Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 1208–1229

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Contemporary trends in thermo-hydraulic testing and modeling of MARK

automotive radiators deploying nano-coolants and aerodynamically efficient
air-side fins
Yagnavalkya Mukkamala
School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT University, Vellore, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Automotive radiators cool the engine coolant preventing heat seizure due to thermal expansion. Since both the
Automotive Radiators coolant pump and radiator fan are parasitic devices (power has to be supplied by the engine), radiators with
Delta Winglets lower air-side and coolant pressure drop deploying coolants with superior thermo-physical characteristics that
Louvers consume lower engine power need to be designed. Hence, augmented radiators with better overall heat transfer
Nano-coolants
enhancement using improved tube-side and air-side geometries that emit fewer emissions, save energy and can
Pressure Drop
be easily fabricated, tested and analysed are necessary. This review addresses this issue. Specially designed and
Heat Transfer
Enhancement fabricated air-side fins and flat extruded coolant tubes have significantly improved the thermal performance of
Energy savings engine cooling systems. This article reviews the state-of-the-art in experimental testing and computational
modeling of enhanced radiators which can be deployed with high performance vehicles and their superiority
over conventional radiators. Unlike other reviews which focused solely on coolant tube and air-side design and
spacing, flow velocities and pressure drops, this article will also focus on the impact of nano-coolants on
improving the thermal efficiency of radiators while summarizing the efficacy of aerodynamically efficient air-
side fins like delta-winglets in reducing air-side pressure drop. This article aims to consolidate the available
literature in the 21st century (experimental and analytical) for enhanced radiators equipped with unconven-
tional coolants and aerodynamically designed air-side fins and should serve as a single reference for practicing
engineers and graduate students.

1. Introduction
Automotive radiators are essentially recuperative heat exchangers
that cool the engine jacket by transferring heat from the coolant
(generally a mixture of water, antifreeze and antirust chemicals) to
the cooling air flowing over the finned tubes. Inadequate heat removal
from the coolant can lead to an increase in the coolant temperature
which can lower its cooling capacity resulting in higher engine
operating temperatures. Subsequent thermal expansion in the engine's
cylinders can lead to the piston being stuck which is defined as heat
seizure due to inadequate cooling and lubrication. A typical schematic
of a conventional automotive radiator replete with the inlet and exit
headers and tube banks and fins is reproduced below in Fig. 1.
The radiator core itself consists of a tube-bank with several smooth
or finned tubes brazed or welded to air-side fins. The finned surface is
normally located on the cooling air-side as it's the fluid with the lowest
thermal conductivity and fins lower the thermal resistance by enhan-
cing the air-side heat transfer rate due to additional surface area and
higher fin conductivity. Coolant pressure drop in the radiator tubes and
air-side pressure drop over the fins require a coolant pump and fan
respectively. Radiators are considered to be effective if the coolant
temperature drop and hence the cooling heat transfer rate exceeds the
power penalty required for operating the coolant pump and radiator
fan. The author's works in designing energy efficient heat exchangers
and his expertise in heat transfer enhancement in micro-fin and doubly
enhanced tubes [2–5] with various liquids suggest that the thermo-
hydraulic performance of heat exchangers like radiators strongly
depends on the fluid Prandtl number and thermal conductivity, tube
and annulus-side (air-side in radiators) Reynolds numbers and the
internal and external fin configurations. Further, engine cooling
systems like automotive radiators should be compact, light-weight
and provide cooling at elevated temperatures for high performance
vehicles (ex: race cars). This requires deploying superior coolants like
nano-coolants and tube-side and air-side fins that yield higher cooling
at lower pressure drop. Hence an attempt is made in this article to
summarize and analyze the impact of high thermal conductivity fluids
like nano-coolants and specially configured air-side fins on the thermo-
hydraulic performance of heat exchangers like radiators. Although

E-mail addresses: yagnasmukkamala@vit.ac.in, mukk_in@yahoo.com.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.03.106
Received 28 January 2016; Received in revised form 6 March 2017; Accepted 23 March 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Mukkamala Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 1208–1229

Nomenclature Subscripts

A Area (m2) Air-side Air-side parameter

At Radiator tubes surface area air Air parameter
Ao Overall surface area = Base area + finned area (m2) c Coolant parameter
cp Constant Pressure Specific Heat (J/kg K) g Combustion gas parameter
d, D Diameter (m); Cylinder bore (m) h Hydraulic diameter (m)
Dc Air-side fin outer collar diameter max Maximum parameter
DWVG Delta-wing vortex generators (air-side fins) nf Nano-fluid
f Darcy friction factor t Tube-side parameter
h Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m2 K) w.c Coolant side wall temperature
j Colburn J-Factor w.g Combustion gas side wall parameter
Pe Peclet Number (Re. Pr)
Pr Prandtl Number Greek Letters
Re Reynolds number
T Temperature η Fin Thermal Efficiency; Overall radiator efficiency
T Average Temperature μ Fluid viscosity (kg/m.s)
U Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m2 K) ϕ Nano particle volume fraction (%)
UAt Overall Thermal Conductance – Tube side (W/°C) ρ Density (kg/m3)
V Velocity θ Crank position (°)
w (θ) Local gas velocity in cylinder (m/s)
x Cylinder wall thickness (m)

nano-coolants are inherently unstable studies reported and analysed in velocity, cp,air is constant pressure specific heat of air (J/kg K), Prair is
this article have reported stabilization mechanisms that prevent the Prandtl number of air, while hair is the air-side convective heat
sedimentation and have considerably increased the thermal conductiv- transfer coefficient. Dc is the air-side fin collar outer diameter in
ity and cooling performance. Design of such efficient radiators should meters, while A, B, C, and D are empirical constants, while fair-side is the
lower the coolant pump duty and fan power saving energy and making air-side Darcy friction factor.
radiators more energy sustainable. Coolant tube-side average heat transfer coefficient h c was given by
Standard pressure drop and heat transfer calculations for a radiator Karamangil et al. [7] as follows:
tube-fin assembly are listed below in Eqs. (1)–(7). Air-side friction
hg(Tg − Tw, g)
factor and heat transfer correlation [6] may be presented in terms of hc =
the Colburn j factor as: (Tw, c − Tc) (4)
h air In Eq. (4) Tg is measured combustion gas temperature, Tw,g is the
jair−side =
ρair
2
Vmaxcp,airPrair 3 gas-side wall temperature, Tw,c is coolant side wall temperature while
(1)
Tc is the coolant temperature. The combustion gas chamber side heat
transfer coefficient hg was given by Woschini [8] as follows:
A
jair−side =
Re BDc (2) hg(θ ) = 30.26 × 10−3D−0.2p(θ )0.8w(θ )0.8T(θ )−0.55 (5)
In Eq. (5) D is the cylinder diameter in meters, p(θ) is in-cylinder
C
fair−side = pressure at crank position θ, w(θ) is the local gas velocity in cylinder,
Re D
Dc (3) and T(θ) is the instantaneous in-cylinder gas temperature at crank
In Eq. (1) ρ is the fluid (air) density, Vmax is the maximum air-side position θ. For a further description of the procedure for obtaining this
empirical correlation and the parameters involved one can refer [8].
Pang et al. [6] computed the net thermal resistance across radiator
tubes and fins as follows:
1 1 x 1
R th = UAt
= + +
h cAt kAt haηA o
(coolant side) (tube) (air side) (6)
. kA t
Q = h cA tΔT1 = ΔT2 = h aηA oΔT3
x (7)
The temperature differences according to Pang et al. [6] for the
overall thermal resistance across the water jacket side and radiator side
is Fig. 2 below. From Eq. (6) it should be obvious that the thermo-
hydraulic performance of an automotive radiator has to be improved by
lowering the thermal resistance both on the air-side and the tube-side.
Tube-side thermal resistance can be lowered by reducing the wall
thickness of the tubes and making them from high conductivity
materials, adding internal fins and ribs to turbulate the flow and
increase tube-side area. Air-side thermal resistance can be lowered by
designing aerodynamically efficient fins that minimize obstruction to
air flow while improving coolant to air heat transfer. The most recent
Fig. 1. Conventional Automotive Radiator [1]. review by Gupta et al. [9] summarizes the parametric influence of

