AWS G2.1.tmp

AWS G2.1M/G2.
1:2002
An American National Standard
Guide for the

Joining of Wrought
Nickel-Based
Alloys
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Copyright American Welding Society

Provided by IHS under license with AWS
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale
Key Words —Arc welding, solid solution, AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
precipitation hardening, nickel, safety An American National Standard
Approved by
American National Standards Institute
September 9, 2002
Guide for the Joining of

Wrought Nickel-Based Alloys
Prepared by
AWS G2 Committee on Joining Metals and Alloys
Under the Direction of

AWS Technical Activities Committee
Approved by
AWS Board of Directors
Abstract
This document describes the welding of different wrought nickel-based alloys, including solid solution and precipitation
hardening alloys. A safety section is included.
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Personnel
AWS G2 Committee on Joining Metals and Alloys
D. J. Tillack, Chair Consultant to Nickel Development Institute
C. D. Ersig, 1st Vice Chair CMI
T. R. Potter, Secretary American Welding Society
*R. E. Avery Nickel Development Institute
D. M. Beneteau Centerline (Windsor) Limited
C. L. Foster Pacific Gas and Electric
J. M. Gerken Consultant
V.W. Hartmann Special Metals Corporation
D. D. Harwig Edison Welding Institute
D. S. Hoyt Exxon–Mobil Corporation
S. O. Luke Dresser Rand
D. Williams Consultant
D. J. Rybicki Lockheed Martin
AWS Subcommittee on Nickel Alloys

D. J. Tillack, Chair Consultant to Nickel Development Institute
T. R. Potter, Secretary American Welding Society
*R. E. Avery Nickel Development Institute
D. M. Beneteau Centerline (Windsor) Limited
C. D. Ersig CMI
C. L. Foster Pacific Gas and Electric
J. M. Gerken Consultant
V. W. Hartmann Special Metals Corporation
G. L Hoback Haynes International
S. O. Luke Dresser Rand
*Advisor
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Foreword
(This Foreword is not a part of AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002, Guide for the Joining of
Wrought Nickel-Based Alloys, but is included for informational purposes only.)
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The American Welding Society formed the G2 Committee on Joining Metals and Alloys in 1992 in response to an
industry demand for information on welding the metals and alloys that have not been covered by other documents and
committees. This is the first issue of this document.
Comments and suggestions for the improvement of this standard are welcomed. They should be sent to the Secretary,
AWS G2 Committee on Joining Metals and Alloys, American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, FL
33126.
Official interpretations of any of the technical requirements of this standard may be obtained by sending a request,
in writing, to the Managing Director, Technical Services Division, American Welding Society. A formal reply will be
issued after it has been reviewed by the appropriate personnel following established procedures.
v
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Table of Contents
Page No.
Personnel .................................................................................................................................................................... iii
Foreword.......................................................................................................................................................................v
List of Tables............................................................................................................................................................. viii
List of Figures........................................................................................................................................................... viii
1. Scope ......................................................................................................................................................................1
2. Background.............................................................................................................................................................1
2.1 Reference Documents ....................................................................................................................................1
3. The Solid Solution Strengthened Nickel-Based Alloys .........................................................................................6
3.1 General Alloy Background Data....................................................................................................................6
3.2 Welding Requirements and Recommendations ...........................................................................................12
4. The Precipitation-Hardenable Nickel-Based Alloys ............................................................................................35
4.1 General Alloy Background Data..................................................................................................................35
4.2 Welding Requirements and Recommendations ...........................................................................................38
Nonmandatory Annexes..............................................................................................................................................41
Annex A—Safety and Health.......................................................................................................................................41
Annex B—Guidelines for Preparation of Technical Inquiries for AWS Technical Committees..................................47
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List of Tables
Table Page No.
1 Limiting Chemical Composition of Typical Solid Solution Nickel Alloys ...................................................2
2 Chemical Compositions of Precipitation-Hardenable Nickel Alloys (Wt. %) ..............................................4
3 Typical Annealing Temperatures for Solid Solution Nickel Alloys ..............................................................8
4 Liquidus/Solidus (Melting Range) Temperatures for Nickel Alloys .............................................................8
5 Melting Temperatures ..................................................................................................................................12
6 Suggested Filler Metals for Solid Solution Nickel Alloys...........................................................................13
7 Weld Metal Required ...................................................................................................................................16
8 Density of Nickel Alloys..............................................................................................................................18
9 Common Fusion Welding Processes............................................................................................................19
10 SMAW Joint Design and Welding Techniques for Welding Nickel-Based Alloys......................................20
11 Typical Parameters for SMAW Welding Process—Flat Position (Nickel Alloys) ......................................21
12 Typical Welding Parameters for Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Nickel Alloys,
Approximate Current Settings for Flat Position Welding ............................................................................21
13 Typical Parameters for GTAW Welding Process—Nickel Alloys ...............................................................23
14 Typical Parameters for GMAW Welding Process—Nickel Alloys..............................................................25
15 Typical Parameters for Submerged Arc Welding—Nickel Alloys...............................................................28
16 Metal Required for Submerged Arc Butt Welds in Plate .............................................................................29
17 Typical As-Deposited Compositions for Some Nickel-Based Submerged Arc Welds ................................30
List of Figures
Figure Page No.
1 High Temperature Fabrication Issues...........................................................................................................11
2 Comparison of Joint Designs Used for Steel and Nickel-Based Alloys ......................................................14
3 Joint Designs for Nickel-Based Alloys ........................................................................................................15
4 Approximate Weld Metal Weight per Foot of Weld ....................................................................................19
5 Optimum Electrode Position for Submerged Arc Circumferential Welding on Pipe ..................................30
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viii
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
Guide for the Joining of

Wrought Nickel-Based Alloys
1. Scope This standard addresses these two categories of

wrought nickel-based alloys. The first category addresses
This guide present a description of wrought nickel- solid solution nickel alloys hardened only by cold work-
based alloys and the processes and procedures that can ing. The second category addresses precipitation harden-
be used to join these materials. This guide stress the ing alloys hardened by heat treating in addition to cold
process basics, parameters, applications, and safety con- working. Additionally, Annex A addresses safety and
siderations. Practical information has been included in health issues associated with welding nickel-based alloys.
the form of figures, tables, and graphs which should
prove useful in determining capabilities and limitations 2.1 Reference Documents
in the joining of these materials. Readers who desire (1) AWS A5.8, Specification for Filler Metals for
additional information about the joining of nickel-based Brazing and Braze Welding1
alloys should consult the references in 2.1 Reference (2) AWS A5.11/A5.11M, Specification for Nickel and
Documents. Nickel-Alloy Welding Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc
This standard makes use of both the International Welding
System of Units (SI) and U.S. Customary Units. The (3) AWS A5.12/A5.12M, Specification for Tungsten
measurements may not be exact equivalents; therefore, and Tungsten Alloy Electrodes for Arc Welding and
each system must be used independently of the other Cutting
without combining in any way. The standard with the (4) AWS A5.14/A5.14M, Specification for Nickel and
designation G2.1M:2002 uses SI Units. The standard Nickel-Alloy Bare Welding Electrodes and Rods
designation G2.1:2002 uses U.S Customary Units. The (5) AWS A5.30, Specification for Consumable Inserts
latter are shown within parentheses ( ) or in appropriate (6) AWS A5.31, Specification for Fluxes for Brazing
columns in tables and figures. and Braze Welding
(7) AWS A5.32/A5.32M, Specification for Welding
Shielding Gases
2. Background (8) AWS Brazing Handbook
(9) AWS B1.11, Guide for the Visual Examination of
The family of wrought nickel-based alloys can be di- Welds
vided into two categories and numerous classes accord- (10) AWS B2.1, Specification for Welding Procedure
ing to composition. The categories include solid solution and Performance Qualification
strengthened alloys and precipitation hardenable alloys. The (11) AWS B2.2, Specification for Brazing Procedure
classes of solid solution nickel-based alloys are: nickel, and Performance Qualification
nickel-copper, nickel-molybdenum, nickel-chromium and (12) AWS C1.1, Recommended Practices for Resis-
nickel-chromium-iron, nickel-iron-chromium, nickel-iron, tance Welding
and nickel-chromium-molybdenum. These classes are (13) AWS C3.2, Standard Method for Evaluating
listed in Table 1. The classes of precipitation hardenable Strength of Brazed Joints in Shear
nickel-based alloys are: nickel, nickel-copper, nickel-
chromium and nickel-chromium-iron, nickel-iron-
chromium, nickel-iron. These classes are listed in Table 1. For ordering AWS and ANSI Z49.1 standards information,
2. There are no precipitation hardenable nickel-molybde- contact Global Engineering Documents, 15 Inverness Way
num alloys. In general, the nickel-based alloys can be East, Englewood, Colorado 80112-5776. Telephones: (800)
welded with practices and procedures similar to the aus- 854-7179, (303) 397-2740; fax (303) 397-2740; Internet:
tenitic series (300) stainless steels. www.global.ihs.com.
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1
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
Table 1
Limiting Chemical Composition of Typical Solid Solution Nickel Alloys (Wt.%)
Common
UNS No. Designation(1) Ni(2) Cr Fe C Cu Mo Mn Si Co Al Ti Other
Commercially Pure Nickels

