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Electrolytic deposition of PZT on carbon fibers for fabricating multifunctional composites

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IOP PUBLISHING SMART MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES
Smart Mater. Struct. 19 (2010) 124004 (8pp) doi:10.1088/0964-1726/19/12/124004

Electrolytic deposition of PZT on carbon

fibers for fabricating multifunctional
composites
Y Lin1 , J W Shaffer and H A Sodano
School of Mechanical, Aerospace, Chemical and Materials Engineering,
Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-6106, USA

E-mail: Yirong.Lin@asu.edu

Received 4 May 2010, in final form 24 May 2010

Published 11 November 2010
Online at stacks.iop.org/SMS/19/124004

Abstract
Piezoelectric fiber composites (PFCs) have been developed in order to overcome the fragile
nature of monolithic piezoelectric materials by embedding piezoceramic inclusions into a
polymer matrix. The flexible nature of the polymer matrix protects the piezoelectric fiber from
damage or fracture under mechanical loading and allows the composites to be easily conformed
to curved surfaces for use in many applications. Although PFCs have many useful properties,
they still suffer from several drawbacks, namely the required separate electrodes make it
impossible to embed the composites into the host structure, and the relatively low tensile
modulus of the piezoelectric inclusion means that it contributes little to structural properties. To
resolve the inadequacies of current PFCs, a novel active structural fiber (ASF) was developed
that can be embedded into a composite structure to perform sensing and actuation, and provide
load bearing functionality. The concept and feasibility of this ASF has been validated by
coating a silicon carbide (SiC) fiber with a barium titanate (BaTiO3 ) shell using electrophoresis
deposition techniques. However, lead based ceramics react with SiC fiber during high
temperature sintering and thus the use of these highly coupled piezoceramics requires
alternative deposition approaches. This paper will introduce a new ASF fabricated by coating a
single carbon fiber with a concentric PZT (PbZr0.52 Ti0.48 O3 ) shell using electrolytic deposition
(ELD). ELD quickly and uniformly coats the fiber and, since the PZT precursor has a low
crystallization temperature, the carbon fiber is not exposed to high sintering temperatures which
typically degrade the in-plane material properties of the fiber and composite. Carbon fiber has
been widely used in industry and studied in academia due to its excellent mechanical properties,
while PZT has been extensively used for sensing or actuation because of its high piezoelectric
coupling. Crystal structures of the PZT before and after annealing are characterized by means
of x-ray diffraction, and a pure perovskite structure of the PZT after annealing is shown.
(Some figures in this article are in colour only in the electronic version)

1. Introduction namely the brittle nature of ceramics makes them vulnerable to

The past few decades have seen significant growth in the
development and application of active materials to a wide
range of host structures due to their superior sensing and
actuation properties [1]. However, there are several practical
limitations to implementing this delicate type of material,
1 Author to whom any correspondence should be addressed.
accidental breakage during handling and bonding procedures,
their extremely limited ability to conform to curved surfaces,
and the large mass associated with using a typical lead
based ceramic. To resolve the inadequacies of monolithic
piezoceramic materials, researchers have developed composite
piezoelectric materials consisting of an active piezoceramic
fiber embedded in a polymer matrix. The polymer matrix