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Y. Mukkamala
Tube Wall
Coolant
Fin
Tc
Tw.c
Tw,a
Ta
Radiator
Heat Flow = Temperature Difference/Thermal Resistance
1 1 x 1
= + +
UA hc At kA t
Fig. 2. Overall Thermal Resistance at Radiator [6].
nano-coolants on the tube-side performance of various solar collectors
and automotive radiators. However, the reported studies are exclu-
sively experimental and focus on the influence of various thermo-
physical properties of nano-coolants with no mention of the structural
design and impact of tube-side and air-side fins on the radiator's
performance. Sidik et al. [10] reviewed the deployment of nano-
coolants in engine cooling systems. Although comprehensive, the
article doesn’t review the impact of tube-side and air-side fins on the
overall efficiency of the cooling system. Ganvir et al. [11] presented a
comprehensive review of various parametric studies on use of nano-
coolants in automotive radiators. Their review lists various experi-
mental investigations altering several nano-coolant parameters like
particle size, concentration, inlet and exit temperatures, etc., but
doesn’t report CFD simulations or impact of air-side and tube-side
fins on the efficiency of such radiators. Recent reviews on automotive
radiator design like the one by Tahseen et al. [12] focus on the
structural design aspects of the radiator tubes such as in-line or
staggered arrangements, tube diameters and thicknesses, tube cross
section such as round, flat or helical tubes etc. Although they document
experimentation and modeling of radiators with such design variations
and variable thermo-hydraulic parameters like flow velocities and
Reynolds’ numbers they haven’t catalogued the more intricate aspects
using high thermal conductivity coolants like nano-coolants and
aerodynamically efficient air-side fins to lower overall thermal resis-
tance and enhance overall conductance in automotive radiators. The
subsequent sections will list and evaluate recent experimental and
modeling works in deploying nano-fluids as coolants and air-side
vortex generators and delta wings to enhance radiator performance.
2. Review of nano-coolant studies in radiators
This section will review state-of-art experimental and analytical
studies deploying nano-fluids as coolants in automotive radiators.
Section 2.2 will cover the experimental studies with nano-coolants in
radiators, while Section 2.3 will document analytical and computa-
tional modeling studies with nano-coolants in radiators. A brief
introduction to nano fluids and their superior thermo-physical proper-
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 1208–1229
ties, and the heat transfer enhancement that they yielded in smooth
and enhanced tubes will be provided here before summarizing and
Ambient Air evaluating their applications in radiators.
2.1. Synopsis of nano-fluids and their use in smooth and microfin
tubes
Fundamental studies on various nano-fluids also documented
appreciable increase in thermal conductivity with addition of nano-
particles. Experiments conducted by Li et al. [13] on nano-fluids such
as water-CuO mixture and subsequently by Eastman et al. [14] on
water-Al2O3, water-CuO, Ethylene Glycol-CuO, Ethylene Glycol-Al2O3,
proved that thermal conductivities of base fluids like water increased
with addition of nano-particles. Experimental investigations of Zhu
et al. [15] with CuO nano-fluids reported up to 5% increase in thermal
conductivity in comparison to base fluids. They also reported that the
concentration of CuO and the reaction time depended on size, shape
and density of the nano-particles. Thermal conductivity experiments by
Moreira et al. [16] on Polyester-Al2O3, and Polyester-CuO nano-fluids
confirmed significant increase in thermal conductivity of the base fluid
due to nano-particles.
In a recent study Akbarinia and Behzadmehr [17] discovered a
reduction in skin friction coefficient for mixed laminar convection in
curved tubes with a mixture of Al2O3 particles and water. A compre-
hensive narrative of nano fluids in in-tube convective heat transfer
ha η A o augmentation can be found in [18] and some of the salient features are
summarized here as a prelude to the discussion on their use in
automotive radiators. Higher thermal conductivity of the nano-fluids
was found to be mainly responsible for better heat transfer perfor-
mance than conventional fluids in heat exchangers. Derakshan et al.
[19] reported experimental in-tube convective heat transfer investiga-
tions with mixtures of oil and nano-fluids in Multi walled Carbon nano-
tubes (MWCNT) yielded higher overall heat transfer rates than using
pure oil. Nano fluids have also been proven to yield superior thermal
performance in buoyancy driven mixed convection flows in inclined
tubes. Ben Mansour et al. [20,21] experimentally and numerically
investigated the conjugate problem of laminar mixed convective flow of
Al2O3 – water nano-fluid in a uniformly heated and inclined tube. It
was detected that Al2O3 nano-particles significantly enhanced buoy-
ancy driven secondary flow in the developing flow and increased
convective heat transfer rate while reducing skin friction. Nano fluids
with large Prandtl numbers were deployed by Feng and Li [22] for
investigating laminar mixed convection in tubes. Contribution of
natural convection to overall heat transfer was observed to decrease
due to addition of nano particles. The large increase in viscosity was
attributed to this phenomenon.
Meyer et al. [23] experimentally investigated convective heat
transfer and pressure drop in a straight horizontal tube with
MWCNT-water nano-fluid and detected an increase in heat transfer
rate on a conventional Nu-Re plot. Convective heat transfer enhance-
ments of up to 40% were reported by Zeinali Heris et al. [24] for
laminar flow of water-Al2O3 nano fluid in a smooth tube under uniform
wall heat flux conditions. Collision and relocation of nano particles was
believed to be the main reason for this heat transfer enhancement.
Nano-fluids have also been successfully developed in enhanced
tubes such as microfin tubes. Derakshan et al. [19] experimentally
investigated mixed convective heat transfer and pressure drop in
inclined microfin tubes with MWCNT-water nano-fluids. They discov-
ered that nano-fluids used in smooth tubes yielded higher heat transfer
rates than using conventional fluids in microfin tubes. Akhavan-
Bhabadi et al. [25] deployed oil-CuO nano-fluid for convective heat
transfer enhancement in smooth and microfin tubes. Up to 230%
enhancement in heat transfer was reported with nano-fluid use in
microfin tubes vis-à-vis using conventional fluids in smooth tubes.
Derakshan and Akahavan-Behabadi [26] reported successful de-
ployment of nano-fluids for mixed convection enhancement in Multi
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Y. Mukkamala
Table 1
Experimental investigations with nano-coolants in automotive radiators.
Author (s) Radiator Features Fluid, Flow and Thermal Parameters
Hung et al. [29] Hybrid carbon nano fluids (HCNF's)
with amorphous carbon, graphene
oxide, and graphite-2H deployed;
sodium dodecyl sulphate added as
stabilizer.
Air-cooled radiator [29]
M’hamed et al. [30] 1000 cm3 automotive radiator; water-
ethylene glycol based MWCNT nano-
coolant; nano-particle conc.: 0.1–0.5/
%
Flat-tube radiator with nano-coolant [30]
Peyghambarzadeh Al2O3-water nano-fluid.
et al. [31]
Louvered fin and flat radiator assembly [31] Liquid
Re=9×103−2.3×104.
Peyghambarzadeh CuO and Fe2O3 – water nano fluids.
et al. [32]
Radiator dimensions and flat tube [32] Liquid Re=50–1000
Air Re=500–700
Cuevas et al. [33] Mini-channel automotive radiator,
Dh=2.3 mm
Radiator schematic [33] Glycol-water (60/40) nano fluid.
Amiri et al. [34] Typical Air-cooled car radiator Ethylene Glycol (EG) treated Graphene
Nano Platelets (GNP) based water-EG
coolant (WEG).
Samira et al. [35] Typical Air-cooled car radiator Nano-coolant flow varied.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 1208–1229
Major Results
HCNF's enhanced heat transfer
by up to 13%; system efficiency
factor (SEF) enhanced by up to
11.7% in comparison to water.
Maximum of 196.3% heat
transfer enhancement with
0.5% nano-particle volume.
45% heat transfer
enhancement with nano-
coolant.
Increase in thermal
conductivity of coolant: 3%
Up to 9% enhancement in UA
was measured with nano
fluids.
Experimental heat transfer
coefficients compared to within
10% of empirical correlations.
Performance index was a
maximum of 1.75 for WEG
Reported addition of nano
particles improved heat
transfer but also increased
Remarks
Tube-side pressure
penalty reported.
However, no design
modifications of air-side
was reported.
Pressure penalty and
overall efficiency not
reported.
Higher heat transfer at
higher Re for both water
and nano-coolant.
Higher nano particle
concs. and increasing air-
side velocities yielded
higher UA.
Air-side data not reported.
No pressure drop or
efficiency data reported.
Performance index was
enhanced due to GNP-
WEG nano coolants in
(continued on next page)
Y. Mukkamala Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 1208–1229