N02200 Nickel 200 99.0m 0.40M 0.15M 0.25M 0.35M 0.35M
N02201 Nickel 201 99.0m 0.40M 0.02M 0.25M 0.35M 0.35M
Nickel-Copper Alloys
N04400 Alloy 400 63.0m 2.5M0 0.3M0 28.0–34.0 2.0M 0.5M0
N04405 Alloy R-405 63.0m 2.5M0 0.3M0 28.0–34.0 2.0M 0.5M0 S = 0.025–0.060
Nickel-Molybdenum Alloys
N10665 Alloy B-2 Balance 1.0M 2.0M0 0.02M 26.0–30.0 1.0M 0.10M 1.0M
N10675 Alloy B-3 Balance 1.0–3.0 1.0–3.0 0.01M 27.0–32.0 3.0M 0.10M 3.0M Nb (Cb) = 0.20M,
P = 0.030M,
S = 0.010M
2
Not for Resale
N10629 Alloy B-4 65.0m 0.1–1.5 1.0–6.0 0.01M 0.5M0 26.0–30.0 1.5M 0.05M 2.5M 0.5M0 P = 0.04M,
S = 0.01M
Nickel-Chromium-Iron and Nickel-Iron-Chromium
N06600 Alloy 600 72m 14.0–17.0 6.0–10.0 0.15M 0.50M 1.0M 0.50M
N06601 Alloy 601 58.0–63.0 21.0–25.0 Balance 0.10M 1.0M0 1.0M 0.50M 1.0–1.7
N06690 Alloy 690 58.0m 27.0–31.0 7.0–11.0 0.05M 0.50M 0.5M 0.50M
N08330 RA-330 34.0–37.0 17.0–20.0 Balance 0.08M 1.0M0 2.0M 0.75–1.50
N08120 HR-120 35.0–39.0 23.0–27.0 Balance 0.02–0.1 2.50M 1.5M 1.0M0 3.0M 0.40M 0.20M
N08800 Alloy 800 30.0–35.0 19.0–23.0 Balance 0.10M 0.75M 1.5M 1.0M0 0.15–0.60 0.15–0.60
S35045 Alloy 803 32–37 25–29 5M 0.06–0.10 0.75M 1.5M 1.0M0 0.15–0.60 0.15–0.60
Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum Alloys
N06202 Alloy X Balance 20.5–23.0 17.0–20.0 0.05–0.15 8.0–10.0 1.0M 1.0M0 0.5–2.5 W = 0.2–1.0
N06022 Alloy C-22, Balance 20.0–22.5 2.0–6.0 0.015M 12.5–14.5 0.5M 0.08M 2.5M
622
N06030 Alloy G-30 Balance 28.0–31.5 13.0–17.0 0.03M0 1.0–2.4 4.0–6.0 1.5M 0.8M0 5.0M Nb = 0.30–1.50,
W = 1.5–4.0
(Continued)
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Table 1 (Continued)
Common
UNS No. Designation(1) Ni(2) Cr Fe C Cu Mo Mn Si Co Al Ti Other
Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum Alloys (Cont’d)

N06059 Alloy 59 Balance 22.0–24.0 1.5M 0.01M0 15.0–16.5 0.5M0 0.10M 0.3M 0.1–0.4
N06200 Alloy C-2000 Balance 22.0–24.0 3.0M 0.010M 1.3–1.9 15.0–17.0 0.50M 0.08M 2.0M
N06231 Alloy 230 Balance 20.0–24.0 3.0M 0.05–0.15 1.0–3.0 0.3–1.0 0.25–0.75 5.0M 0.20–0.50 W = 13.0–15.0,
La = 0.005–0.050
N06333 RA333 44.0–47.0 24.0–27.0 Balance 0.08M0 0.5M 2.5–4.0 2.0M0 0.75–1.50 2.5–4.0 W = 2.5–4.0
N06455 Alloy C-4 Balance 14.0–18.0 3.0M 0.015M 14.0–17.0 1.0M0 0.08M 2.0M 0.70M
N06617 Alloy 617 44.5m 20.0–24.0 3.0M 0.05–0.15 0.50M 8.0–10.0 1.0M0 1.0M0 10.0–15.0 0.8–1.50 0.60M B = 0.006M
N06625 Alloy 625 Balance 20.0–23.0 5.0M 0.10M0 8.0–10.0 0.5M0 0.5M0 0.40M 0.40M Nb = 3.15–4.15
N06686 Alloy 686 Balance 19.0–23.0 5.0M 0.01M0 15.0–17.0 0.75M 0.08M 0.02–0.25 W = 3.0–4.0
N06985 Alloy G-3 Balance 21.0–23.5 18.0–21.0 0.015M 1.5–2.5 6.0–8.0 1.0M0 1.0M0 5.0M Nb + Ta = 0.50M,
3
Not for Resale
W = 1.5M
N08020 Alloy 20Cb3 32.0–38.0 19.0–21.0 Balance 0.07M0 3.0–4.0 2.0–3.0 2.0M0 1.0M0
N08024 Alloy 20Mo4 35.0–40.0 22.5–25.0 Balance 0.03M0 0.50–1.50 3.5–5.0 1.0M0 0.5M0 Nb = 0.15–0.35
N08026 Alloy 20Mo6 33.0–37.2 22.0–26.0 Balance 0.03M0 2.0–4.0 5.0–6.7 1.0M0 0.5M0
N08825 Alloy 825 38.0–46.0 19.5–23.5 Balance 0.05M0 1.5–3.0 2.5–3.5 1.0M0 0.5M0 0.2M0 0.6–1.2
N10276 Alloy C-276 Balance 14.5–16.5 4.0–7.0 0.02M0 15.0–17.0 1.0M0 0.08M 2.5M V = 0.35 Max,
W = 3.0–4.5
R30556 Alloy 556 19.0–22.5 21.0–23.0 Balance 0.05–0.15 2.5–4.0 0.50–2.00 0.20–0.80 16.0–21.0 0.10–0.50 Ta = 0.30–1.25,
W = 2.0–3.5
Nickel-Iron Alloys
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
K93600 Invar 36 Balance 0.12M0 1.0M0 0.35M
K94200 Alloy 42 42 Balance 0.10M0 0.5M0 0.25M
Notes:
1. Nominal value adjusted to meet expansion requirements: M = Maximum, m = Minimum.
2. Includes small amount of cobalt if cobalt content is not specified.
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
Table 2
Chemical Compositions of Precipitation-Hardenable Nickel Alloys (Wt. %)
UNS No. Alloy Ni Cr Fe Co Cu C Al Ti Nb (Cb) Mo B Other
Nickel and Nickel-Copper Alloys
N03301 301 93.0m 0.60M 0.25M 0.30M 4.00–4.75 0.25–1.00 0.50M Mn

