about this
element.

Physical properties of Alkali Metals

The table below summarises the physical properties of the Group 1 elements.

Melting Point Boiling Point Density Atomic Radius

Element °C °C kg/m3 nanometer (nm)

Li 180 1342 535 0.15

Na 98 883 968 0.19

K 64 759 856 0.23

Rb 39 688 1532 0.25

Cs 29 671 1879 0.26

Alkali Metals have lower melting and boiling Points
All Group 1 elements have one electron in their outermost shell which is held very weakly by the
nucleus. This electron can drift further from the nucleus than in most atoms of other elements.
This results in Group 1 elements having larger atomic radii than those elements that follow them
in their respective periods. The large atomic size results in weaker forces between neighbouring
atoms. It is these weaker attractive forces due to the large atomic radii between neighbouring
atoms of Group 1 elements that result in lower melting and boiling points when compared to
other metals.

The decrease in melting and boiling points down the group can be explained by the additional
shell being added to the previous element causing the atomic radius to increase. The increasing
atomic radius means weaker forces between the atoms and so a lower melting and boiling point.

Alkali Metals are soft

Alkali metals are soft metals that can be cut with a knife and silvery coloured. Freshly cut alkali
metals are shiny but tarnish rapidly due to reaction with oxygen in the air. They are generally
stored under oil.

It is the reduced interatomic forces in these elements that make them relatively soft.

Alkali metals are extremely good conductors of

electricity and heat
Alkali metals have one electron in their outermost shell which is held very weakly by the
nucleus. The outer electron can drift further from the nucleus and move relatively freely. On the
application of an electric field the large numbers of free flowing electrons in the outer shells
conduct electricity through the metal.

Similarly, on the application of heat the free moving electrons in the outermost shells gain a lot
of energy and transfer this through the metal via collisions with the other free moving electrons.

Alkali metals have low density

Lithium, sodium and potassium are less dense than water and therefore can float on water.
Rubidium and caesium are denser than water.
Chemical Properties of Alkali Metals
The alkali metals are the most reactive group of metals in the Periodic Table. They
contain one weakly held electron in their outer shell which is readily transferred in
chemical reactions.

Reactions of alkali metals with water

All the Group 1 elements react vigorously with cold water. They react with water to
form hydrogen gas and an alkaline solution of the metal hydroxide. All the Group 1
elements readily give up their weakly held outermost electron resulting in a positive
metal ion with a full outer shell i.e. the stable electronic arrangement of a noble gas. In
a reaction, an atom of a Group 1 element loses one electron and forms an ion with a
single positive charge. The process of losing an electron is termed as oxidation.
If we consider the example of sodium reacting with water:
The sodium atom readily gives up its electron to form a sodium ion.

The water molecule is then reduced by the sodium ion as follows:

H2O (l) + e– —→ ½H2(g) + OH–

The Na+ ion combines with the OH– ion through ionic bonding to form sodium hydroxide
(NaOH).
The reactivity of the alkali metals increases going down Group 1.
The animation below shows the reactions of lithium (Li), sodium (Na) and potassium (K)
with water:

Reactions of alkali metals with chlorine

All the Group 1 elements react vigorously with chlorine. They react with chlorine to form
white crystalline salts.

Lithium
If a piece of hot lithium is lowered into a jar of chlorine, a vigorous reaction takes place forming
white powder that settles on the sides of the jar. This is the salt lithium chloride (LiCl). The
reaction can be written in the form of an equation:
lithium + chlorine → lithium chloride
2Li(s) + Cl2(g) → 2LiCl(s)

Sodium
The reaction of sodium with chlorine is more vigorous than lithium. If a piece of hot sodium is
lowered into a jar of chlorine, the sodium burns with a bright yellow flame forming clouds of
white powder that settle on the sides of the jar. This is the salt sodium chloride (NaCl).
The reaction of sodium with chlorine can be written as:

sodium + chlorine → sodium chloride

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)

Potassium
Potassium reacts more violently with chlorine than sodium does, showing how reactivity
increases down the group. The salt potassium chloride (KCl) is produced by this reaction. The
reaction can be written as:
potassium + chlorine → potassium chloride
2K(s) + Cl2(g) → 2KCl(s)

Explaining trends in reactivity

 The reactivity of Group 1 elements increases going down the group. This is because on
going down the group:

 The atoms get larger. The atomic radii increase with atomic number down the group. Each
succeeding element has its electron in one more shell than the previous element.
 The outer electron gets further away from the influence of the nucleus. Therefore, the attractive
force between the nucleus and the electron gets weaker and so the electron is more easily given
up.
Lithium (Li) Sodium (Na) Potassium (K)

2.1 2.8.1 2.8.8.1

Potassium is more reactive than lithium although they both need to lose only one electron to have full outer
shells. This is because the outer electron of potassium atom is further from the positive attractions of the nucleus
compared to the outer electron of lithium. Therefore, it is easier for potassium to lose its outer electron.