Table 1 (continued)

Author (s) Radiator Features Fluid, Flow and Thermal Parameters Major Results Remarks

viscosity and hence coolant conventional fin-tube

pressure drop radiators.
Zeinali Heris et al. Typical Air-cooled car radiator CuO-water, Ethylene Glycol-water Maximum heat transfer Air-side data not reported.
[36] nano coolants. enhancement of 55%.

Peyghambarzadeh Water-Al2O3 Re=9000–23,000; Highest heat transfer Lowest radiator coolant

et al. [37] enhancement of up to 40% outlet temperature was
with nano-fluids. also measured with CuO-
water coolant at 0.8%
conc.

Radiator Assembly [37] EG-Al2O3: Re=1200–2500;

Hussein et al. [38] Water-TiO2, and water-SiO2 nano- Max. heat transfer coefficient No pressure drop and
coolants deployed. enhancement of 22.5% with efficiency data reported.
SiO2 and 11% with TiO2.

Flat-tube Radiator [38] Friction factor measured.

Hussein et al. [39] Water-SiO2 nano-coolant. Up to 40% enhancement in No air-side data reported.
heat transfer was measured
with nano-coolants.

Flat-tube Radiator [39] Re=500–1750

Naraki et al. [40] Water-CuO nano-coolant Modest overall heat transfer Variation of U with air-
Laminar flow: Re=100–1000 coefficient enhancements of 6– side and coolant velocities
8% were measured. was measured.

Louvered Fin-Tube Radiator [40] Nano-coolants stabilized by varying

pH and using surfactants.

Hwa-Ming Nieh et al. Water-TiO2 and water-Al2O3 and Nano-fluid vol. flow rate had Water-TiO2 nano-coolant
[41] Ethylene Glycol (EG) – water coolant the largest impact on UA of up yielded the highest heat
used. to 23%. dissipation rate and
efficiency index.

Air-cooled radiator [41]

Ali et al. [42] Water-ZnO nano-coolant. Maximum heat dissipation No air-side and coolant
capacity of 25.6% and pressure drop
maximum efficiency index of measurements made.
27.2% measured.

Air Cooled Radiator [42] Coolant Re=17,500–27,600.

Elias et al. [43] Water-Al2O3 nano-coolant, and Maximum heat transfer No heat transfer
Ethylene Glycol – Al2O3 nano- enhancement of 46% detected enhancement or pressure
coolants. with nano-coolants. drop data reported.

Air-cooled radiator [43]

(similar model used)

(continued on next page)

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Table 1 (continued)

Author (s) Radiator Features Fluid, Flow and Thermal Parameters Major Results Remarks

Yu et al. [44] Turbulent flow in radiator tubes. 15–40% enhancement in Air-side data not reported.
coolant side heat transfer

Air-cooled radiator [44]

(similar model used)

Leong et al. [45] Reair-side=6000; Recoolant=5000 3.8% heat transfer Reduction in air-side
enhancement with 2% conc. Of frontal area equivalent to
CuO particles. heat transfer
enhancement was
measured.

Air-cooled radiator [45] Ruffled fins, staggered assembly

(similar model used). Ethylene Glycol-CuO nano-fluid.

Walled Carbon Nano Tubes (MWCNT). Combined buoyancy driven
free convection and forced convective heat transfer in MWCNT was
studied with a mixture of oil which was the base while the MWCNT was
the additive. A modest increase in the Nusselt number was reported for
increasing concentration of nano-particles confirming the improve-
ment in thermal conductivity with addition of nano particles.
The brief review of nano fluids and their applications in single tube
heat exchanger tubes definitely warrants their use in more complete
heat exchanger assemblies like automotive radiators. The studies listed
above only report data in single tubes without any mention of their
efficacy in more practical and complex heat exchangers like automotive
radiators. Hence, Sections 2.2–2.3 will report experimental and
analytical studies with nano-coolants in industrial automotive radiators
along with an analysis of the reported results.
This section intended to provide a brief introduction to the
fundamentals and applications of nano fluids in the smooth and
enhanced heat exchanger tubes before launching a literature review
of their applicability to full-scale automotive radiators. A more
comprehensive review of nano-fluids for general convective heat
transfer enhancement may be found in Nkurikiyimfura et al. [27]
and Kakac et al. [28].
2.2. Experimental investigations with nano-coolants in automotive
radiators
the stability and sedimentation characteristics of the nano-particles.
They were able to achieve equal amounts of heat transfer on the air and
coolant side while using Fe2O3-water nano fluid. The relative improve-
ment in overall heat transfer coefficient U with CuO-water and Fe2O3-
water nano fluids can be seen below in Fig. 3.
Clearly Fe2O3 nano particles yielded the highest enhancement in
the overall heat transfer coefficient at higher particle concentrations.
However, this article has the same lacunae as [31] in that the authors
haven’t measured either the air-side or coolant pressure drop and skin
friction factor. Quantifying thermal performance of an automotive
radiator without addressing the issue of pressure drop due to fin
obstruction and increase in coolant viscosity due to nano-particles
doesn’t fully address the thermo-hydraulic design issues of an auto-
motive radiator. However, [32] does compare experimental heat
transfer data with the Xuan-Li [46] correlation for nano fluids to
within 5.5% for Fe2O3-water mixture and to within 6.5% for CuO-water
nano fluid.
Amiri et al. [34] reported better quantifiable results by deploying
Ethylene Glycol (EG) treated Graphene Nano-platelets (GNP) nano-
coolants in conventional automotive radiators. Unlike [31,32] they
actually reported the radiator performance index and radiator effi-
ciency for various EG-GNP coolant flow rates and inlet temperatures
and reported a maximum improvement of 75% in the radiator

Experimental studies in industrial automotive radiators and an

analysis of the results will be presented in this section. Table 1 will
summarize the current literature on nano-coolants in automotive
radiators and will be followed by a critique and comparative analysis
of the findings of significant investigations.
Peyghambarzadeh et al. [31] deployed Al2O3-water nano fluid in a
flat tube automotive radiator and varied both the coolant flow rate and
inlet temperature. Their data clearly indicate an improvement in the
Nusselt number and hence the overall heat transfer rate at higher
Reynolds numbers and higher concentrations of Al2O3 particles.
However, they don’t report any tube-side pressure data. The authors
did clearly indicate that modest increase in thermal conductivity of 3%
didn’t actually enhance the heat transfer and it was speculated that this
could be due to Brownian motion of the fluid.
Peyghambarzadeh et al. [32] improved on their earlier study by
measuring the overall heat transfer coefficient and its enhancement in a
flat tube automotive radiator using CuO-water and Fe2O3-water nano
coolants. In an improvement from their previous study [31] they also
investigated the impact of higher concentrations of nano particles on Fig. 3. Overall heat transfer coefficient enhancement [32].