0964-1726/10/124004+08$30.00 1 © 2010 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK & the USA
Smart Mater. Struct. 19 (2010) 124004
acts to improve the flexibility of the actuator and protects
the fragile fibers [1]. This type of composite has drawn
significant research interest in the past two decades, leading to
several different types of PFCs that address different practical
applications. The first PFC was developed by Bent and
Hagood, termed active fiber composites (AFC), and consisted
of piezoelectric fibers embedded in an epoxy matrix. The
piezoelectric fibers were fabricated through an extrusion-based
process [2] and later modified to allow injection molding of the
fibers [3]. The actuator employed an interdigitated electrode to
exploit the higher d 33 actuation properties of the piezoelectric
fiber. The Fraunhofer Research Facility in Germany later
developed 1-3 composites composed of piezoelectric fibers
embedded in a polymer matrix [1]. The piezoelectric fibers are
aligned in a single direction while the matrix is continuous in
all three directions, thus its name is 1-3 composites. The device
was fabricated through a soft-mold technology that allowed
rapid production and was later commercialized through the
Smart Material Corp. Cannon and Brei [4] introduced
hollow fiber composites (HFCs) which were fabricated through
a novel technique called microfabrication by coextrusion
(MFCX). More recently macro fiber composites (MFCs) were
developed by the NASA Langley Research Center [1]. The
MFC is similar in construction to the AFC, except that the
piezoelectric fibers are fabricated by dicing a piezoelectric
wafer with a diamond saw resulting in rectangular fiber
cross section. The dicing process expanded the range of
piezoelectric compositions that could be used, while the flat
surface enhanced the fiber’s interaction with applied electric
fields.
The use of piezoelectric composite actuators has
traditionally been motivated for use in structural applications.
Bent [5] and Wilkie et al [3] have examined the use of
piezoceramic fibers to reduce aeroelastic vibrations while
Sodano et al [6, 7] showed their potential for dynamic
testing and control of ultra-lightweight inflatable space
structures. However, the materials are often difficult to
embed because the electrodes are separate from the fiber and
require interconnections that can compromise the composite’s
strength. Additionally, the tensile modulus of the piezoceramic
fiber used in PFCs is generally 4–5 times lower than that of
traditional composite reinforcements and thus the addition of
these active fillers provide little strength improvement to the
composite structure. For this reason, PFCs have typically
been applied as surface-bonded patches to perform sensing and
actuation only. To avoid this limitation, PFCs with embedded
electrodes have been recently considered. The majority of
work in this area has focused on the use of a metal core
electrode. Sebald et al [8] used extrusion methods to produce
fibers with a platinum core surrounded by a PNN-PZT/polymer
binder which was fired to leave a platinum/PNN-PZT core
shell fiber. Experimental results showed the electromechanical
coupling of the fiber to have a d 31 piezoelectric coupling as
high as −112 pC N−1 (45.5% of that of the bulk material).
Takagi et al [9] embedded a PZT coated platinum fiber in
a carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) to form a ‘smart
board’ for vibration suppression. More recently Sato et al
[10] applied a hydrothermal method to grow PZT coating onto
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Y Lin et al
nickel titanium wires. The growth process was carried out at
low temperature (<200 ◦ C) and did not require sintering or
poling, however it produced limited thickness (<20 μm) and
required long growth times (>24 h). The authors showed that
a 20 mm long fiber can generate electrical charge up to 75 nC
under 2% of longitudinal strain.
While the embedded metal electrode can provide the
advantage of integrated electrical interconnects, the ductility
of the core can lead to surface cracking of the ceramic
under strain. Additionally, the plastic nature and high
coefficient of thermal expansion of metallic materials can
lead to high residual stresses in the ceramic coating. It is
therefore advantageous to use conductive fibers with improved
mechanical characteristics, such as carbon or silicon carbide
fibers. The coating of these fibers was studied by Kim
and Heinrich [11], however the fibers were coated with a
platinum shell before applying the piezoceramic material.
The SiC/platinum fiber was coated with coprecipitated PZT
powders by electrophoretic deposition (EPD) with a 12 μm
thickness after sintering but the coupling was not investigated.
However, the SiC fiber will react with the PZT when sintering
at high temperature, therefore, a 50 nm layer of platinum was
need to isolate the PZT coating and SiC fiber and only low
sintering temperature and short sintering time can be applied,
which lowered the final PZT coating density and the bonding
between the SiC fiber and PZT coating. More recently, Lin
and Sodano [12] developed a theoretical and finite element
model to predict the level of coupling that could be achieved
through a multifunctional piezoelectric fiber that consisted of
a conductive structural fiber (SiC) coated with a piezoceramic
shell. Their study showed very good agreement between the
micromechanics model and experiment and indicated that the
coupling of this active fiber could reach as high as 70% of the
active constituent [13].
Multifunctional carbon fiber composites have attracted
enormous attention in the past due to the enhanced material
properties and multifunctionalities when using these types
of materials [14–16]. Piezoelectric materials have excellent
capabilities of converting energies between mechanical and
electrical domains, which makes them ideal candidates for
multifunctional applications when embedded into structural
composites. While there are many existing methods for the
fabrication of thin and thick piezoceramic coating such as sol–
gel [17], sputtering [18] and electrophoretic deposition [19],
electrolytic deposition (ELD) has the advantage of accurate
control of coating thickness, uniformity, and deposition rate for
nanoscale thin ceramic films [20]. During the ELD process,
metal ions are hydrolyzed by an electrogenerated base to
form deposits on cathodic substrates [21]. Various materials
have been successfully deposited onto different substrate using
ELD, such as TiO2 , ZrO2 , Nb2 O5 , PZT and ZrTiO4 [22].
The coating thickness can be accurately controlled by varying
the current density and the deposition duration. Since the
film deposition is a result of the metal ions, the coating
thickness could be controlled down to nanometer scale. After