Trends in Group 1
 Reactivity increases down the group.
 Melting point and boiling point decreases down the group.

Flame colours of alkali metals

Alkali metals emit distinctive flame colours when heated. These flame colours are used
to identify these elements.
A small piece of metal compound is taken on the end of a Nichrome wire and
introduced into a Bunsen flame. The flame emitting from the end of wire will show a
distinctive colour that is characteristic of the metal in the compound. By referring that
flame colour to the table below, we can identify the element in that compound.

Flame colours of Group 1 elements

Element Flame colour

lithium red

sodium yellow

potassium lilac

Line spectra
All atoms give off light when heated, although this light is not always visible to the
human eye. A technique, known as spectroscopy, is used to split this light to form a line
spectrum. Each element has its own distinctive line spectrum which is used to identify
these elements. For example, the element helium was discovered by studying line
spectra emitted by the Sun.
A line spectrum is shown below:

The study of line spectra helped scientists discover some elements which was not
possible until the development of spectroscopy. Some elements, such as rubidium and
caesium, were discovered through spectroscopy.

Safety precautions for handling alkali

metals
Group 1 metals react with water to form hydroxide which dissolves in water to form
alkaline solutions. Alkaline solutions have a pH greater than 7. These solutions turn
universal indicator purple, indicating they are strongly alkaline.

Strong alkalis are corrosive. They must be stored under oil to keep water and oxygen
from air away from them. They must be used with care by following the proper safety
precautions like wearing goggles and gloves. Corrosive substances are labeled with
standard hazard symbols.
According to the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of
Chemicals (GHS), corrosive substances are marked with the following symbol:

Corrosive

Corrosive (old symbol)

Group 7 – Halogens
The Group 7 elements are placed in the vertical column, second from the right-hand
side of the periodic table. All Group 7 elements have 7 electrons in their outer shell.
Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine, all belong to Group 7.
Chemical Symbols:
Element Symbol Atomic No.

Fluorine F 9

Chlorine Cl 17

Bromine Br 35

Iodine I 53
Astatine At 85

Astatine (At), the last element in the Group does not occur naturally. It is a very
unstable, radioactive element first synthesised in 1940 by chemist in the USA. Its most
stable isotope 24085At has a half-life of 8.3 hours. The name Astatine is from the Greek
word 'astatos' meaning unstable.
Group 7 elements form salts when they react with metals. The term 'halogen' means
'salt former', which is why Group 7 elements are called halogens. In general the
halogens comprise the most reactive group of non-metals. The halogens are so reactive
that they cannot exist free in nature.

Structure of Halogens
Halogens consist of diatomic molecules. This means they exist as molecules, each with
a pair of atoms. Chlorine molecules have the formula Cl2, bromine Br2 and iodine I2.

Fluorine
(F2)
 2.8 — 2.8

All halogens exist as diatomic molecules or in other words as two- atom molecules. The two atoms form a covalent b

Physical properties of Halogens

The table below summarises the physical properties of the first four Group 7 elements:

Melting Boiling
Electron State at room temp. Point Point
Element config. (20°C) Colour °C °C

Fluorine 2.7 Gas Pale yellow -220 -188

Chlorine 2.8.7 Gas Green -101 -35

Bromine 2.8.18.7 Liquid Orange/Red -7 59

Iodine 2.8.18.18.7 Solid Grey/Black 113 183

Predictions in properties
Colour
From the table of physical properties it can be inferred that the depth of colour of the
halogens increases in atomic number. Fluorine is pale yellow, chlorine is green, bromine
is orange and iodine is grey. Thus the colour of the Astatine not included in the table
can be deduced as being black.

Melting point and boiling point

The halogens belong to non-metals, and thus like typical non-metals they have low
melting points and boiling points. The melting points and boiling points increase as you
go down the group. Fluorine has the lowest melting point and boiling point.

The increase in melting point and boiling point can be explained by understanding Van
Der Waal forces. Although this topic is not required at GCSE level it is thought a brief
introduction would be useful in order to explain the trends in melting points and boiling
points in the Group 7 elements.
Van der Waals’ forces are forces that exist between molecules and are therefore
referred to as intermolecular forces. They are much weaker and different to the forces
of attraction that exist between the bonds (ionic or covalent) of the atoms in a molecule
which are referred to as intramolecular forces.