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Y. Mukkamala
performance index, as defined by Eq. 8 below.
h nano−fluid/hbasefluid
The efficiency of the radiator defined as η =
(Δp)nano−fluid /(Δp)base−fluid
(8)
A maximum efficiency index of 2.3 was reported with EG-GNP at a
maximum inlet temperature of 55 °C and a flow rate of 4 lpm. Amiri
et al. [34] study is considerably more sophisticated as the EG-GNP
nano-coolant can be mass produced rapidly and unlike [31,32] the
study also reported the impact of nano-coolants on the measured
radiator efficiency index.
In another study with nano-coolants in automotive radiators
Peyghambarzadeh et al. [37] reported enhancements in heat transfer
coefficients of up to 40%. Although the authors [37] haven’t reported
any air-side or coolant pressure drop and attendant efficiency indices,
they did report excellent agreement between their data and the Xuan-Li
[46] correlation (Eqs. (9)–(10) below) and is depicted in Fig. 4 below.
The Xuan-Li [46] correlations for laminar and turbulent flows of
nano-fluids in tubes are shown below in Eqs. (9)–(10) respectively:
Nulaminar,nano−coolant = 0.4328(1 + 11.285ϕ0.754 Pe0.218)Re0.333Pr0.4Re< 2100
(9)
0.6886 0.001 0.9238
Nu turbulent, nano−coolant = 0.0059(1 + 7.6286ϕ Pe )Re Re> 2100
(10)
In Eqs. (9)–(10), ϕ is the nano-particle volume fraction in %, while
Pe=Re. Pr is the Peclet number.
Hussein et al. [38] didn’t report any pressure drop or efficiency data
for their tests with TiO2 and SiO2 in flat-tube radiators. However their
measured Nu yielded a maximum of 22.5% enhancement for turbulent
water-TiO2 coolant flow in the radiator. The measured Nu also
compared to within 4% of theoretical predictions. In a subsequent
article Hussein et al. [39] reported heat transfer and friction factor data
with water-SiO2 nano-coolant. A maximum friction factor enhance-
ment of 22% was reported with water-SiO2 nano-coolant at 2.5%
concentration by volume. Highest heat transfer enhancement of 40%
was reported for water-SiO2 nano-coolant. They also performed a CFD
analysis using the same coolant and compared their experimental data
with CFD analysis and reported that volume concentration of nano-
particles and flow rates had significant impact on the friction factor and
heat transfer coefficient.
Naraki et al. [40] conducted a parametric study with water-CuO
nano-fluids in a car radiator. Although coolant-side and air-side
pressure drops were not reported, variation of the overall heat transfer
Fig. 4. Heat transfer data for Water-Al2O3 nano-coolant: Nu [37] vs. Xuan-Li [46]
Correlation.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 1208–1229
coefficient with air and coolant flow rates were measured and up to 8%
enhancement in the overall heat transfer coefficient were reported for
the highest concentration of water-CuO mixture. A statistical analysis
of the experimental results was also reported.
Ali et al. [42] reported experimental data with water-ZnO nano-
coolant in a conventional automotive radiator for coolant Re=17,500-
27,600. Although no pressure drop or efficiency index estimates were
reported a maximum heat transfer enhancement of 46% were reported.
2.3. Analytical and computational modeling of automotive radiators
deploying nano-coolants
Numerical simulations and analytical studies in automotive radia-
tors using nano-fluids are relatively few and are summarized below in
Table 2. A brief description of the most significant studies is given after
Table 2.
Oliet et al. [48] reported numerical analysis in nano-coolant based
automotive radiators using both the є-NTU and CFD techniques. Their
numerical scheme was validated with a large experimental database.
First part of their analysis focused on the impact of mass flow rates and
inlet temperatures of the coolant. Impact of air-side fin pitch, louver
angles, and coolant flow layout was also analysed numerically.
Gunnasegaran et al. [49] performed a numerical simulation on a
compact heat exchanger using nano-coolants. The governing continu-
ity, Navier-Stokes, and energy equation were solved using a Finite
Volume Solver and the average coolant and air-side heat transfer rates
were estimated for the following nano-fluids: DM (water-diamond),
water-SiO2, water-CuO, Ethylene Glycol.
Ghanbarali et al. [50] developed a computer algorithm to solve the
equations [46] for coolant nano-particle density, concentration and
viscosity and calculated the variation of heat transfer rate with air-side
Re and overall heat transfer coefficient on air-side with nano particle
concentration.
Fadhilah et al. [51] reported a mathematical modeling technique
for analysing the thermo-physical properties of water-Cu nano-coolant
for deployment with flat-tube radiators with louvered fins. Nano-fluids
demonstrated enhanced thermo-physical properties for concentrations
ranging from 2% to 10% by volume. For a 10% concentration of nano-
particles the heat transfer coefficient of the nano-fluid increased up to
26,000 W/m2K with enhancement of 92%.
Vajjha et al. [52] conducted a numerical study on water-Al2O3 and
water-CuO flow in flat-tube radiators. They discovered what was
confirmed by [47–49], i.e., skin friction and local heat transfer
coefficient increased at higher nano particle concentration. However,
in contrast to the other numerical studies listed in Table 2, they
reported that pumping power decreased even at higher nano particle
concentrations due to lower volumetric flow rates.
3. Aerodynamic air-side fins in automotive radiators
Section 2 focused on the experimental and analytical studies on
enhancing the performance of automotive radiators by deploying nano-
coolants in flat and round tube radiators. Although using high thermal
conductivity coolants lowers the tube-side thermal resistance, bulk of
the total flow and hence thermal resistance for a radiator originates on
the air-side. Due to large number of fins and the poor thermal
conductivity of air, over 90% of the total thermal resistance in a
radiator originates on the air-side [56].
Since air-side fins result in significant blockage to cooling air flow
over the radiator tubes it's essential to design streamlined fins that
reduce both the air-side pressure drop and overall thermal resistance.
Wide variety of fins ranging from wavy fins to slit fins and most
recently louver fins have been deployed on fin-tube radiators [56].
However, it's been reported that addition of such fins merely increased
the air-side pressure drop without improving the radiator's thermal
performance significantly [57]. Hence, streamlining the air-side fins is
Y. Mukkamala
Table 2
Analytical and numerical studies with nano-coolants in automotive radiators.
Author (s) Radiator Features Flow, Fluid and Thermal
Parameters
Vasu et al. [47] Air-Side core dimensions: 0.6×0.5×0.4 m3 Inlet temps:
Coolant tube-size=0.245×1.872 cm2 Air – 20–55 °C
Coolant – 70–95 °C
Oliet et al. [48] Impact of nano-coolants, flow
rates and inlet temps.
analysed.
Discretized Radiator Model [48] Fin pitch, louver angle
coolant flow layout impact
analysed.
Gunnasegaran et al. EG – CuO, EG-diamond, EG –
[49] SiO2 nano-coolants.
Radiator Model [49] FVM (Finite Volume Model)
Standard k-є turbulence
model.
Ghanbarali et al. Fin-Tube Radiator Ethylene Glycol-CuO nano-
[50] coolant.
2
Tube-size=0.245×1.872 cm (Coolant-side) Air-side Re=4000
Hydraulic diameter: 0.351 cm (air-side);
0.373 cm (coolant-side)
Fadhilah et al. [51] Water-CuO nano-coolant.
Radiator model [51]
Vajjha et al. [52] Numerical simulation of