the coating, heat treatment is carried out to crystallize the
deposition and remove residues.
Although the recently developed active structural fiber
using SiC showed promising properties for embedded sensing
Smart Mater. Struct. 19 (2010) 124004
Figure 1. PZT film deposition experiment setup and carbon fiber samples.
and actuation, there are still several drawbacks associated with
this type of material. Due to the use of EPD as the coating
technique, extremely high temperature (1200 ◦ C) sintering
is required to reach full density and maximize the material
properties of the piezoelectric coating [13]. Since SiC will
react with lead based material under high temperature, only
lead-free piezoelectric materials such as barium titanate could
be used as the active layer, which has a lower bulk piezoelectric
coupling compared to lead based piezoceramic materials.
On the other hand, the tensile modulus of inactive SiC is
significantly higher than that of the piezoceramic coating,
which lowers the effective piezoelectric coupling of the ASF
further. To alleviate these traits, this paper will introduce a new
type of ASF that could use lead based piezoceramic material
as the active layer and require relatively low temperature heat
treatment after coating. For the new active structural fiber,
carbon fiber is used to replace the SiC fiber, which eliminates
the limitation of using lead-free piezoceramic coating and
provides better electrical conductivity when serving as the
inner electrode for active coating. ELD is employed for
coating PZT onto carbon fiber filaments, which offers control
of the coating thickness and significantly reduces the heat
treatment temperature of the ceramic coating. Therefore, when
embedding this improved active carbon fiber into polymer
matrix, the resulting active composites should have a higher
effective coupling coefficient and improved multifunctionality.
2. Experiment
Multiple aqueous solutions of Pb(NO3 )2 (Alfa Aesar),
ZrOCl2 ·8H2 O (Sigma-Aldrich, USA), TiCl4 (Alfa Aesar,
USA), and hydrogen peroxide, H2 O2 (35 wt% in water, Alfa
Aesar, USA) were used. These stock solutions, 250 ml
each, were prepared using the materials aforementioned
in a ratio of 1:0.52:0.48:10 respectively [20]. The net
Pb(NO3 )2 concentration was 0.005 M [20]. The TiCl4
was prepared in 25 ml of water before being slowly added
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Y Lin et al
into the aqueous solution of Pb(NO3 )2 , ZrOCl2 ·8H2 O, and
H2 O2 . In order to investigate the influence of a cationic
polymer in deposition morphology, different concentrations
of poly(diallyl dimethylammonium)chloride (PDDA, 20 wt%
in water, Aldrich) were added to some of stock solutions
and fully dissolved by stirring vigorously for several minutes.
The substrate used was Hexcel HexTow™ IM7 (5000) carbon
fibers, a 12 K filament tow. The fibers were cleaned before
deposition trials using acetone and ethanol rinses. The
electrochemical cell included the carbon fibers (cathode),
and two 0.25 mm diameter 99.9% platinum wire electrodes
(Aldrich, USA). The power source used was an Agilent
E3649A Dual Output DC power supply operating under
constant current. All experiments were performed at 2 ◦ C [20].
The current density applied through the cell was varied from
5 to 40 mA cm−2 . Deposition times ranged from 30 s to
4 min. After deposition, the samples were rinsed with purified
water and then were hung to dry in air. Deposit weights were
measured using a Mettler Toledo AB204-S/FACT analytical
scale. The dried films were sintered at 600 ◦ C for 1 h.
The film morphology and composition were studied using a
field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM, Hitachi
S4700). The deposition structure before and after heat
treatment was investigated by x-ray diffraction (PANalytical
X’Pert Pro material research x-ray diffractometer) with Cu Kα
radiation.
The ELD experiment setup is shown in figure 1. The DC
power source is operated in constant current mode and was
attached to the electrodes via cables and alligator clips. The
two platinum electrodes were evenly spaced from the carbon
fiber sample using a silicone holder to provide uniform electric
field around carbon fiber tow. The solution is prepared in a
600 ml beaker for depositions. The ice bath that surrounds
the beaker, used to cool the solution to 2 ◦ C, is removed from
figure 1 for clarity. For depositions, the silicone holder is
lowered toward the solution until the electrodes and the carbon
fiber sample is immersed to the appropriate amount.
Smart Mater. Struct. 19 (2010) 124004
The samples of the carbon fiber filaments are prepared
from a continuous, PAN-based carbon fiber tow (HexTow®
IM7) wound on a cardboard tube. The tow contains 12 000
fibers. A sample is created by from a short length of the
continuous tow that is cut and spread on a strip of kapton
tape, a high temperature, insulating tape. The fibers are then
secured by laying another piece of kapton tape over the fibers
and the first piece. The filaments in the sample are connected
electrically by taping one end with a strip of conductive copper
tape, as shown in figure 1. The opposite end of the sample has
bare carbon fibers, which is cut to the desired length for a given
current density. When immersed in the solution, the kapton
tape serves as a marker, indicating the appropriate immersion
length.
3. Results and discussion
Cathodic electrolytic deposition (ELD) of ceramic materials is
carried out via the hydrolysis of metal ions near the cathode of
the electrochemical cell. The colloidal particles accumulate
via electrolysis and coagulate to form a cathodic deposit or
film. Hydrolysis of water and cathodic reactions produce
OH− , which increases the local pH near the cathode [20–22].
These reactions cause the formation of hydrolyzed metal ions
or complexes in the base solution near the cathode, and
the formation of an oxide, hydroxide, or peroxide deposit
results [22, 23]. Thus ELD allows for deposition on the
nanoscale, making it ideal for creating thin ceramic films on
many different substrates. The adherence of films can be
increased by adding a binder, often a polymer, to the solution.
Common binders include poly(diallyldimethylammonium
chloride) (PDDA) and polyethyleneimine (PEI). The binder
serves to enhance film adhesion of the deposits and reduce
cracking during drying [20]. Deposition experiments revealed
the formation of a PZT film on the carbon fiber. A of poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDDA) in the
voltage increase across the electrolytic cell with time was
observed, due to increase in resistivity. This increase in
resistivity is attributed to formation of a thickening film
around the conductive carbon fibers [21]. Current density
calculations were made based upon the surface area of the
12 K carbon fiber tow and the length of fibers immersed