N05500 K-500 63.0–70.0 2.0M0 Balance 0.25M 2.30–3.15 0.35–0.85 1.50M Mn
Nickel-Chromium-Iron and Nickel-Iron-Chromium Alloys
N07001 Wasp Balance 18.0–21.0 2.0M0 12–15 0.50M 0.03–0.10 1.2–1.6 2.75–3.25 3.5–5.0 0.003–0.010 0.03–0.12 Zr
N07041 R-41 Balance 18.0–20.0 5.0M0 10–12 0.12M 1.4–1.8 3.0–3.3 9.0–10.5 0.003–0.010 0.10M Mn, 0.015M S,
0.50M Si
N07080 80A Balance 18.0–21.0 3.0M0 2.0M 0.2M0 0.10M 1.0–1.8 1.8–2.7 0.008M 0.045M P, 0.015M S,
1.0M Si, 0.06 Zr
N07090 90 Balance 18.0–21.0 3.0M0 15–21 0.13M 0.8–2.8 1.8–3.0 0.006M 1.0M Mn, 1.5M Si
N07252 M252 Balance 18.0–20.0 5.0M0 9–11 0.1–0.2 0.75–1.25 2.25–2.75 9.0–10.5 0.003–0.010 0.50M Mn, 0.05M P,
0.015M S, 0.5M Si
4
Not for Resale
N07500 U-500 Balance 15.0–20.0 4.0M0 13–22 0.15M 2.50–3.25 2.5–3.25 3.0–5.0 0.003–0.010 0.75M Mn, 0.015M P,
0.015M S, 0.75M Si
N07520 U-520 Balance 18.0–20.0 11–13 0.10M 1.5–2.5 2.75–3.25 5.0–7.0 0.003–0.010 0.5–1.5 W
N07700 U-700 Balance 14.0–16.0 17–20 0.13M 4.00–4.75 3.0–3.75 4.0–6.0 0.003–0.010 0.03–0.12 Zr
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N07718 718 50–55 15.0–17.0 Balance 0.08M 0.2–0.8 0.65–1.15 4.75–5.50 2.8–3.3 0.006M 0.35M Mn, 0.015M P,
0.015M S, 0.35M Si
N07725 725 55–59 19.0–22.5 Balance 0.03M 0.35M 1.0–1.7 2.75–4.00 7.0–9.5 0.35M Mn, 0.015M P,
0.010M S, 0.20M Si
N07750 X-750 70.0m 14.0–17.0 5.0–9.0 0.5M0 0.08M 0.40–1.0 2.25–2.75 0.7–1.0 1.0M Mn, 0.015M P,
0.010M S, 0.50M Si
N09706 706 39.0–44.0 14.5–17.5 Balance 0.30M 0.06M 0.40M 1.5–2.0 2.5–3.3 0.35M Mn, 0.020M P,
0.015M S, 0.35M Si
N09901 901 40.0–45.0 11.0–14.0 Balance 0.50M 0.1M0 0.35M 2.35–3.10 5.0–7.0 0.010–0.020 1.0M Mn, 0.030M S,
0.60M Si
N09902 902 41.0–43.5 4.90–5.75 Balance 006M 0.30–0.80 2.20–2.75 0.8M Mn, 0.040M S
N09925 925 38.0–46.0 19.5–23.5 22.0M 1.5–3.0 0.03M 0.10–0.50 1.90–2.40 2.5–3.5 1.0M Mn, 0.030M S,
0.50M Si
(Continued)
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Table 2 (Continued)
UNS No. Alloy Ni Cr Fe Co Cu C Al Ti Nb (Cb) Mo B Other
Nickel-Iron-Cobalt Alloys
N19903 903 36.0–40.0 1.0M Balance 13–17 0.50M 0.06M 0.30–1.15 1.00–1.25 2.4–3.5 1.0M Mn, 0.015M S,
0.35M Si
5
N19907 907 35.0–40.0 1.0M Balance 12–16 0.5M0 0.06M 0.020M 1.2–1.8 4.3–5.2 0.012M 1.0M Mn, 0.015M P,
Not for Resale
0.015M S, 0.35M Si
N19909 909 35.0–40.0 1.0M Balance 12–16 0.5M0 0.06M 0.15M0 1.3–1.8 4.3–5.2 0.012M 1.0M Mn, 0.015M P,
0.015M S, 0.25–0.50M Si
R30783 783 26–30 2.5–3.5 24–27 Balance 0.03M 5–6 0.4M 2.5–3.5 0.003M
Notes:
1. Nominal value adjusted to meet expansion requirements: M = Maximum, m = Minimum
2. Includes small amount of cobalt if cobalt content is not specified.
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
(14) AWS C3.3, Recommended Practices for Design, (36) SAE HS-1086, Metals and Alloys in the Unified
Manufacture and Inspection of Critical Brazed Components Numbering System7
(15) AWS C3.4, Specification for Torch Brazing (37) SMC, Welding Technical Bulletin, No. IAI-148
(16) AWS C3.5, Specification for Induction Brazing (38) WRC Bulletin #128, “Welding of Precipitation-
(17) AWS C3.6, Specification for Furnace Brazing Hardening Nickel-Base Alloys,” by Prager and Shira,
(18) AWS C3.8, Recommended Practices for Ultra- 19689
sonic Inspection of Brazed Joints
(19) AWS C5.1, Recommended Practices for Plasma
Arc Welding 3. The Solid Solution Strengthened
(20) AWS C5.7, Recommended Practices for Electro- Nickel-Based Alloys
slag and Electrogas Welding
(21) AWS C7.1, Recommended Practices for Electron Solid solution strengthening occurs when one or more
Beam Welding elements are added to another element to form a homog-
(22) AWS C7.2, Recommended Practices for Laser enous composition. Strengthening occurs when the dis-
Beam Welding solving of one or more elements (such as chromium) in
(23) AWS F1.3, Sampling Strategy Guide for Evaluat- the other (such as nickel) stiffens the new resulting
ing Contaminates in the Welding Environment metal. There is no appreciable increase in room tempera-
(24) AWS F2.1, Recommended Safe Practices for ture hardness after a solid solution alloy is exposed for
Electron Beam Welding and Cutting relatively short period of time (such as 2 hours) to the in-
(25) AWS F3.1, Guide for Welding Fume Control termediate temperature range (such as 650°C [1200°F]).
(26) AWS QC1, Standard for Certification of Welding 3.1 General Alloy Background Data
Inspectors
(27) AWS WI, Welding Inspection 3.1.1 Descriptions of the Alloys and Typical Appli-
(28) AWS WHB-3.8, Welding Handbook, Eighth cations. The chemical composition limits of many of the
Edition, Volume Three, “Materials and their Weldability, common solid solution strengthened nickel-based alloys
Part 1,” Chapter 4, Nickel and Cobalt Alloys are given in Table 1. All of these alloys are strengthened
(29) ANSI Z49.1, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and by the solid solution strengthening mechanism (the addi-
Allied Processes (1) tion of alloying elements to pure nickel). These wrought
(30) ANSI Z87.1, Practice for Occupational and alloys can only be strengthened and hardened by cold
working.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Educational Eye and Face Protection2
(31) ASM Handbook, Volume 6, Welding, Brazing, For example, quenching a nickel alloy from a high
and Soldering3 temperature will not harden it. The precipitation hard-
(32) ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section ened nickel alloys, however, can experience a dramatic
IX4 increase in strength by heating (aging) in the 540–815°C
(33) ASTM A 380, Standard Recommended Practice (1000–1500°F) range. The precipitation hardened alloys
for Cleaning and Descaling Stainless Steel Parts, Equip- are also strengthened by solid solution strengthening (ad-
ment, and Systems 5 ditions of other elements to pure nickel). They also are
able to be strengthened by cold working. Any of the
(34) ASTM DS-56, Metals and Alloys in the Unified
nickel alloys has toughness at extremely low, or cryo-
Numbering System5
genic, temperatures. Generally speaking, nickel and its
(35) OSHA, Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29,
alloys can be readily formed and fabricated.
Labor, Chapter XVII, Part 1910, “Occupational Safety
The nickel alloys are used because of their resistance
and Health Standards”6
to severe environmental conditions and because they
have attractive mechanical properties.
2. Available from American National Standards Institute, 25 The commercially pure nickel alloys are almost pure
West 43 Street, Fourth Floor, New Your, NY 10036. nickel with minor additions of one or more additional
3. Available from ASM International, 9639 Kisman Road, elements. Nickel 200 is the most common alloy of this
Materials Park, OH 44073-0002.
4. Available from American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
Three Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016-5990. 7. Available from Society of Automotive Engineers, 400
5. Available from American Society for Testing Materials, 100 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001.
Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2950. 8. Available from Special Metals Corporation, 1401 Burris
6. Available from Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Road, Newton, NC 28658.
Superintendent of Documents, P.O. Box 371954, Pittsburgh, PA 9. Available from Welding Research Council, 3 Park Avenue,
15250-7954. 27th Floor, New York, NY 10016-5902.
6
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
group. The commercially pure nickel alloys are used ex- chromium-molybdenum alloys are used extensively in
tensively in applications that take advantage of their elec- pollution control, chemical processing, pulp and paper
tronic or magnetic characteristics, such as in transducers production, waste treatment systems, and marine
and as plated pins for printed circuit board connectors. environments.
The nickel alloys are also used in applications utilizing The nickel-iron alloys can be designed to have spe-
their corrosion resistance, such as in the handling of hot cific thermal-expansion characteristics. They can be de-
concentrated caustic soda and dry chlorine. Most of these signed to have very low thermal expansion or to display
applications involve temperatures below 315°C (600°F). uniform and predictable expansion over certain tempera-
For applications above 315°C (600°F), a low carbon ture ranges. The nickel-iron alloys are used in controlled
grade of nickel alloy 201 is used because it does not thermal expansion applications where variations in tem-
suffer embrittlement by graphite precipitation during perature can cause malfunctioning or imprecise opera-
exposure at these higher temperatures. tion if thermal expansion of components is not
The nickel-copper group of nickel alloys generally minimized or controlled. The applications include mea-
have the ratio of two parts nickel and one part copper, suring devices, measurement standards, glass-to-metal
typified by alloy 400. These alloys are only used at rela- seals, electrical leads for semiconductors, tanks and
tively low temperatures because they have poor high piping for cryogenic fluids, and dies for forming metals
temperature oxidation resistance. The nickel-copper al- and composites.
loys are used extensively in sea water applications be-
cause of their excellent resistance to corrosion, cavitation 3.1.2 Metallurgy. Nickel is a very versatile element
and erosion. Other significant applications include pro- and will alloy easily with most metals. It completely
peller shafting, marine fixtures and fasteners, valves and mixes with copper and will form alloys in all ratios of
pumps, chemical process equipment, process vessels and copper and nickel. This is called complete solid solubil-
piping, and heat exchangers. Like the commercially pure ity and is the simplest relationship that two metals can
nickel grades, they are readily fabricated, have excellent have. When other metals combine with nickel, however,
ductility and can be formed easily into a variety of the resulting combination is not always compatible and
shapes. care should be taken to assure that the proper balance of
elements is achieved. This is particularly important in
The nickel-molybdenum alloys have relatively high
welding dissimilar materials because there are at least
levels of molybdenum that give increased resistance to
two, and often three, different alloy compositions con-
the corrosive effects of strong reducing acids (nonoxidiz-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
tributing to the weld structure—the two base materials

ing) such as hydrochloric acid.
and the filler metal.
Nickel-chromium, nickel-chromium-iron, and nickel-
iron-chromium alloys are a very versatile collection of 3.1.3 Heat Treatment. The solid solution strength-
alloys that are used in a wide cross section of industries ened nickel-based alloys are heat treated for two main
and applications and over a broad spectrum of tempera- reasons: first, to provide an optimum microstructure
tures. The nickel-chromium-iron alloys are used in a va- thereby providing optimum performance in a particular
riety of industries, from chemical processing and nuclear environment (such as to provide corrosion resistance or
power components operating at relatively low tempera- to maximize creep rupture properties) and second, to re-
tures, to high temperature applications in turbine engines lieve fabrication and welding stresses. These heat treat-
and heat treating equipment. These alloys are slightly ment conditions fall into two temperature ranges, the low
more difficult to fabricate than steels because of their temperature treatment is referred to as a stress relieve an-
higher strengths. The nickel-iron-chromium alloys are neal and the high temperature heat treatment is referred
typically used in oxidizing and carburizing applications to as a solution anneal.
because of their resistance to these environments and A stress relieve anneal is performed to relieve the
their high strength. Typical applications include furnace stresses in the material and is not intended to increase the
components, heat exchangers and process piping, electric grain size. A solution anneal is performed at higher tem-
range heating-element sheathing, extruded tubing for peratures than a stress relieve anneal and is usually done
ethylene and steam methane reforming furnaces, and to improve the material’s high temperature properties by
chemical process equipment. increasing the grain size. Excessive grain growth can
The nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys have excel- be undesirable, however, and close monitoring of the
lent corrosion resistance in a wide range of severe envi- postweld heat treatment is required since base material
ronments that range from highly oxidizing to moderately and weld material properties can be dramatically altered
nonoxidizing (reducing) environments. The high molyb- as grain size is altered. Once the grain size has increased,
denum contents make the alloys especially resistant to the only way to refine the grain size is to cold work the
pitting and crevice corrosion attack. The nickel- material and perform a recrystallization heat treatment.
7
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
Unfortunately, further cold work on a fabrication is often