water-Al2O3, and water-CuO
nano-coolant flows in flat tube
radiator.
Radiator model [52]
Park and Pak [53] Flat-tube radiator with U-shaped grooves. Modified SIMPLE algorithm
used. Water-Ethylene Glycol
laminar flow, Re=10–200.
Akbarinia and Numerical simulation of
Behzadmehr [54] mixed laminar convection with
water-Al2O3 nano-coolant in
curved tubes.
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Major Results
Water-Al2O3 nano-coolant.
є-NTU evaluation method.
Numerical model successfully
validated against data and
established it a design and
validation tool.
Shear stress, skin friction, and
convective heat transfer
coefficient were all higher for
nano coolants.
Maximum of 63.4% increase in
overall heat transfer coefficient
was calculated.
Insignificant heat transfer
enhancement of 0.03% was
reported for the nano-coolant.
Both skin friction and local heat
transfer increased with nano
particle conc.
Optimal radiator tube design
proposed by simulating effects of
different coolant flow rates.
Skin friction decreased for all
concs. of nano-particles with an
increase in Grashof number.
Remarks
Numerical simulation
Numerical method was a
successful compromise between
the є-NTU and CFD methods.
Nano-coolant yielded higher
heat transfer rates.
Computer algorithm developed
for governing equations of nano-
coolant conc., density and other
flow variables.
No pressure drop or efficiency
index was reported.
Although pressure drop
increased with rising particle
conc., pumping power decreased
due to lower volumetric flow
rate.
Both heat transfer and pressure
drop simulations were reported
for the optimal flat tube design.
Curved tubes were simulated
and results could be extended to
flat tube radiators.
(continued on next page)
Y. Mukkamala
Table 2 (continued)
Author (s) Radiator Features Flow, Fluid and Thermal
Parameters
Curved tubes [54] 3-D elliptic governing Eqs.
were used.
Maiga et al. [55] Water – Al2O3, and EG– Al2O3
nano-coolant flow simulation
in circular tubes and between
parallel disks.
Circular tubes and parallel disks [55] 2) Forced laminar
convection
necessary to reduce air-side pressure drop while improving the thermal
performance.
3.1. Experimental studies with aerodynamically efficient air-side fins
Table 3 summarizes the recent studies on aerodynamically designed
fins to achieve superior radiator performance and is followed by a brief
description of some of the important studies.
Allison and Dally [56] reported experimental investigations with
both streamlined air-side fins i.e. louver fins and delta-wing vortex
generator fins (DWVG). Although DWVG fins produced lower heat
transfer rate in comparison to the louver fins the air-side pressure drop
was lower at only 53% of the corresponding louver pressure drop. The
most significant finding was that the DWVG fins yielded a 46% savings
in air-side pump duty.
Lozza and Merlo [60] reported experimental heat transfer friction
pressure drop data in a conventional air-side louvered fin based tube-
fin heat exchanger and compared its performance with one fitted with a
punched winglet. The heat transfer enhancement in the punched
winglet air-side fin design was modest while the pressure drop was
much higher.
Sanders and Thole [63] tested a scaled-up radiator model with
winglet modified louver fins. Parametric study investigating the impact
of aspect ratio, fin pitch, angle of incidence, winglet shape and position
and their impact on radiator performance were investigated.
Rectangular winglets yielded the best heat transfer augmentation of
up to 38% at Re=1016. The best efficiency index defined as ratio of heat
transfer to friction pressure drop was 6.5 and 4.5 respectively at
Re=615 and Re=1016 respectively.
Vaisi et al. [66] reported experimental air-side heat transfer and
pressure drop data over symmetric and asymmetric louvered fin fin-
tube heat exchangers. Although coolant side heat transfer and pressure
drop data, and hence overall thermal efficiency weren’t reported, their
study concludes that up to 17.6% decrease in air-side fin weight and
hence a more compact radiator was possible by deploying symmetric
louver fins.
Unlike most of the radiator studies that are conducted in forced
convection conditions Nuntaphan et al. [69] investigated the effect of
louver inclination on the air-side thermal performance of a radiator in
free convection conditions. Unlike in a forced convection environment
an increase in number of rows lowered thermal performance under free
convection conditions. Although the heat transfer performance of the
radiator generally decreased with an increase in inclination angle,
maximum heat transfer enhancement was detected for tilt between 30–
45°. This was attributed to the louver directed effect (such as that
which occurs in forced convection) as more air was deflected onto the
louver portion of the fins.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 1208–1229
Major Results Remarks
Heat transfer enhancement Air-side pressure drop and skin
higher at higher nano-particle friction were not simulated.
concentrations in tubes.
3.2. Numerical studies with aerodynamic air-side fins
This section will summarize and critique the numerical and
computational studies with air-side fins deployed with radiators.
Table 4 lists the available literature and will be followed an analysis
of important numerical studies.
Some of the important numerical simulations with DWVG, louvers
and wavy fins that have compared the simulated Nu and f with
experimental data are summarized here.
Dong et al. [76] conducted experimental investigations on wavy-fin-
tube heat exchangers and validated their numerical model with the
measured data. It was reported that waviness amplitude strongly
influenced heat transfer enhancement, while wavy fin profile (trian-
gular, sinusoidal, and triangular round corner) had little impact.
Reduction in the synergy between velocity and temperature gradients
caused heat transfer rate to rise in wavy fins.
Khaled et al. [94] developed a 2-D computational model and an
analytical model for estimating the influence of the upstream cooling
air-flow on the thermal performance of the radiator. The basic
governing equations for the heat transfer in the radiator were modeled
as shown below in Eqs. (11)–(15) [94].
Pcell = h cellScell (Tm − Ta)cell (11)
.
h cell = f (m cell;Vcell) (12)
In Eqs. (11)–(12), Pcell is the heat transfer rate in a radiator
computational cell, while hcell is the overall heat transfer coefficient. Tm
is the heat exchanger hot stream mean temperature and hcell is the
overall heat transfer coefficient of the heat exchanger cell. Considering
the energy balance between the inlet and exit ends of the hot-stream
ends of the radiator one can re-write Eq. (12) as
.
Pcell = m cellC p(Tin, cell − Tout, cell) (13)
Hence, the total heat transferred between the two fluids is:
N N
P= ∑ Pcell = ∑ hcellScell (Tm − Ta)cell = hS(Tm − Ta)
i=1 i=1 (14)
N N
. .
P= ∑ Pcell = ∑ mcellcp(Tin,cell − Tout,cell) = mcp(Tin − Tout)
i=1 i=1 (15)
Eqs. (14)–(15) are the basic equations [89] for modeling the
thermal performance of a radiator.
Salviano et al. [101] reported a 3-D simulation and optimization
algorithm using the SIMPLEX linear programming algorithm. Various
design parameters of the vortex generators (VGs) on the air-side were
the inputs to the algorithm which yielded the optimum air-side fin and
tube bank array for maximum heat transfer enhancement. Simulated
Y. Mukkamala Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 1208–1229