in the solution. The depositions were carried out at a
low temperature (2 ◦ C) to produce a better coating, due to
the influence of temperature on the flocculation of colloidal
particles [20]. Hydrogen peroxide, suggested to increase
deposit adhesion, reduce cracking, and promote uniformity
of the ceramic coating, was added to the solution to improve
the film morphology [21]. Previous work explains that
after depositions on graphite substrates, a hydrogen peroxide
concentration of 0.05 M was found to produce the same green
deposit weight as a green deposit without using hydrogen
peroxide and that higher concentrations did not significantly
improve the morphology [21]. The concentration used for the
depositions herein with carbon fibers is the same, 0.05 M.
PZT films deposited without using PDDA exhibit trends of
increased deposit yield with higher current densities and longer
durations. The film is tightly packed and can become very
thick depending upon the deposition parameters. The coatings,
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Y Lin et al
however, exhibit transverse cracks induced during drying by
shrinkage of green deposits [20]. Uniformity of these deposits
varies from individual filaments and also along the length of a
single filament as seen in figure 2. From figure 2 we can see
that cathodic ELD of the ceramic film can produce a relatively
thick coating on the carbon fibers (between 0.5 and 2.5 μm).
The packing of deposit particles was very dense for green
and sintered films, seen by smooth morphology under SEM
examination. Cracks induced from drying shrinkage [20, 21]
are evident for all conditions of deposition duration and
current density, with large transverse cracks appearing on the
thickest of coatings. Coating uniformity decreased with longer
deposition durations (figures 2(c) and (d)). Thus coating
morphology can be changed with varying the applied current
and the deposition time. Coatings produced from deposition
durations longer than 2 min were prone to severe cracking and
poor film morphology.
In order to quantify the influence of current density and
duration on coating weight, various ELD experiments were
carried out by using three different duration (30, 60 and 90 s)
and three different current densities (10, 20 and 30 mA cm−2 ).
The weight increases after coating were recorded and plotted
against current density and coating time, as shown in figure 3.
It demonstrates the trend of linear increasing deposit weight
by varying the applied current density and the deposition
time. Note that higher deposition currents and longer durations
produced larger films on the fiber filaments in the tow sample.
Thus these conditions produced thicker films in general, yet
were more prone to cracking and non-uniformity.
While the coating thickness of PZT films can be accurately
controlled by currently density and duration, almost all the
fibers after drying or crystallizing showed transverse cracks
and relatively poor uniformity. In order to improve the
coating uniformity and reduce cracks, ELD with the addition
ELD solution is performed. PDDA is positively charged under
basic conditions of cathodic electrolytic deposition. Thus the
coagulation of the positive PDDA and the negative colloidal
particles near the cathode (carbon fibers) will result in a
more efficient film formation [20]. It has been proven that
the cationic polymer PDDA can serve to increase the film’s
adherence to the substrate and acts as a binder to help reduce
cracks of the deposit.
Figure 4 demonstrates the visual state of the carbon
fibers before and after deposition using the 0.05 g l−1 PDDA
concentration. The ELD process produced a colored film on
the fibers that increases with intensity after longer durations.
The green deposit has a yellow hue after the ELD is performed;
indicating a film of the PZT solution has been deposited.
The deposition using PDDA exhibit a very smooth and
uniform morphology, as shown in figure 5. This film is
crack-free, yet relatively thin when compared to deposits
made without using PDDA. With PDDA concentrations
above a critical point, a shielding effect occurs, preventing
effective deposition from forming. It has been observed
that an optimal amount of the binder exists [20]. From
the deposition experiments performed a sharp decrease in
deposit weight was observed at PDDA amounts beyond a
Smart Mater. Struct. 19 (2010) 124004
Figure 2. SEM images of green deposit on carbon fibers, (a) 30 s long deposition at a current density of 10 mA cm−2 , average deposition
thickness 0.5 μm, (b) 60 s long deposition at a current density of 10 mA cm−2 , average deposition thickness 0.35 μm, (c) 60 s long deposition
at a current density of 30 mA cm−2 , average deposition thickness 1.4 μm, (d) 90 s long deposition at a current density of 10 mA cm−2 ,
average deposition thickness 1.1 μm.
Figure 3. Increase in green deposit weight on carbon fiber samples
as a function of current density and time.
critical concentration. A decrease in cell voltage at constant
current was observed during deposition trials of high PDDA
concentrations. Also, when removed from the aqueous
solutions containing high amounts of PDDA, the carbon
fibers samples had an accumulation of liquid and flocculation
surrounding the perimeter, with minimal film deposition on
5
Y Lin et al
the fibers themselves. This is evidence of a shielding effect
that prevents film deposition. It has been suggested that
with high concentrations of PDDA this shielding effect occurs
near the cathode due to particle accumulations that prevents
colloidal particles from forming from the metal hydroxides in
the solution [20].
Overall thicknesses of the fibers after coating using PDDA
are relatively small (<0.30 μm) for the 0.05 g l−1 PDDA
trials; however some fibers within the tow were coated with
films as thick as 1.5 μm. For the thinly coated fibers
the film morphology was superiorly smooth and crack-free,
but for those with thick coatings lateral cracks were noted.
SEM examination revealed that in general the uniformity was
improved between each fiber within the tow, as a result of
added PDDA. Figures 5(a) and (b) demonstrate the smooth
surface of a coated fiber resulting from depositions in a solution
containing 0.05 g l−1 of PDDA. Film quality appeared to
decrease with higher current densities. At concentrations
of PDDA higher than 0.07 g l−1 , the green deposited film
weight dropped off sharply. The shielding effect was
observed for several higher concentrations as a decrease in
cell voltage over time accompanied by little evidence of film
deposition. Figure 5(c) shows fibers coated from a solution
containing 0.75 g l−1 of PDDA. The coating is extremely thin
(<0.1 μm), with the surface characteristics of the carbon fiber
(i.e. processing lines) visible through the film under SEM
examination.
Smart Mater. Struct. 19 (2010) 124004 Y Lin et al