Table 4
impractical.
Liquidus/Solidus (Melting Range)
Although postweld heat treatments are usually not
required for solid solution nickel and nickel alloys, Temperatures for Nickel Alloys
postweld heat treating of fabricated vessels or structures Temperature
may be useful in some instances. Unrelieved welding
stresses can sometimes cause failures when the combina- Alloy UNS No. °C °F
tion of service, fabrication, and welding stresses exceed
the strength limits of the material. If the welded structure 200 N02200 1435–1502 2615–2635
is too large to furnace stress relieve, localized heat treat- 201 N02201 1435–1502 2615–2635
400 N04400 1299–1349 2370–2460
ment using strip heaters, or similar methods can be used. R-405 N04405 1299–1349 2370–2460
The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code for K-500 N05500 1315–1349 2399–2460
Unfired Pressure Vessels does not make postweld heat 502 N05502 1315–1349 2399–2460
treatment a requirement except as agreed upon between X N06002 1260–1355 2300–2470
G N06007 1260–1343 2300–2449
the user and the manufacturer. An exception is a dissimilar C-22 N06022 1357–1399 2475–2550
weldment between a nickel alloy and a steel alloy where a 230 N06230 1301–1371 2375–2500
postweld heat treatment is required for the steel side of the 600 N06600 1354–1413 2470–2575
joint. In this case, there normally will be little consequence 601 N06601 1301–1368 2374–2494
of the heat treatment on the nickel alloy. Table 3 lists the 625 N06625 1287–1348 2349–2458
G-3 N06985 1260–1343 2300–2450
typical annealing temperatures for many of the solid solu- R-41 N07041 1315–1371 2399–2500
tion nickel alloys. Table 4 lists the liquidus/solidus (melt- 713C N07713 1260–1287 2300–2349
ing points) for the same solid solution nickel alloys. 718 N07718 1260–1336 2300–2437
U-500 N07500 1301–1393 2374–2539
X-750 N07750 1393–1426 2539–2567
20Cb3 N08020 1370–1425 2498–2597
800 N08800 1357–1385 2475–2525
Table 3 825 N08825 1371–1399 2500–2550
Typical Annealing Temperatures 706 N09706 1334–1370 2433–2498
B N10001 1301–1368 2374–2494
for Solid Solution Nickel Alloys N N10003 1301–1398 2374–2548
W N10004 1290–1375 2350–2510
Temperature(1) C-276 N10276 1265–1343 2309–2449
B-3 N10675 1370–1418 2500–2585
Alloy UNS No. °C °F 556 R30556 1265–1343 2425–2580
200 N02200 830–871 1525–1600

400 N04400 871 1600
X N06002 1177 2150
C-22 N06022 1121 2050
G-30 N06030 1177 2150
A postweld heat treatment may be beneficial for weld-
C-2000 N06200 1149 2100 ments exposed to certain environments. Two examples of
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
230 N06230 1232 2250 this are caustic service for alloys 200, 201, and 600 and
C-4 N06455 1066 1950 hydrofluoric acid service for alloy 400. The recom-
600 N06600 925–1040 1700–1900 mended heat treatment procedures for these materials in
601 N06601 1175 2150
G-3 N06985 1149 2100
these service environments are as follows:
HR-120 N08120 1204 2200 (1) Alloys 200 and 201 for caustic service, hold at
601 N06601 1175 2150 700°C (1300°F) for a minimum of 1/2 hour per 25 mm
800 N08800 1010–1175 1850–2150 (1 in.) of thickness.
825 N08825 940 1725 (2) Alloy 600 for caustic service, hold at 900°C
C-276 N10276 1121 2050
B-2 N10665 1066 1950 (1650°F) for a minimum of one hour per 25 mm (1 in.) of
B-3 N10675 1066 1950 thickness or at 790°C (1450°F) for a minimum of four
556 R30556 1177 2150 hours per 25 mm (1 in.) of thickness.
(3) Alloy 400 for hydrofluoric acid service, hold at
General Notes:
• Cooling method: Air cool or water quench. 600°C (1100°F) for a minimum of 1/2 hour per 25 mm
• Typical holding time at temperature is 1 h per 25 mm (1 in.) of (1 in.) of thickness.
thickness.
Note: Note: Heating and cooling rate varies with the shape of
1. Temperature tolerance is ±15°C (27°F). the part. Complex shapes with nonuniform thicknesses
8
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
should have heating and cooling rates of no more than of ±15°C (25°F) from the set point, but consistency in
110°C (200°F) per hour. Shapes with uniform thick- temperature will help guarantee reproducible results. The
nesses can use fast heating and air cooling. temperature distribution in the work zone of the furnace
should also be uniform and periodically verified by a
The rate of heating and cooling during postweld heat
temperature survey at various locations in the work zone.
treating seldom creates a problem with the solid solution
This ensures that large temperature differences do not
nickel alloys, but they generally should be cooled by air
exist in the furnace work zone.
cooling or faster methods. When there are large differ-
ences in cross-sectional areas in a welded structure the Often it is recommended that a thermocouple be at-
heating and cooling rates may have to be controlled in tached to the part being heat treated and this temperature
order to minimize distortion that might occur with rapid governs the heat treat operation. This can help to ensure
heating or cooling rates. Such structures can experience that the part is at the appropriate temperature regardless
distortion sufficient to cause fit-up or assembly problems of any set point control inaccuracies.
if a too-rapid cooling rate causes excessive stresses. Prior to postweld heat treatment, all surfaces should
Specific heat treatment parameters should be obtained be thoroughly cleaned of lubricants, paints, anti-seize
from the manufacturer or producer of the nickel alloy. compounds and dirt since they may contain contaminants
such as sulfur and lead. These contaminants, even in
3.1.3.1 Furnace Atmosphere Requirements. The trace amounts, are known to cause embrittlement and
usual precautions regarding furnace atmosphere and tem- cracking during welding and postweld heat treatment cy-
perature control should be followed when heat treating, cles. Cleaning solvents should be carefully chosen since
including postweld heat treating, these nickel-based al- many solvents contain contaminants (such as sulfur,
loys. Either electricity or various gases and fuel oils can chlorine, and fluorine) and may leave some residual
be used for heating. A low sulfur content is an important films.
requirement for any fuel, and the generally accepted
maximum limit of 690 milligrams of sulfur per cubic 3.1.4 Influence of Welding on Service Perfor-
meter (30 grains per 100 ft3) of fuel gas should be con- mance. There are numerous factors that influence the
sidered to be marginal, especially when heating the very performance of a material in service environments.
high nickel content alloys. Oil can be a satisfactory fuel Welding is one of those influences and it can have a pro-
provided it has a low sulfur content—not more than 0.5% found effect.
by weight of sulfur (the equivalent of ASTM Grade 1 or
Grade 2 fuel oil). If the quality of the furnace gas is un- 3.1.4.1 Corrosion Resistance. Some alloys may
known, it can be checked before-hand by heating a small be “sensitized” during welding and exhibit lower corro-
piece of the material to the required temperature and sion resistance in service. An alloy is sensitized when
holding it at temperature for 10–15 minutes. The piece is sufficient volumes of carbides precipitate in the heat-
then air cooled or water quenched and bent through 180° affected zone (HAZ) during the welding thermal cycle.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
flat on itself. If heating conditions are correct, there will The carbides in chromium-containing nickel-alloys con-
be no evidence of cracking. High-nickel alloys are sub- sist primarily of chromium carbides; if enough chro-
ject to surface oxidation unless heating is performed in a mium is tied up in the carbides, less chromium is
protective atmosphere or in a vacuum. A protective at- available to resist attack by oxidizing acids. With the
mosphere can be provided either by controlling the ratio improved melting processes employed today, the nickel
of fuel and air to minimize oxidation or by surrounding alloys are usually melted to levels of 0.02% or lower
the metal being heated with a prepared atmosphere (such carbon which also reduces sensitization.
as dissociated ammonia or hydrogen). Sensitization is generally controlled by maintaining
Accurate control of temperature is one of the most im- relatively low preheat and interpass temperatures. Con-
portant factors in achieving good results in heating. Fur- trolled preheat and interpass temperatures keep the cool-
naces should be equipped with automatic temperature ing rates in the heat-affected zone high enough that there
controls and maintained at the temperature that is recom- is not sufficient time at temperature to form the second
mended for the alloy being heated. Complete information phase precipitates. This may be more of a problem in
concerning temperature measurement and control is some grades of austenitic stainless steels than with the
available from manufacturers of pyrometric equipment. nickel-chromium or nickel-chromium-iron alloys. In most
Thermocouples should be checked for accuracy at least of the nickel-based alloys there is enough chromium and
once during each day of use. Thermocouples are subject nickel to minimize this type of problem. In some of the
to poisoning by various atmospheres and contaminants nickel-based alloys that have lower nickel content such
and their accuracy can be impaired in a matter of min- as alloy 825 and alloy 20, this type of sensitization may
utes. Most heat treatments are specified with an accuracy occur to some extent.
9
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
When welding processes which produce slag (SMAW, ing ring itself can create problems during service if it is
FCAW, or SAW) are used, it is important that all slag be not removed. The crevices on either side of the backing
completely removed from the surface of the weld prior to ring can lead to crevice corrosion if exposed to a corro-
being put into service. There have been instances where sive media. The backing ring can also cause turbulence,
slag has resulted in premature failure caused by acceler- erosion, and wear problems if the application involves a
ated corrosion in the slag area. Unremoved slag can also process stream. No unfused areas should be left in any
lead to crevice corrosion problems. joint unless the design permits. Thermal fatigue failures
The shape of the weld bead has a considerable influ- can often be traced to stress concentrations at incomplete
ence on the life of a weldment. If crevices are present, penetration welds.
such as in undercuts, lack of fusion, crater cracks or lack If welds should be placed in areas where changes in
of penetration, corrosion will occur at a much faster rate sectional size or direction occur, careful attention to de-
than on other parts of the structure. Arc strikes on the sign (for example, blending) and tapering are required to
parent metal, away from the weld, can be a source of minimize stress concentrations. Some sources of stress
pitting corrosion. concentrations that occur as a result of welding are un-
The properties of welded joints in nickel alloys are dercut, incomplete joint penetration, weld craters, and
comparable to those of annealed base metal. In most me- excessive weld reinforcement. Construction codes such
dia, the corrosion resistance of the weld metal is similar as ASME or API specify limits or conditions, such as
to that of the base metal. Therefore, under most condi- undercut and weld reinforcement.
tions, postweld treatment is not needed to maintain or Welds in heat-treating fixtures fabricated of round or
restore corrosion resistance. flat stock should be blended smoothly into the base metal
In aggressive media, however, the weld metal may without undercut. If a partial penetration joint cannot be
corrode before the surrounding base metal. Under these avoided, such as in the welding of rod or bar stock, the
conditions the use a more highly alloyed filler metal may weld should be continuous and seal the joint so that none
be needed rather than a matching filler metal. of the process atmosphere can enter crevices in the joint
(see Figure 1). When fixtures are to be subjected to heat-
3.1.4.2 Elevated Temperature Performance. The
ing and quenching cycles, wrap-around or loosely riveted
severe demands imposed by high temperatures should
joints are sometimes desirable because they provide
be considered in the design and fabrication of the
some freedom of movement.
equipment.
All welding slag should be removed from completed
Deposited weld metal usually has lower stress-rupture
joints. Slag that becomes molten at high temperatures
ductility and lower thermal-fatigue strength than wrought
can cause severe corrosion. In high temperature oxidiz-
materials. Proper design of welded structures can mini-
ing environments, the slag will become increasingly fluid
mize the adverse effects of these lower properties.
and aggressively attack the metal. In high temperature re-
Weldments should be designed so that joints are
ducing atmospheres, the slag can act as an accumulator
placed in locations where low stress-rupture ductility
of sulfur and cause failure by sulfidation in atmospheres
will not be detrimental. Generally, this involves placing
that are otherwise adequately low in sulfur. In one case,
the welds where high temperature deformation is a mini-
with only 0.01% sulfur in the atmosphere, the sulfur con-
mum. For example, a horizontally positioned pipe having
tent of slag was found to increase from 0.05% to as much
a longitudinal weld should be turned to locate the weld at
as 1.6% in one month. Sulfur pickup can also depress the
the top rather than the bottom. The top location results in
melting temperature of the slag, causing the slag to melt
less weld-metal elongation when the pipe sags during
and become corrosive at lower temperatures. If all slag
high-temperature service.
cannot be removed from areas such as the tight root of a
To minimize the effects of thermal or mechanical
lap or crossover joint in round stock, all exposed joints
fatigue, welds should be located in areas of low stress.
should be seal welded to prevent contact of the slag with
Corners and areas where shape or dimensional changes
the atmosphere (see Figure 1).
occur are points of stress concentration and welds in
Problems associated with slag may be eliminated by
these areas should be avoided if possible (see Figure 1).
specifying a slag free process such as the GTAW or
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Full penetration welds are preferred where maximum re-