Van der Waals’ Forces

Van der Waals’ forces are named after the Dutch scientist J D Van der Waal who discovered
them. The forces are created by the constant movement of electrons in atoms of molecules at
high speeds. At any instant in time there is the likelihood that one side of the molecule has a
greater proportion of electrons. When this happens a temporary imbalance of the electrons result
in the molecule producing a negative and positive end. An atom or molecule that has an
imbalance in charge is called a dipole and a temporary imbalance in charge produces a
temporary dipole. The temporary imbalance in charge or temporary dipole can attract the
electron cloud from a neighbouring atom or molecule i.e. the slightly positive end of the
temporary dipole will attract the electrons from a neighboring molecule. This means the
temporary dipole induces an imbalance of the electrons in the neighbouring molecule.
The strength of the Van de Waals’ force is dependent on the size of the atoms or molecules. As
the size and molecular mass of the molecule increases so does the number of electrons resulting
in a greater imbalance in charge and hence a stronger Van der Waals’ attraction. This is the
reason why the melting point and boiling points increase down Group 7, more energy is required
to overcome the stronger Van der Waals’ forces of attraction.

Reactivity of Halogens
The halogens get less reactive going down the group. Or in other words the reactivity
of the halogens decreases with increase in atomic number. This is the opposite trend to
that seen in the alkali metals in Group 1 of the periodic table.

Fluorine is the most reactive element in Group 7. In fact it is the most reactive of all
non-metals.

Reactions of Halogens with Iron Wool

The animation below demonstrates the trend in reactivity by the reaction of the
halogens with iron wool.

Reaction with alkali metals

The halogens react with metals to make salts called metal halides.
metal + halogen ——→ metal halide
For example, sodium reacts with chlorine to make sodium chloride (common salt).

sodium + chlorine ——→ sodium chloride

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) ——→ 2NaCl(s)

The reaction between sodium and a halogen becomes less vigorous down the group.
Fluorine reacts violently with sodium at room temperature. Chlorine reacts very
vigorously when in contact with hot sodium. Iodine reacts slowly with hot sodium.

Explaining trends in reactivity

The reactivity of Group 7 elements decreases down the group. Non-metal atoms gain
electrons when they react with metals. When a halogen atom reacts, it gains one
electron into their highest occupied energy level (outer shell) to form a singly negative
charged ion.

As we go down the group, an additional electron shell is added thereby increasing the
atomic radii of the atom. The electrons in the outer shell move further away from the
nucleus as we go down the group and the attraction force between the electrons and
the nucleus become weaker and weaker. This weaker attraction in the larger atoms
makes it harder to gain electron. Therefore the ability of the atom to attract electron to
fill the outermost shell reduces, which means the reactiveness of the atom reduces.

Chlorine (Cl) Bromine (Br) Iodine (I)

2.8.7 2.8.8.7 2.8.8.8.7

Chlorine is more reactive than iodine although they both need to gain only one electron to have full outer shells.
It is because the outer electron of iodine atom is furthest from the positive attractions of the nucleus compared to
the outer electron of chlorine. Greater distance between nucleus and outer shell means less attraction so it is
harder to gain an extra electron. Therefore, it is easier for chlorine to gain an electron and form a halide.

Trends in Group 7
 Melting point and boiling point increases down the group.
 Reactivity decreases down the group.

Uses of Halogens
Fluorine
Fluorine compounds (Fluorides) are added to toothpaste to prevent tooth decay. In
some places fluoride is added to the water supply.

Hydrogen fluoride and boron

trifluoride are used as catalyst in
the petrochemical industry to speed
up certain reactions.

Fluorocarbons are chemical

compounds consisting of fluorine
and carbon. Some of these can be
chemically changed to compound
that can be formed into plastics.
The plastics formed are very stable
and tough. They do not burn, are unaffected by solvents or other chemicals are not
attacked by bacteria or insects. Teflon, used for non-stick frying pans, Kel-F and Viton
are examples of fluorocarbon plastics.

Chlorine
Liquid chlorine is added to drinking water at very low concentrations to kill bacteria.
Similarly chlorine is added into swimming pools to kill
bacteria.

Chlorine is used as a bleaching agent. Chlorine

interacts with oxygen to reduce dyes and pigments to
colourless compounds.

Calcium hypochlorite - Ca(OCl2) and sodium

hypochlorite – NaOCl are dissolved in water to form
household bleach which is used as a disinfectant and
cleaning agent.

Many useful compounds of chlorine exist, the most

common being sodium chloride i.e. common salt.
When combined with metals and oxygen chlorine
forms chlorates which are used across many industries
from the manufacture of fireworks to the extraction of
gold from its ore.

Chlorine combines with hydrogen to form the industrially important hydrogen chloride.
This when dissolved in water forms hydrochloric acid, which is used in the manufacture
of metals, food plastics and many other products.

Bromine
Bromine is used in the manufacture of pesticides and fumigants.