Figure 4. Carbon fiber samples before deposition (left), a green deposit after 30 s long deposition at a current density of 10 mA cm−2 (center),
and a green deposit after 2 min long deposition at a current density of 10 mA cm−2 (right).

Figure 5. SEM image of sintered coating on carbon fibers using (a) 0.05 g l−1 of PDDA polymer with a 3 min long deposition at a current
density of 10 mA cm−2 , (b) 0.05 g l−1 of PDDA polymer with a 3 min long deposition at a current density of 5 mA cm−2 , (c) 0.75 g l−1 of
PDDA polymer with a 60 s long deposition at a current density of 20 mA cm−2 , and 0.75 g l−1 of PDDA polymer with a 60 s long deposition
at a current density of 40 mA cm−2 .

Since the green deposition is amorphous, heat treatment
is required to crystallize the green coatings into piezoelectric
films. Furthermore, heat treatment could increase the bonding
between the coating and the substrate while removing the
polymer residue in the green deposition. Therefore, in order to
determine the success of the heat treatment, x-ray diffraction
(XRD) analysis was performed and is shown in figure 6.
These samples were coated using a solution containing the
0.05 g l−1 PDDA concentration. There are no different
diffraction peaks when comparing the spectrum of bare carbon
fiber and green deposition samples, indicating that the green
deposition is amorphous in nature. After heat treatment of the
deposited fiber at 600 ◦ C for 1 h, the sample showed diffraction
peaks consistent with perovskite PbZr0.52 Ti0.48 O3 (JCPDS
Card No. 33-0784), no peaks resulting from individual metal
oxides or a pyrochlore phase was observed. Therefore, the final