GMAW processes.
sistance to fatigue is required. Butt joints are preferred
because the stresses act axially rather than eccentrically, 3.1.4.3 Low-Temperature Performance. Many
as in corner and lap joints. If relocation of the joint is not of the comments relating to elevated temperature per-
possible, the weld should have complete joint penetra- formance are also applicable to low-temperature perfor-
tion, and a backing weld should be applied if the root mance. In particular, designs which eliminate stress
side of the joint is accessible. Backing rings can be used concentrators such as crevices, undercut, and lack of
to assure complete penetration of the root, but the back- fusion are necessary to obtain expected service life.
10
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
DESIGNS FOR HIGH-TEMPERATURE SERVICE

WELDED JOINTS SHOULD BE LOCATED IN AREAS OF LOW STRESS
RULES TO OBSERVE:
1. WELD MUST BE COMPLETELY CLOSE OR PENETRATE JOINT.
2. AVOID CORNERS (TO MINIMIZE FATIGUE FAILURES).
3. REMOVE ALL WELD SLAG (TO PREVENT HIGH-TEMPERATURE CORROSION).
Figure 1—High-Temperature Fabrication Issues
Fortunately, the nickel alloys do not undergo the The second difference is in the melting point of oxides
ductile-brittle transition at low temperatures that are that form due to high temperature exposure, such as dur-
characteristic of many of the ferritic steels. Ductility and ing annealing or stress relieving. The oxides of nickel
impact levels of the nickel alloys remain at high levels and chromium melt at much higher temperatures than the
even at very low temperatures. base materials. For example, as shown in Table 5, nickel
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
melts at approximately 1454°C (2650°F), but nickel

3.1.5 Weldability. High-quality joints are readily oxide melts at 1982°C (3600°F). Consequently, when ox-
produced in nickel-based alloys by the commonly used ides are not removed from the weld area and are mixed
welding processes. Some of the characteristics of nickel- into the weld puddle, some may remain as solid oxides
based alloys require techniques different from those used and cause lack-of-fusion defects that can become the ini-
for other materials. Potential problems can be avoided by tiation points for premature failure. The same comments
recognizing and dealing with these characteristics. are true for the stainless steels but the low alloy and car-
Joint preparation, cleaning, and welding procedures bon steels do not have this problem since their oxides
for nickel alloys are similar to those used for stainless have melting points close to the melting point of the base
steel. The thermal expansion characteristics of the nickel materials.
alloys approximate those of carbon steel, and essentially The third difference between nickel welds and steel
the same amount of warping or distortion can be ex- welds is that the nickel weld pool is more sluggish than a
pected during welding. steel weld pool. Compared to steel weld metal, nickel
There are three important differences between the alloy weld metal does not spread or flow readily. The op-
nickel alloys and steels, particularly the low alloy steels, erator should place the weld metal at the proper location
that should be understood in order to avoid welding- in the joint. Therefore, the joint should be sufficiently
related problems. open to provide space for manipulation of the torch and
The first difference is the lower weld penetration filler metal.
characteristic of nickel alloys, which requires the use of All weld beads should have slightly convex contours.
smaller root faces and larger groove angles. Increasing Flat or concave beads should be avoided to minimize the
the welding amperage will not significantly increase possibility of weld center-line cracking. When the weld
weld penetration. Welding at amperages above the rec- contour is flat or concave there is not enough filler metal
ommended range can overheat the electrode or cause a reinforcement to offset the high weld shrinkage stresses.
loss of deoxidizers, resulting in unsound welds. During weld pool solidification, the center of the weld is
11
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
about 15–20°C (60–70°F). However, if the base metal is

Table 5
cold, 2°C (35°F) or less, an area of about 300 mm
Melting Temperatures (12 in.) surrounding the weld location should be warmed
Temperature to 15–20°C (60–70°F) to prevent the condensation of
moisture. Moisture on the surface of the alloy may cause
Material °C °F porosity during welding.
The maximum interpass temperature is usually speci-
Fe 1538 2798
fied between 90–175°C (200–350°F). Contact the material
Fe2O3 1566 2850
Fe3O4 1593 2900 manufacturer or supplier for the specific recommended
maximum interpass temperature for the particular alloy
Ni 1454 2650
being welded.
NiO 1982 3600
304 SS 1399–1454 2550–2650
TiOx 1840 3344
3.2.2 Filler Metal Selection. Selection of welding
Al2O3 2015 3659 filler materials is a critical element in the design of
Cr2O3 2260 4100 nickel-based welded structures. The criteria used to se-
lect filler metal include the following:
(1) The filler metal and base metals should be metal-
lurgically compatible. That is, the as-deposited weld
the last to solidify and is the location of the greatest con- metal should not form a deleterious microstructure or
centration of segregation, which weakens the structure. contain deleterious phases that might promote hot crack-
This is also the reason that the weld pool shape should be ing, embrittlement, or other metallurgical problems.
rounded (elliptical) rather than pointed (tear-drop (2) The as-welded joint should possess mechanical
shaped). Higher amperages and faster travel speeds tend strength and toughness appropriate for the intended
to produce tear-shaped weldpools. service.
3.2 Welding Requirements and Recommendations (3) The as-welded joint should possess corrosion
resistance (aqueous or high temperature resistance,
3.2.1 General Welding Requirements. Prior to start-
depending on the application) that is at least equivalent to
ing production welding, it is prudent and often a require-
the more corrosion susceptible base material.
ment to perform welding procedure qualification and
welder performance qualification testing. Under many Two methods of welding filler metal selection are
situations, the qualification of welding procedures is re- possible and include selection of a matching filler or
quired by the purchaser and often these requirements selection of an overalloyed filler material. When the
come from various codes or specifications that are re- matching filler metal technique is used, the filler material
quired to be performed by law. For example, the ASME has the same nominal chemical composition as one or
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code requires procedure and both of the base materials. In dissimilar welding applica-
welder performance qualification and testing. It is good tions, using the matching filler metal technique, a filler
practice to perform some level of qualification even if not material is chosen to match the nominal chemical com-
position of the base material that is generally more
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
required by the purchaser. This will help ensure that

proper welding parameters have been established and highly alloyed.
that reasonable mechanical property levels are being With the overalloyed filler metal selection technique,
achieved. When no code nor specification has been re- a highly alloyed welding filler material is used. In this
quired, welding procedure qualification and welder certi- case, the filler material will have an alloy content that is
fications may be done voluntarily in accordance with significantly greater than either of the base metals. In
ASME Section IX or AWS B2.1, Specification for Weld- most cases, however, the composition of the deposited
ing Procedure and Performance Qualification, or other weld metal is similar to or matches that of the base metal
applicable standards. being welded. Classifications of filler materials used
Wire brushes used during welding should be made of for welding the solid solution strengthened nickel-based
stainless steel and should be reserved for use on stainless alloys are listed in Table 6.
steel and nickel alloys only. Grinding wheels that have Buttering is a technique of depositing an intermediate
been used on carbon steel alloys should not be used on layer of weld metal on a joint surface, usually followed
nickel alloys. Grinding disks should not contain iron by machining. It is defined as a surfacing variation that
sulfide compounds. deposits surfacing metal on one or more surfaces to
Preheating is normally not required for the nickel provide metallurgically compatible weld metal for the
alloys and is normally specified as room temperature, subsequent completion of the weld.
12
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
Table 6
Suggested Filler Metals for Solid Solution Nickel Alloys
Base Metal Base Metal SMAW Electrodes Bare Wire
UNS No. Common Designation AWS A5.11or AWS 5.4 AWS A5.14 or AWS 5.9
Commercially Pure Nickels
N02200 Alloy 200 ENi-1 ERNi-1