Table 3
Experimental investigations with air-side fins in radiators.

Author (s) Air-side Fin configuration Flow, Fluid and Thermal Major results Remarks
Parameters

Allison and Flat-tube radiator design. Delta-winglet vortex 46% reduction in air-
Dally [56] side pumping power was
achieved with DWVG
fins in comparison to
louver fins.

Delta Winglet in flow-up condition [56] Louver fins and delta- yielded (DWVG) 70% of the
winglet vortex generators louver fin surface heat transfer
were deployed on air-side. and only 53% of the louver fin
pressure drop.

Jacobi and Both active and passive Careful design and location of Review article.
Shah [57] vortex generating methods VG's improved air-side heat
reviewed. transfer while reducing friction
pressure drop.

Vortex generator (VG) on air-side fins of heat exchangers [57]

Torii et al. DWVG fins deployed on Maximum heat transfer General staggered and
[58] air-side. enhancement of up to 30% and in-line round tube heat
reduction in pressure drop of up exchangers with DWVG
to 55% were reported. air-side fins were tested.

Fin-tube heat exchanger with DWVG [58] Air-side Re=35–2100 for

staggered tube banks.

Kwak et al. 2, 3, 4, and 5 rows of
[59] staggered tube bundles
were tested with a single
transverse row of winglets.
Maximum reduction in pressure
drop by up to 55% and
enhancement in overall heat
transfer by up to 30% were
simulated.
Basic study on tube-fin
heat exchangers with
advanced air-side
winglets was reported.

Fin-tube bundles with winglets [59]

Lozza and Tubes: 25×21.5 mm x 5/8” Marginal increase in heat transfer Results were deemed
Merlo [60] was reported. inconclusive for the air-
cooled condenser.

Louvered and Corrugated air-side fins [60] 92 mm fin spacing

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Table 3 (continued)

Author (s) Air-side Fin configuration Flow, Fluid and Thermal Major results Remarks
Parameters

Joarder et al. Compact heat exchanger Heat transfer enhancement=21% CHE similar to
[61] (CHE) with DWVG air-side Pressure penalty: less than 8% radiators.
fins tested in a wind
tunnel.

Flat-tube louvered and DWVG [61] Triangular duct fins were

used.

Fiebig et al. Liquid crystal Vortex generators enhanced heat Seminal study that
[62] thermography used to transfer by only 10% for round formed the basis for
measure local heat transfer tubes but by 100% for flat tubes. subsequent studies with
rate. DWVG enhanced
radiators.

Fin-tube heat exchanger in staggered arrangement [62] Re=600–3000

Longitudinal vortex
generators deployed on
air-side

Sanders and Winglets were deployed on 39% heat transfer enhancement Parametric
Thole [63] louvers to augment tube and friction enhancement of 23% investigation.
wall heat transfer. were measured.

Radiator and Louver fin assembly [63] 20 times scaled up model

tested with a fin pitch to
louver pitch ratio of 0.76
and louver angle of 27°.

Ebeling and Fin-tube heat exchanger with straight louvers [64] Straight louvers with no Repeated boundary layer Tests conducted on
Thole [64] wall transition. separations due to louvers louvers mounted on fin-
Experimental and enhanced heat transfer. tube heat exchanger.
computational results.
Gentry and Delta winglets on flat plate and developing channel flow [65] Winglet aspect ratio, angle Heat transfer enhancement of up Fundamental study with
Jacobi [65] of attack investigated. to 50% measured at ReDh= 2000 vortex generators on flat
plates and channels.

Vaisi et al. Compact heat exchanger Heat transfer: 9.3% increase; Symmetrical
[66] with louvered fins tested. Pressure drop: 18.2% drop. arrangement of louver
fins deemed best.

Radiator air-side louver fin assembly and specifications [66] 17.6% reduction in fin weight at
constant pump duty.

Zhang and Re, fin pitch, louver Flow efficiency was strongly No heat transfer data
Tafti [67] thickness, and louver angle dependent on louver configuration reported.
impact were investigated. at low Re.

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Table 3 (continued)

Author (s) Air-side Fin configuration Flow, Fluid and Thermal Major results Remarks
Parameters

Multi-louvered fins and computational domain [67]

Tang et al. Crimpled spiral fin, plain Crimped spiral fin yielded higher Simulation and
[68] fin, slit fin, fin with DWVG heat transfer rate and pressure experimental data
and mixed fins were drop. provided to compare
deployed. five different air-side fin
designs for radiators.

Fin configurations [68] Radiator with mixed fin yielded

highest air-side heat transfer
rate.

Nuntaphan Inclination angle: 30–45° Maximum heat transfer One of the few studies
et al. [69] of louvers enhancement measured for 30– that investigated effect
45° louver inclination. of louver inclination on
thermal performance in
free convection.

Radiator with louver fins [69] Radiator inclination

varied from 0 to 90°

Farhadi et al. Free convection study on a Empirical equations correlating No air-side or coolant
[70] finned tube bundle. Nusselt number and Rayleigh pressure drop data or
number for natural convection on thermal efficiency index
finned tube banks were presented. were reported.

A-type air-cooler [70] Effect of steam- pressure

on temperature
distribution outside the
finned tube banks was
investigated.

Dong et al. Air-side performance Air-side Colburn j factor and Thermal efficiency index
[71] analysed using є-NTU Darcy f factor correlations agreed not reported.
method. with experimental data to within
10% and 12% respectively.

Multi-louvered fin assembly [71]

Kim and Louver angles=15–29° Air-side Colburn j and Darcy f No tube-side data or
Bullard factors reported, along with efficiency index
[72] respective correlations. reported.

Multi-louvered radiator [72] Air-side Re=100–600

Yashar et al. Particle Imaging Exp. data for the four rows, CFD model to estimate
[73] Velocimetry (PIV) and CFD louvered fin-tube radiator flow distribution and
analysis. compared well with CFD model. mal-distribution were
reported.
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Table 3 (continued)

Author (s) Air-side Fin configuration Flow, Fluid and Thermal Major results Remarks
Parameters

Conventional fin-tube air-cooled radiator [42] CFD model based on

(Similar model used) momentum resistance
modeling approach was
used.

Dong et al. 16 sets of wavy fin Correlations predicted 90% of Pressure drop data not
[74] geometries were tested data to within 15%. reported.
with fin-tube heat
exchangers.

Wavy Fin Flat-Tube Heat Exchanger [74] Parametric study was In the Taguchi method the
conducted by the Taguchi contribution of wavy fin
method. amplitude and wavy fin length
was 38.7%.

Wang et al. 22 samples of fin-tube Heat transfer characteristics were Impact of wavy fins on
[75] radiators with wavy fins strongly dependent on the air-side pressure drop
were tested. corrugation angle, ratio of waffle wasn’t reported and this
height and length. was one of the
limitations of this study.

Wavy fin flat-tube radiators.[75] Effect of tube rows, fin

pitch, and edge
corrugation on the air-
side performance was
tested.

Dong et al. Experimental and Waviness amplitude strongly Tube-side coolant heat
[76] numerical investigations in influenced heat transfer transfer rates and
wavy air-side fins and flat- enhancement. overall efficiency index
tube radiators. weren’t reported.

Wavy fin model and geometry [76] Air-side Re=1000–5500

Standard k-є model (SST
– Shear stress transport)
deployed.

Dong et al. 11 wavy fin flat-tube Experimental Colburn j factor and Tube-side coolant data
[77] radiators were investigated Fanning f factors correlated 95% and overall efficiency
experimentally in cross of experimental data to within index were not reported.
flow mode. 10%.

Wavy fin and flat-tube radiators [77] Air-side Re=800–6500.

Tube-side water flow
rate=2.5 m3/h.

Wang et al. Data reduction method for
[78] obtaining air-side heat
transfer coefficient and
pressure drop was
reported.
Inconsistencies in the є-NTU Standardized
method, calculation of tube-side methodology reported.
heat transfer coefficient etc. were
reported.