6
Smart Mater. Struct. 19 (2010) 124004
Intensity (a.u)
Figure 6. X-ray diffraction pattern of bare carbon fiber, fiber after
green deposition and after heat crystallized.
PZT film is well crystallized and will provide piezoelectric
properties for the multifunctional composites using this novel
active structural fiber.
The results of the depositions performed indicate that
film morphology can be controlled by the current density,
deposition duration, and additives. To further investigate
controlling the film morphology and thickness several options
exist. The first is to use a mono-filament carbon fiber
(35 μm diameter, Specialty Materials Inc, USA) instead of
the 12 K bundle. This mono-filament fiber will have a larger
diameter than those from the bundle, yet depositions performed
using this substrate should provide insight into improving
coating uniformity. Another approach is to use a lower
molecular weight of the PDDA additive to promote deposition
of thicker PZT films and reduce the amount of cracking.
The smaller polymeric chains should be a more efficient
binder than larger chains, while will not interfere with ceramic
depositions. The effect of various concentrations of the lower
molecular weight PDDA will have to be characterized to
determine the effects on film morphology. The result of using
hydrogen peroxide is to promote local hydroxide formation
at the cathode (carbon fibers), thus reducing cracking [21].
Trials that vary the concentration of this constituent can
be performed to determine if the 0.05 M currently used
is ideal, or if a different concentration will produce more
desirable film morphology for this particular substrate. Finally,
trials involving multiple depositions with intermediate heat
treatments can be performed in an effort to repair cracked
coatings. Because the film is inherently insulative, it follows
that the uncoated areas of the fibers have relatively high
conductivity, thereby encouraging deposition in these uncoated
areas. Thus subsequent layers of deposition should serve to fill
in the defects and cracks of the previous layer [23].
4. Conclusions
Multifunctional material systems can be utilized as structural
reinforcement to carry external mechanical loading as well
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Y Lin et al
as provide some additional functionalities such as sensing,
actuation, structural health monitoring, and energy harvesting
and storage. Piezoelectric materials have been widely used
as sensors or actuators due to their excellent capabilities
in coupling the energy between mechanical and electrical
domains, which makes them ideal for multifunctional
composites. When embedding piezoelectric materials
into traditional structural composites such as carbon fiber
composites, multifunctional properties can be achieved. This
paper introduced a novel active carbon fiber by coating a
carbon fiber with piezoelectric layer, the carbon fiber can
carry external mechanical loading as well as serve as the inner
electrode for the piezoceramic shell. Electrolytic deposition
technique were employed for the deposition and characterized.
It was determined that current density, coating time and
additives govern the thickness and morphology of the ceramic
coating. Coating thickness increased linearly with coating
time, uniform and crack-free coating could be achieved by the
adding of cationic polymer PDDA as binder. The ceramic
coating after heat treatment showed pure perovskite PZT
crystal structure. The simple and low cost fabrication processes
presented here offer a methodology to produce multifunctional
structural materials with high electromechanical coupling.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge support from the National
Science Foundation (grant no CMMI-0700304) and the Air
Force Office of Scientific Research directed by Dr B L Lee.
The authors also thank Hexcel Corp. for providing the carbon
fibers used for this work.
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