N02201 Alloy 201 ENi-1 ERNi-1
Nickel-Copper Alloys
N04400 Alloy 400 ENiCu-7 ERNiCu-7

N04405 Alloy R-405 ENiCu-7 ERNiCu-7
Nickel-Molybdenum Alloys
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
N10665 Alloy B-2 ENiMo-7 ERNiMo-7
N10675 Alloy B-3 ENiMo-10 ERNiMo-10
N10629 Alloy B-4 Note (3) Note (3)
Nickel-Chromium-Iron and Nickel-Iron-Chromium Alloys
N06600 Alloy 600 ENiCrFe-3 or ENiCrFe-1 ERNiCr-3

N06601 Alloy 601 ENiCrFe-2 or ENiCrCoMo-1 ERNiCr-3 or ERNiCrCoMo-1
N06690 Alloy 690 ENiCrFe-7 ERNiCrFe-7
N08120 Alloy 120 Multimet(5) ER3556
N08330 Alloy 330 W88334(6) or E330–XX(1) or ENiCrFe-2 N08334(6) or ER330(2) or ERNiCr-3
N08800 Alloy 800 ENiCrFe-2 or ENiCrCoMo-1 ERNiCr-3 or ERNiCrCoMo-1
S35045 Alloy 803 ENiCrCoMo-1(7) ERNiCrCoMo-1(7)
Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum Alloys
N06002 Alloy X ENiCrMo-2 ERNiCrMo-2

N06022 Alloy C-22 or 622 ENiCrMo-10 ERNiCrMo-10
N06030 Alloy G-30 ENiCrMo-11 ERNiCrMo-11
N06059 Alloy 5923hMo ENiCrMo-13 ERNiCrMo-13
N06200 Alloy C-2000 Note (3) Note (3)
N06231 Alloy 230 Note (3) ERNiCrWMo-1
N06333 Alloy 333 W86333(6) N06333(6)
N06455 Alloy C-4 ENiCrMo-7 ERNiCrMo-7
N06617 Alloy 617 ENiCrCoMo-1 ERNiCrCoMo-1
N06625 Alloy 625(7) ENiCrMo-3 ERNiCrMo-3
N06686 Alloy 686 ENiCrMo-14 ERNiCrMo-14
N06985 Alloy G-3 ENiCrMo-9 ERNiCrMo-9
N08020 Alloy 20Cb3 ENiCrMo-3 or E320LR-XX(1) ERNiCrMo-3 or ER320LR(2)
N08024 Alloy 20Mo4 ENiCrMo-3 ERNiCrMo-3
N08026 Alloy 20Mo6 ENiCrMo-3 ERNiCrMo-3
N08825 Alloy 825 ENiCrMo-3 ERNiCrMo-3
N10276 Alloy C-276 ENiCrMo-4 ERNiCrMo-4
R30566 Alloy 556 Note (5) ER3556(7)
Nickel-Iron Alloys
K93600 Invar Note (4) Note (4)