Silver bromide is used as a component of photographic films.

Bromides of potassium, sodium and calcium are used in medicine in the manufacture of
sedatives.
Iodine
Iodine is extensively used in the pharmaceutical and therapeutic
industries. Iodine dissolved in alcohol is used as an antiseptic and
put on cuts.

Iodine is a component of several dyes.

Safety precautions for handling halogens

Because the halogens are very reactive and poisonous, care must be taken when using them.
Chlorine is used only in a fume cupboard. Iodine should not be handled with bare hands. Gloves
and goggles should be worn while handling reactive chemicals.

Group 0 – Noble Gases

The group 0 elements are placed in the rightmost column of the periodic table. They
are called the noble gases because they are all chemically unreactive (the term noble in
chemistry signifies a lack of chemical reactivity). They are unreactive because their
atoms have stable arrangements of electrons. All noble gases have the maximum
number of electrons in their outer shell; i.e. 2 electrons for helium and 8 for the other
five.
Noble gases are monoatomic, which means they exist as single atoms. This is because
of their electronic stability. Unlike most common gases that exist as diatomic molecules
like O2, N2, and Cl2, the noble gases exist as single atoms like He, Ne, Ar, i.e. they are
monatomic molecules.

Chemical Symbols:
Element Symbol Atomic No.

Helium He 2
 Neon Ne 10

Argon Ar 18

Krypton Kr 36

Xenon Xe 54

Radon Rn 86

Properties of Noble Gases

The noble gases are all non-metallic elements. They are colourless gases at room
temperature and pressure, with very low melting points and boiling points.

The noble gases have the following properties in common:

 They are non-metals

 They are very unreactive gases
 They are colourless, odorless and non-flammable.
Boiling point
The noble gases all have low boiling points. This is a typical property of non-metals.
Helium has the lowest boiling point in the group. However, for the noble gases the
significantly low boiling points are due to the weak interatomic forces between the
monatomic atoms. The boiling points increase down the group. The weak interatomic
forces increase as the size and mass of the atoms increases.
Density
The density of a substance is a measure of how heavy it is for its size. The particles in
gases are spread far apart, so gases have low densities. Helium has the lowest density
in the group. The densities increase as you go down the group. Radon, at the bottom of
the group, is the densest gas.
Explaining the inertness of noble gases
They are unreactive because their atoms have stable arrangements of electrons. Stable
arrangement means their outer shells are full. This can be demonstrated by looking at
the electronic structures of the noble gases.

Helium
(He)
 2

The highest occupied energy levels (outermost shells) of their atoms are full, making them unreactive.

Uses of Noble Gases

Due to unreactive nature, low density and non-flammability of noble gases, they have a
variety of uses listed below:

Helium
The low density of helium is made use of in filling airships and balloons. Helium is
much less dense than air (lighter) and used in filling weather balloons, airships and
decorative balloons. Hydrogen was once used to fill airships and balloons but its high
reactivity made it dangerous.

The low boiling point of helium makes it a very useful coolant. Helium boils at -269°C
which is only 4°C above the lowest temperature achievable in theory called absolute
zero (-273°C). Helium is used to cool metals down to very low temperatures so that
they lose their electrical resistance and become super-conductors. Body scanners such
as the MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) used in hospitals have superconducting wire
in their coils so that they can conduct large electric currents in order to produce intense
magnetic fields. Helium is used to cool the conducting coils down to very low
temperatures so that they can display superconducting properties.

Because helium is unreactive, it is used to provide an inert protective atmosphere in the

manufacture of fibre optics and semi conductors.

Neon
Neon is used in advertising signs also known as neon-signs. Neon glows a reddish
orange colour when electricity is passed through it in a vacuum discharge tube.
Only red signs contain pure neon. Other signs contain different gases and a chemical
coating on the inside of the glass tubing of the lights.
 Argon
Argon is used to provide an inert protective atmosphere in the production of
titanium and other reactive elements. It is also used to provide an inert protective
shield around the hot metal when welding.

Argon is used in incandescent light bulbs instead of air as it will not react with the
tungsten filament even when it is white hot.

Low energy light bulbs and fluorescent tubes often contain argon gas and mercury.
When an electric current passes through the gas it generates ultra-violet light. A coating
on the inside surface of the tube or bulb is activated by the ultra-violet light causing it
to glow brightly.

Argon is also used to fill the space between the panes in double glazed windows.

Krypton
Like argon, krypton is used commercially to fill energy saving fluorescent lights.

Krypton is reactive enough to react with fluorine to produce krypton fluoride. Krypton
fluoride is used in lasers for the manufacture of semiconductors and integrated circuit
boards.

Krypton lasers are used by surgeons to treat certain eye problems and to remove
birthmarks.

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