Cross-flow heat exchanger [78]

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Table 3 (continued)

Author (s) Air-side Fin configuration Flow, Fluid and Thermal Major results Remarks
Parameters

Wen and Ho Flow visualization Air-side: 27.5 rise in heat transfer, Coolant side heat
[79] deployed to analyze cooling 31.9% increase in pressure drop. transfer and pressure
airflow. drop data not reported.

Improved air-side fins for radiators [79] Air-side velocity=1–3 m/

s; Re=600–2000

Lawson and Experimental investigation
Thole [80] using DWVG on louvered
fins of fin-tube radiators.
Up to 47% enhancement in heat Air-side thermal and
transfer and 19% increase in pressure drop data
pressure drop were reported. reported. However,
efficiency index wasn’t
reported.

Air-side delta winglet vortex generator (DWVG) augmented flat-

tube radiator [80]

heat transfer coefficient in terms of the Colburn j factor and the
Fanning friction (skin friction) f compared well to within 7.5% and
8.3% of experimental correlations [105].
The optimum vortex generator configuration was concluded to be
the common-flow-up pattern as opposed to the common-flow-down
pattern. Further the rectangular winglet vortex generators were found
to be superior to the commonly used delta winglet VGs. At air-side
Re=250 the staggered tube bank assembly yielded 13.9% higher heat
transfer rate than the corresponding in-line configuration, while at
Re=650 the corresponding enhancement was much higher at 26.7%.
The article also reports the thermal efficiency index in terms of the ratio
of the Colburn j factor to friction factor.
4. Conclusions
This review article highlighted the need for compact automotive
radiators that consume minimal engine power while delivering super-
ior cooling performance for high performance vehicles. Not only would
such designs yield considerable energy savings, but they would also
reduce vehicular emissions due to lower fuel consumption thus
minimizing global warming.
Further, the review also summarized both experimental and
computational studies on automotive radiators using unconventional
fluids like nano-fluids and specially configured air-side fins like delta
wing vortex generators (DWVG), wavy and louver fins. Although
numerous investigations were reported for testing nano-coolants in
heat exchanger tubes only a few report their usage in industrial size
automotive radiators. All studies with nano-coolants and modified air-
side fins report significant increase in radiator thermal performance
due to higher thermal conductivity of nano-coolants and lower air-side
pressure drop of louvers, and DWVG. However, the literature survey
did detect some topics that need further investigation and are
summarized below.
1) Tube-side nano-coolants yielded up to 196.3% enhancement in heat
transfer rate at nano-particle concentrations as low as 0.5% by
volume. Further, overall efficiency index was reported at a max-
imum of 1.75 (i.e., 75% overall enhancement).
2) Only a few studies address the issue of stabilizing a nano-coolant
and preventing sedimentation of dissolved nano-particles by vary-
ing the pH and using surfactants for stabilization. Nano-coolants
with particle sizes as small as 20–30 nm (nano meters) were
stabilized satisfactorily by adding sodium dodecyl sulphate.
Future investigations should replicate and improve this stabiliza-
tion mechanism.
3) Measuring thermo-physical properties of nano-coolants is difficult

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Table 4
Numerical studies with air-side fins.
Author (s) Air-side fin configuration Flow, Fluid and Thermal
Parameters
Chen et al. Re=300
[81]
Oval finned tube and DWVG geometric model [81] 2–4 staggered winglets of 30°
angle were deployed.
Zhang et al. 3-Row Flat-tube and air-side VG heat exchanger 3 row flat-tube and air-side
[82] DWVG assembly heat exchanger
used.
Naphthalene sublimation
method used to infer heat
transfer.
Combined numerical and
experimental study.
Cui and Tafti Numerical simulation on a fin-
[83] tube louver assembly.
Computational geometry for louver fin-tube radiator [83]
Tafti and Cui 3-D numerical simulations of
[84] four louver fin-tube geometries.
Delta winglets on radiators [84] Simulations performed at
Re=300, 600, 1100.
Tiwari et al. Finite volume solution.
[85]
1222
Major Results
For Re=300
Ratio of heat transfer to
pressure drop were 1.151
and 1.097 for finned oval
tubes with two and four
staggered winglets.
It was concluded that
DWVG should be mounted
as close as possible to the
tube surface.
Flow in the transition
region exhibited strong 3-
dimensionality.
Such vortices enhanced
heat transfer
considerably.
Unsteady flow acceleration
over the louver enhanced
heat transfer by 100%.
However, tube presence
lowered Nu by up to 30%.
Vortex generation by
winglets enhanced heat
transfer.
Remarks
Numerical simulation of
tube-winglet assemblies.
Overall conductance and
efficiency index
simulations were not
reported.
Louvers that produce 3-
dimensional vortices
were beneficial to air-
side heat transfer
enhancement.
Simulations on small
sub-systems could
theoretically be extended
to full scale radiators.
Radiator studies were
not conducted.
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Y. Mukkamala Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 1208–1229
Table 4 (continued)
Author (s) Air-side fin configuration Flow, Fluid and Thermal
Parameters
Tiwari et al. [85] Body fitted grid used.
Four different angles of incidence
used for the winglets.
Huisseune Fin thickness=0.12 mm
et al. [86]
DWVG on radiator and vortex generation [86] Louver pitch=1.5 mm
Louver angle=22°
Fin pitch=1.99 mm
DWVG angle of incidence=30°
Chin and Mathematical model to evaluate
Raghavan effect of flow mal-distribution on
[87] the thermal performance of a fin-
tube radiator.
Discretization of air-side flow mal-distribution [87]
Perrotin and Thermal-hydraulic CFD
Clodic [88] modeling of a 1-row fin-tube
automotive condenser was
reported.
3-D Computational Domain and Boundary Conditions for fin-
tube automotive condenser [88]
Zhang et al. 2-D wavy-plate-fin channels
[89]
1223
Major Results
Staggered winglets
yielded higher heat
transfer rates than in-line
winglets.
CFD simulation.
Re=220–915 (laminar).
The first two moments, i.e.,
mean and standard
deviation had largest
impact on flow degradation.
3-D models that accounted
for fin conduction,
conjugate heat transfer and
tube bundle flow blockage
agreed better with exp.
data.
Local high heat fluxes near
the walls are produced by
disruptions produced by
surface waviness.
Remarks
Well designed and
positioned DWVG yield
better thermo-hydraulic
performance.
Statistical analysis of
flow mal-distribution.
Modeling was
predominantly for air-
side and tube-side
calculations weren’t
presented.
Wavy fin induced flow
disruptions and
attendant increase in
heat transfer and friction
pressure drop were
reported.
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Y. Mukkamala Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 1208–1229
Table 4 (continued)
Author (s) Air-side fin configuration Flow, Fluid and Thermal
Parameters
Wavy plate-fins [89] Forced convection of air
(Pr=0.7) simulated on these
channels.
Re=10–1000
Metwally and Laminar periodically forced
Manglik convection in sinusoidal
[90] corrugated-plate channels with
uniform wall temperature was
simulated.
Chevron plates with sinusoidal corrugated plate-channels [90] Control volume finite
difference method used.
Manglik et al. Heat transfer and pressure drop
[91] were simulated in 3-D wavy
plate-fin cores.
Geometrical description of 3-D wavy plate fin channel [91] Re=10–1000, Pr=0.7 (air)
Finite volume technique.
Hsieh et al. 3-D numerical analysis.
[92]
Louvers at various angles of attack and computational domain Control-volume based Finite
[92] Difference scheme deployed.
Jang et al. 3-D convex louver fin-tube radiator model Louver angles θ=15.5°, 20°, and
[93] 24°.
Louver pitch=0.953 mm,
1.958 mm.
Air-side Re=100–1100.
Khaled et al. Analytical method was developed
[94] to compute the thermo-hydraulic
performance of automotive
radiators in terms of the
upstream cooling air flow
statistics.
Louvered fin-tube radiator and analytical domain [94]
Elyyan and Transient Large Eddy Simulation
Tafti [95] (LES) calculations were
performed on a split-dimple
interrupted air-side fin of a
radiator.
1224
Major Results
Flow field strongly
influenced by aspect ratio
and Re.
Flow separation and re-
attachment in the
corrugation troughs
produced transverse
vortices.
Fin waviness induced
disruption of contra-
rotating helical vortices
produced higher heat
transfer rates in the re-
circulation zones.
Heat transfer enhancement
of 118% for louvers at +4°
angle of incidence; friction
enhancement was 119%.
At equal louver pitch Nu
and f increased with an
increase in louver angle.
Velocity and pressure
distribution in upstream
cooling air strongly
determined the
performance of the
radiator.
175% enhancement in air-
side heat conductance.
Remarks
An improvement of up to
a factor of 5.5 in heat
exchanger compactness
was reported for
sinusoidal corrugated
plates.
The relative surface area
or the area goodness
factor indicating the
compactness of the heat
exchanger increased
with fin density.
No reference made to
tube-side performance
or overall efficiency.
Coolant-side simulation
and efficiency
predictions weren’t
reported.
Impact of tube-side
coolant flow on radiator
performance wasn’t
reported.
Tube-side enhancements
were not reported.
(continued on next page)
Y. Mukkamala Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 1208–1229
Table 4 (continued)
Author (s) Air-side fin configuration Flow, Fluid and Thermal
Parameters
Split-dimple interrupted fin configuration for a radiator [95] Air-side Re=240–4000
Malapure 3-D numerical simulations on
et al. [96] louver air-side fins and flat tube-
fin radiators.
Louvered fins flat-tube radiator [96] Louver pitch, louver angle, fin
pitch, and tube pitch were
varied.
He et al. [97] 3-D simulation of laminar heat
transfer and fluid flow over plate
fin-tube radiator.
Plate fin-and-tube radiator [97] Air-side Re=288–5000; fin
pitch/tube diameter=0.04–
0.5; tube rows=1–4.
Tao et al. [98] Body fitted coordinate method
(BFC) was used to perform a 3-D
simulation of local heat transfer
and fin efficiency of wavy fin-
tube radiators.
Wavy fin-tube radiator [98]
Air-side Re=500–4000
Salviano et al. 3-D numerical simulation of fin-
[99] tube compact heat exchanger.
1225
Major Results Remarks
Corresponding friction
pressure also increased
by up to a factor of 8.
Air-side Stanton number Tube-side simulations
and friction factor weren’t performed.
compared well with
simulations.
Reduction of intersection Tube-side coolant
angle between velocity and simulation from a
fluid temperature gradient synergy perspective
was the basic mechanism to wasn’t presented.
enhance convective heat
transfer.
Local Nu decreases along Tube-side simulations
flow direction. were not presented.
However, fin efficiency
increases in general.
Wavy fin angle greatly
affected the local heat
transfer and friction.
Heat transfer for staggered Coolant-side heat
tube arrangement was transfer and pressure
13.9% higher than in-line drop and air-side
tube banks at Re=250% and pressure drop due to
26.7% higher at Re=650. VGs was not reported.
(continued on next page)
Y. Mukkamala Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 1208–1229