K94100 Alloy 42 Note (3) Note (3)
Notes:
(1) AWS A5.4, Specification for Stainless Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding.
(2) AWS A5.9, Specification for Bare Stainless Steel Electrodes and Rods.
(3) Matching composition welding products available or in development.
(4) Alloys of similar compositions may be known by other common designations of tradenames.
(5) There is no matching filler available. Suggest using Multimet (UNS R30155, AMS 5795).
(6) UNS No. are given in SAE HS-1086 or ASTM DS-56, Metals and Alloys in the Unified Numbering System.
(7) In situations of severe corrosion where resistance to reducing, oxidizing, crevice and pitting corrosion is required, a higher-alloyed filler metal,
particularly higher in molybdenum may be a better choice for filler metal.
(8) Not recommended for high sulfur, high temperature environments.
13
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
3.2.3 Welding Joint Design and Preparation. As As part of weld joint preparation, all surfaces should
discussed in 3.1.5 Weldability, the nickel alloys have be thoroughly cleaned of lubricants, machining fluids,
slightly different weld joint design requirements when paints, anti-seize compounds, dye penetrant liquids, dirt,
compared to stainless or carbon steel. As shown in Fig- and grease as they may contain contaminants, such as
ure 2, this difference in penetration patterns is illustrated sulfur and lead, that could affect the crack resistance of
as a reduced square butt joint thickness and a reduced the alloy. These contaminants, even in trace amounts, are
land thickness requirement. The sluggishness of the known to cause embrittlement and cracking during weld-
nickel alloy weld puddle is accommodated by larger ing. Cleaning solvents should be chosen which are free
weld preparation angles. of contaminants (such as sulfur, chlorine, and fluorine)
Detailed weld joint preparations are shown in Figure 3 and that leave no residual films.
for a wide variety of structural design situations. Tables 3.2.3.1 Filler Metal Consumption Calculations.
10 and 11 contain suggested joint design and welding The quantities of filler metals required for a particular
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
techniques for SMAW. joint design can be estimated by multiplying the cross-
Joint preparation angles and desired shapes can be sectional area (of the weld metal for the particular joint
prepared using plasma arc cutting, shearing, water jet design being considered) by the length of weld to be
cutting and laser beam cutting. In addition, edge prepara- made. This calculation will provide the total volume
tion can also be performed using standard machining and (cubic millimeters or cubic inches) of weld metal
grinding techniques. Wire brushes used during welding needed. Usually a small fudge factor is added to the
should be made of stainless steel and should be reserved cross-sectional area to account for stub-end and grinding
for use on stainless steel and nickel alloys only. Grinding losses. Table 7 has the weld weight of different joints. To
wheels that have been used on carbon steel alloys should determine the weight of weld filler metal needed, multi-
not be used on nickel alloys. Grinding disks or abrasives ply the total volume of weld metal by the density of the
with iron sulfide compounds should be avoided. Oxyfuel alloy being used. The densities for many of the nickel
gas cutting does not work with the nickel-based alloys. alloys are provided in Table 8.
Figure 2—Comparison of Joint Designs Used for Steel and Nickel-Based Alloys
14
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 3—Joint Designs for Nickel-Based Alloys
A deposition-weight reference graph for single-vee 3.2.4.1 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW). In
and double-vee joint designs is shown in Figure 4. A rule general, shielded metal arc welding can be used for
of thumb often cited concerning filler metal consumption joining nickel and nickel-based alloys in material thick-
is filler metal will represent about 4–5% of the base nesses of about 1.6 mm (0.06 in.) and over. AWS
material weight. A5.11/A5.11M, Specification for Nickel and Nickel Alloy
Welding Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding, lists
3.2.4 Welding Processes and Procedures. The four the SMAW electrodes.
most commonly used welding processes are listed in (1) Electrodes. In most cases, the composition of the
Table 9. The following sections list common welding deposited weld metal is similar to or matches that of the
processes and welding parameter information and tech- base metal being welded. Suggested filler metals for
niques that apply to the various welding processes. welding the solid solution nickel-based alloys are listed
15
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
Table 7
Weld Metal Required
Width of Bead
Base Material or Groove Maximum Approximate Amount
Thickness “W” Root Spacing of Metal Deposited
Joint Type Dimensions
in mm (in.) mm (in.) mm (in.) mm (in.) cm3/m (in.3/ft) kg/m(1) (lb/ft)(2)
Square Butt 0.9 0.04 3.2 1/8 0.0 0 3.7 0.07 0.03 0.02
Reinforcement 1.3 0.05 4.0 5/32 0.0 0 7.0 0.13 0.06 0.04
0.8–1.6 (0.03–0.06) 1.6 0.03 4.8 3/16 0.0 0 7.0 0.13 0.06 0.04
2.4 0.09 5–6 0.20–0.24 0.8 0.03 9.7 0.18 0.09 0.06
3.2 0.13 6 0.24 0.8 0.03 12.0 0.22 0.10 0.07
Removable Copper Backing
Square Butt
Reinforcement 3.2 0.13 6 0.24 0.8 0.03 19 0.35 0.16 0.11
0.8–1.8 (0.03–0.07) 5 0.20 6 0.24 1.6 0.03 40 0.74 0.36 0.24
6 0.24 6 0.24 2.4 0.09 52 0.97 0.46 0.31
V Groove
Reinforcement 5 0.20 9 0.35 3.2 0.13 39 0.72 0.34 0.23
0.8–2.0 (0.03–0.08) 6 0.24 13 0.51 5 0.20 75 1.39 0.66 0.44
8 0.31 16 0.61 5 0.20 99 1.84 0.87 0.58
10 0.39 18 0.71 5 0.20 127 2.36 1.11 0.75
13 0.5 23 0.91 5 0.20 198 3.68 1.72 1.16
16 0.63 30 1.16 5 0.20 274 5.10 2.69 1.81
Removable Copper Backing
V Groove
Reinforcement 6 0.24 10 0.41 2.4 0.09 72 1.33 0.62 0.42
0.8–2.0 (0.03–0.08) 8 0.31 13 0.51 2.4 0.09 92 1.71 0.80 0.54
10 0.39 17 0.65 3.2 0.13 124 2.30 1.09 0.73
No Backing Used. Underside 13 0.51 22 0.85 3.2 0.13 207 3.39 1.80 1.21
of Weld Chipped and Welded. 16 0.63 27 1.06 3.2 0.13 249 4.69 2.17 1.46
Double V Groove 13 0.51 10 0.40 3.2 0.13 142 2.65 1.32 0.89
16 0.63 12 0.49 3.2 0.13 185 3.45 1.61 1.08
19 0.75 16 0.62 3.2 0.13 247 4.60 2.17 1.46
25 1.00 21 0.81 3.2 0.13 414 7.70 3.60 2.42
32 1.26 26 1.03 3.2 0.13 498 9.26 4.34 2.92
U Groove
Reinforcement 13 0.50 17 0.68 3.2 0.13 176 3.27 1.53 1.03
0.8–2.0 (0.03–0.08) 16 0.63 19 0.75 3.2 0.13 235 4.37 2.05 1.38
19 0.75 21 0.81 3.2 0.13 287 5.33 2.50 1.68
25 1.00 24 0.96 3.2 0.13 449 8.35 3.91 2.63
32 1.26 27 1.07 3.2 0.13 617 11.48 5.38 3.62
38 1.50 31 1.22 3.2 0.13 815 15.16 7.12 4.79
44 1.73 34 1.35 3.2 0.13 1016 18.90 8.89 5.98
51 2.01 38 1.49 3.2 0.13 2161 23.45 11.00 7.40
Double U Groove
Reinforcement 25 1.00 17 0.68 3.2 0.13 352 6.54 3.06 2.06
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0.8–2.0 (0.03–0.08) 32 1.26 19 0.75 3.2 0.13 470 8.74 4.10 2.76
38 1.50 21 0.81 3.2 0.13 573 10.66 5.00 3.36
51 1.73 24 0.96 3.2 0.13 896 16.66 7.82 5.26
64 2.01 27 1.07 3.2 0.13 1234 22.96 10.77 7.24
Notes:
(1) To find linear meters of weld per kilogram of electrode, take the reciprocal of kilograms per linear meter.
(2) To find linear feet of weld per pound of electrode, take the reciprocal of pounds per linear foot.
(Continued)
16
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
Table 7 (Continued)
Width of Bead
Base Material or Groove
Thickness “W” Approximate Amount of Metal Deposited
Joint Type Dimensions
in mm (in.) mm (in.) mm (in.) cm3/m (in.3/ft) kg/m(1) (lb/ft)(2)
Bevel Groove
Reinforcement 6 0.24 3.2 0.13 12 0.22 0.10 0.07
0.8–1.6 (0.03–0.06) 8 0.31 5 0.20 22 0.40 0.19 0.13
10 0.39 6 0.24 33 0.61 0.28 0.19
13 0.50 10 0.39 65 1.21 0.57 0.38
16 0.63 13 0.50 106 1.98 0.94 0.63
19 0.75 16 0.63 159 2.95 1.38 0.93
25 0.98 19 0.75 299 5.57 2.63 1.77
Double J Groove
Reinforcement 25 0.98 13 0.50 251 4.67 2.20 1.48
0.8–1.8 (0.03–0.07) 32 1.26 14 0.56 371 6.90 2.83 1.90
38 1.50 15 0.60 435 8.10 3.81 2.56
44 1.73 16 0.63 528 9.83 4.63 3.11
51 2.01 17 0.67 648 12.06 5.67 3.81
57 2.44 18 0.71 768 14.29 6.71 4.51
64 2.52 19 0.75 897 16.68 7.84 5.27
Double Bevel Groove
Reinforcement 13 0.51 5 0.20 42 0.78 0.37 0.25
0.8–2.0 (0.03–0.08) 16 0.63 6 0.24 67 1.24 0.58 0.39
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
19 0.75 8 0.31 96 1.78 0.83 0.56
25 0.98 11 0.43 168 3.13 1.47 0.99
32 1.26 14 0.55 262 4.87 2.29 1.54
38 1.50 18 0.71 376 7.00 3.29 2.21
44 1.73 21 0.83 509 9.47 4.46 3.00
51 2.01 24 0.95 663 12.33 5.80 3.90
J Groove
Reinforcement 25 0.98 16 0.63 303 5.64 2.65 1.78
0.8–2.0 (0.03–0.08) 32 1.26 18 0.71 425 7.91 3.72 2.50
38 1.50 20 0.79 548 10.20 4.81 3.23
44 1.73 22 0.87 696 12.95 6.09 4.09
51 2.01 25 0.98 839 15.60 7.34 4.93
57 2.24 26 1.02 987 18.35 8.63 5.80
64 2.51 28 1.10 1180 21.95 10.33 6.94
Corner 1.6 0.03 — — 2.7 0.05 0.03 0.02
2.4 0.09 — — 4.8 0.09 0.04 0.03
3.2 0.13 — — 8.1 0.15 0.07 0.05
5 0.20 — — 18 0.33 0.15 0.10
6 0.24 — — 32 0.59 0.28 0.19
8 0.31 — — 50 0.92 0.43 0.29
10 0.39 — — 71 1.32 0.62 0.42
13 0.51 — — 126 2.35 1.10 0.74
Fillet — — 3.2 0.13 4.8 0.09 0.04 0.03
— — 5 0.20 12 0.22 0.10 0.07
— — 6 0.24 20 0.38 0.18 0.12
— — 8 0.31 32 0.59 0.28 0.19
— — 10 0.39 45 0.84 0.40 0.27
— — 13 0.51 81 1.50 0.70 0.47
— — 16 0.63 126 2.34 1.10 0.74
— — 19 0.75 182 3.38 1.59 1.07
— — 25 1.00 323 6.00 2.83 1.90
Notes:
(1) To find linear meters of weld per kilogram of electrode, take the reciprocal of kilograms per linear meter.
(2) To find linear feet of weld per pound of electrode, take the reciprocal of pounds per linear foot.
17
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
ing composition filler metals, which can lower the corro-

Table 8
sion resistance of the weld deposit. When molybdenum
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Density of Nickel Alloys bearing filler metals solidify, the first material to solidify
Density is lower in molybdenum and has molybdenum content
UNS less than the nominal alloy molybdenum concentration.
Alloy Number 1000 kg/m3 (lb/in.3) As solidification continues, the amount of molybdenum
increases until solidification is complete. These first to
200 N02200 8.89 0.321 solidify regions, having low molybdenum content, are
201 N02201 8.89 0.321 more susceptible to pitting and crevice attack than
400 N04400 8.83 0.319
R-405 N04405 8.83 0.319 matching wrought base material. This segregation prob-
K-500 N05500 8.47 0.306 lem is minimized or eliminated by using filler metals
502 N05502 8.44 0.305 with higher molybdenum levels. ENiCrMo-3 electrodes
X N06002 8.22 0.297 are used for higher alloyed compositions of the Ni-Cr-
G N06007 8.30 0.300 Fe-Mo families, up to and including alloy 625. Interme-
C-22 N06022 8.69 0.314
G-30 N06030 8.22 0.297 diate alloys, such as alloy G-3, can be welded with ENi-
C-2000 N06200 8.50 0.307 CrMo-3. This type of electrode is widely used because
230 N06230 8.97 0.324 its high nickel content allows good dissimilar metal
C-4 N06455 8.64 0.312 weldability, while the high molybdenum content pro-
600 N06600 8.42 0.304 vides the pitting resistance equal to or greater than that of
601 N06601 8.06 0.291
625 N06625 8.44 0.305 the base alloys being welded. Due to the high strength of
G-3 N06985 8.30 0.300 the ENiCrMo-3 electrode, welding to many High
R-41 N07041 8.25 0.298 Strength, Low Alloy (HSLA) grade steels can be accom-
U-500 N07500 8.03 0.290 plished without sacrificing design strength.
718 N07718 8.19 0.296
X-750 N07750 8.25 0.298 Other electrodes in this alloy group, such as ENi-
20Cb3 N08020 8.08 0.292 CrMo-4, ENiCrMo-10, ENiCrMo-13, and ENiCrMo-14,
HR-120 N08120 8.07 0.291 are used to join similar composition nickel-chromium-
800 N08800 7.94 0.287 molybdenum alloys to themselves and to steel. Usually,
825 N08825 8.14 0.294 the base metal is welded with a higher alloy content elec-
706 N09706 8.06 0.291
901 N09901 8.22 0.297 trode, if possible, to counteract microsegregation occur-
N N01003 8.86 0.320 ring in the weld deposit. For example, this Ni-Cr-Mo
W N01004 9.00 0.325 alloy group with a high molybdenum content would be
C-276 N10276 8.89 0.321 chosen in a pitting environment such as the SO2 environ-
B-2 N10665 9.22 0.333 ments found in flue gas desulfurization applications.
B-3 N10675 9.22 0.333
556 R30556 8.23 0.297 Nickel-chromium-iron electrodes, such as ENiCrFe-2,
ENiCrFe-3, and ENiCrFe-4, are designed for welding the
same family of alloys as well as dissimilar metal joints
involving carbon steel, stainless steel, nickel, and nickel-
in Table 6. Typical parameters for welding the nickel- based alloys. Other welding electrodes of the ENiCrFe
based alloys with the SMAW process are shown in Tables electrode group are special application electrodes which
10, 11, and 12. give specific weld deposit compositions. For example,
Filler metals of the ENi-1 classifications are used for ENiCrFe-7 is used to weld alloy 690 to itself, to alloy
welding wrought and cast forms of the commercially 600, for butt welding alloy 690 to steel, and overlaying
pure nickel alloys to themselves and to steel. ENiCu-7 certain grades of steel for nuclear boiling water reactor or
filler metals can be used for welding nickel-copper alloys pressurized water reactor applications.
to themselves, for surfacing steel with a nickel-copper Nickel-chromium-cobalt-molybdenum electrodes, such
alloy, for welding the clad side of a nickel-copper clad as ENiCrCoMo-1, are used to join nickel-chromium-
steel, and for welding nickel-copper alloys to steel. cobalt-molybdenum alloys, nickel-chromium-iron alloys,
ENiCrMo-3 electrodes typically are used for joining a as well as nickel-iron-chromium alloys to themselves,
wide range of pitting and crevice corrosion-resistant al- especially in oxidizing atmospheres when service tem-
loys. In addition to welding the nickel-chromium-iron peratures are between 790°C (1450°F) and up to 1150°C
alloys, these electrodes are used for welding stainless (2100°F).
steels that contain approximately 3–6% molybdenum. Nickel-molybdenum electrodes, such as ENiMo-7
Molybdenum segregation during cooling (coring) can and ENiMo-10, are designed for welding nickel-molyb-
occur when these stainless steels are welded with match- denum alloys to themselves and to other nickel, cobalt,
18
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 4—Approximate Filler Metal Weight per Foot of Weld
Table 9
Common Fusion Welding Processes
Welding Process AWS Designation Common Designation
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (manual or machine) GTAW TIG, heli-arc