Table 4 (continued)

Author (s) Air-side fin configuration Flow, Fluid and Thermal Major Results Remarks
Parameters

Computational domain of in-line and staggered compact heat SIMPLEX algorithm used.
exchangers with vortex generators (VG) [99] Air-side Re=250, 650.

Lei et al. [100] CFD simulation of impact of VGs DWVG at angle of attack of Tube-side simulations
on air-side heat transfer and 20° and aspect ratio of 2 not reported.
pressure drop. yielded maximum heat
transfer enhancement.

Fin-tube radiator with DWVG and vortex structure [100] Air-side Re =600–2600. Colburn j factor increased
Angle of attack of by up to 45.2%, while
VG=10°−50°. friction factor increased
VG aspect ratio=1–4. by up to 34.5%.

Salviano et al. Genetic algorithm (GA) was used Impact of VG roll angle on Tube-side simulations
[101] to optimize the geometry and friction enhancement. and overall efficiency not
position of VG for air-side heat reported.
transfer enhancement.

Computational domain for VG augmented fin-tube compact Response surface methodology

heat exchanger [101] using Neural Networking
method and Direct
optimization methods were
used.
Finite volume method used for
3-D flow simulation.

Lemouedda 3-D CFD technique combined Maximum area reduction of Coolant-side simulation
et al. [102] with GA, Response surface 25.5% was achieved at was not reported.
methodology used to optimize Re=400–1200 for in-line
design of DWVGs. arrangement

Delta winglet arrangement for staggered and in-line fin-tube Maximum area reduction
heat exchanger assembly [102] of 13.6% achieved for the
staggered assembly.

Jang et al. 3-D computational analysis of Simplified conjugate Tube-side simulation

[103] VG placed behind the plate-fin gradient method used. wasn’t reported.
heat exchanger tubes.

Plate-fin and tube heat exchanger with VG [103]

Hwang et al. Fin-tube radiator fitted with DWVG CFD analysis of fin-tube radiator Flow field around DWVGs, Coolant side simulation
[104] with two DWVGs. secondary vortices induced not reported.
Flow field around DWVGs in by them and delayed
(continued on next page)

1226
Y. Mukkamala
Table 4 (continued)
Author (s) Air-side fin configuration
and the equations available in literature need to be more universal
as they don’t cover all available nano-coolants. One study reported
± 5.3%, ± 1.7%, ± 1.1%, ± 1.9% improvement in the measurement
of the thermal conductivity, density, specific heat, and absolute
viscosity of the nano-coolant respectively. However, such measure-
ments are few. Future studies should address these thermo-physical
issues and also make nano-coolants pollution free in the event of
leakage.
4) Most of the radiator studies with nano-coolants only reported tube-
side performance. Only one experimental study with nano-coolants
deployed louvers on air-side and reported overall thermal effi-
ciency. Hence, more such investigations are required.
5) Most of the studies with DWVG, louvers, wavy fins, etc. on the air-
side reported significant drop in air-side thermal resistance and
pressure drop. However, they seem to be focused exclusively on air-
side performance. The review couldn’t find any article that com-
bined both air-side and tube-side fins while deploying nano-cool-
ants in the radiator tubes. Hence, there's a need to combine air-side
aerodynamically efficient fins with tube-side fins deploying nano-
coolants and the improvement in overall (air-side and tube-side)
thermal efficiency needs to be investigated for more compact,
lighter and energy efficient radiators.
6) Winglet enhanced louvers offered less air-side pressure drop and
higher heat transfer rates. However rectangular winglets proved to
be superior to conventional delta winglets generally used to
augment louvered radiators. Consequently, the cross–section and
positioning of such winglets is crucial for obtaining superior air-side
performance of radiators.
7) Experimental investigations with special air-side fins reported a
maximum of 175% enhancement in air-side conductance, while
reducing the air-side pressure drop by up to 55%. A maximum of
17.6% reduction in air-side fin weight was also reported with
special delta winglets. Further, a maximum of 30% increase in
overall heat transfer was also reported with air-side fins and tube-
side nano-coolants.
Acknowledgemnts
The author wishes to thank VIT University and the School of
Mechanical Engineering where this literature review was undertaken.
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