Gas Metal Arc Welding (manual or machine) GMAW MIG
Shielded Metal Arc Welding SMAW stick electrode, manual metal arc
Submerged Arc Welding SAW sub-arc
and iron based metals. These electrodes are normally from the containers and place them on racks or trays in a
used in the flat position. The highly fluid slag character- vented oven. Manufacturer’s recommendations should be
istics of these electrodes make them difficult to use out- followed for storage or baking of SMAW electrodes.
of-position, particularly with larger electrode sizes. Welding techniques and electrodes for various joint
Prior to use, electrodes should be left in their original designs are shown in Table 10. The choice of electrode
sealed, moisture-proof containers in a dry storage area. diameter should always be based on quality requirements
All open containers of electrodes should be stored in a rather than speed of production.
cabinet equipped with a desiccant or heated to 6–8°C (10– (2) Current. Each electrode diameter has an opti-
15°F) above the highest expected ambient temperature to mum amperage range and electrical polarity that pro-
minimize the pickup of moisture. Electrodes that have duces appropriate arc characteristics. Operating outside
absorbed excessive moisture can be reclaimed by baking. of that range can cause the arc to become unstable or the
One technique for electrode baking is to remove them electrode may overheat or both. Typical parameters for
19
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
Table 10
SMAW Joint Design and Welding Techniques for Welding Nickel-Based Alloys
Base Material Thickness Root Spacing (S) Tack Welds Electrode Diameter
mm (in.) mm (in.) Length Spacing mm (in.)
Electrode
For For For For For For For For Positions
Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. for Flat
Joint Thick- Thick- Thick- Thick- Thick- Thick- Thick- Thick- Position
Type(1) Position Min. Max. Min. Max. ness ness ness ness mm (in.) mm (in.) ness ness ness ness Welding(3)
Square Flat 0.9 3.2 (0.04) (0.13) 1.6 4.0 (0.06) (0.16) 3 (0.13) 75 or 100 (3 or 4) 2.4 3.2 (3/32) (1/8)
Butt(2) Vertical 1.6 3.2 (0.06) (0.13) 1.6 4.0 (0.06) (0.16) 3 (0.13) 75 or 100 (3 or 4) 2.4 3.2 (3/32) (1/8)
Overhead 1.3 3.2 (0.05) (0.13) 2.4 4.0 (0.09) (0.16) 3 (0.13) 75 or 100 (3 or 4) 2.4 3.2 (3/32) (1/8)
V Groove Flat 4 13 (0.16) (0.51) 1.6 3.2 (0.06) (0.13) 6–13 (0.24–0.5) 150 (6) 3.2 5 (1/8) (3/16)
Vertical 5 11 (0.20) (0.43) 1.6 3.2 (0.06) (0.13) 6–13 (0.24–0.5) 150 (6) 3.2 5 (1/8) (3/16)
U Groove Flat 13 — (0.51) — 1.6 3.2 (0.06) (0.13) 25 (1) 200 (8) 3.2 4 or 5 (1/8) (5/32 or
3/16)
Vertical 13 — (0.51) — 1.6 3.2 (0.06) (0.13) 25 (1) 200 (8) 3.2 4 or 5 (1/8) (5/32 or
3/16)
Lap Flat 0.9 — (0.04) — None None 6 (0.24) 150 (6) 2.4 4 or 5 (1/8) (5/32 or
— 3/16)
Vertical 1.6 — (0.06) — None None 6 (0.24) 150 (6) 2.4 4 or 5 (1/8) (5/32 or
20
Not for Resale
3/16)
Overhead 1.6 — (0.06) None None 6 (0.24) 150 (6) 2.4 4 or 5 (1/8) (5/32 or
3/16)
Tee Flat 1.6 — (0.06) — None None 6–13 (0.24–0.5) 150 (6) 2.4 4 or 5 (1/8) (5/32 or
3/16)
Vertical 1.6 — (0.06) — None None 6–13 (0.24–0.5) 150 (6) 2.4 4 or 5 (1/8) (5/32 or
3/16)
Overhead 1.6 — (0.06) — None None 6–13 (0.24–0.5) 150 (6) 2.4 4 or 5 (1/8) (5/32 or
3/16)
Lap Flat 1.3 — (0.05) — None None 6 (0.24) 100 (4) 2.4 3.2 (3/32) (1/8)
Corner Vertical 1.6 — (0.06) — None None 6 (0.24) 100 (4) 2.4 3.2 (3/32) (1/8)
Overhead 1.6 — (0.06) — None None 6 (0.24) 100 (4) 2.4 3.2 (3/32) (1/8)
Corner Flat 2.4 — (0.09) — None None 6 (0.24) 100–200 (4–8) 3.2 4 or 5 (1/8) (5/32 or
3/16)
Vertical 2.4 — (0.09) — None None 6 (0.24) 100–200 (4–8) 3.2 4 or 5 (1/8) (5/32 or
3/16)
Overhead 2.4 — (0.09) — None None 6 (0.24) 100–200 (4–8) 3.2 4 or 5 (1/8) (5/32 or
3/16)
Notes:
(1) 100% penetration is assumed.
(2) Joint backing (preferably copper) is necessary for thickness 1.3 mm (0.05 in.) and less. If design permits, backing should be provided for thicknesses of 1.6–2.4 mm (0.06–0.09 in.). Thicknesses over
2.4 mm (0.09 in.) will require welding from both sides.
(3) Number of passes required to complete joint is 1 or more, depending on plate thickness.
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
Table 11
Typical Parameters for SMAW Welding Process—Flat Position (Nickel Alloys)(1)
Electrode Diameter Approximate Arc Voltage Welding Current Range
mm (in.) (volts) (amps)
2.4 (3/32) 22–24 55–75

3.2 (1/8)0 22–24 80–110
4.0 (5/32) 22–25 125–150
4.8 (3/16) 24–26 150–180
Note:
(1) For welding parameters for specific alloys, contact the welding electrode manufacturer.
Table 12
Typical Welding Parameters for Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Nickel Alloys,
Approximate Current Settings for Flat Position Welding(1)
Nickel-Copper Alloys Nickel Alloys Ni-Cr-Fe & Ni-Fe-Cr Alloys
Base Base Base

Material Electrode Material Electrode Material Electrode
Thickness Diameter Current Thickness Diameter Current Thickness Diameter Current
mm (in.) mm (in.) amps mm (in.) mm (in.) amps mm (in.) mm (in.) amps
0.9 (0.035) 2.4 (3/32) Note (2) 0.9 (0.035) 2.4 (3/32) Note (2) 0.9 (0.035) 2.4 (3/32) Note (2)
1.1 (0.043) 2.4 (3/32) Note (2) 1.1 (0.043) 2.4 (3/32) Note (2) 1.1 (0.043) 2.4 (3/32) Note (2)
1.3 (0.051) 2.4 (3/32) Note (2) 1.3 (0.051) 2.4 (3/32) Note (2) 1.3 (0.051) 2.4 (3/32) Note (2)
1.6 (0.063) 2.4 (3/32) 50 1.6 (0.063) 2.4 (3/32) 75 1.6 (0.063) 2.4 (3/32) 60
2.0 (0.079) 2.4 (3/32) 55 2.0 (0.079) 2.4 (3/32) 80
2.4 (0.094) 2.4 (3/32) 60 2.4 (0.094) 2.4 (3/32) 85 2.8 (0.11) 3.2 (1/8) 75
2.8 (0.11) 2.4 (3/32) 60 3.2 (0.13) 3.2 (1/8) 75
2.8 (0.11) 3.2 (1/8) 105 4.0 (0.16) 3.2 (1/8) 80
2.8 (0.11) 3.2 (1/8) 65 3.2 (0.13) 3.2 (1/8) 105
3.2 (0.13) 3.2 (1/8) 75 5 (0.20) 4.0 (5/32) 105
3.6 (0.14) 3.2 (1/8) 85 3.2 (0.13) 4.0 (5/32) 110
4.0 (0.16) 3.2 (1/8) 95 3.6 (0.14) 4.0 (5/32) 130 10 (0.39) 4.8 (3/16) 140
4.0 (0.16) 4.0 (5/32) 135 and up and up
3.2 (0.13) 4.0 (5/32) 100 5 (0.20) 4.0 (5/32) 150
3.6 (0.14) 4.0 (5/32) 110 and up and up
4.0 (0.16) 4.0 (5/32) 115
6 (0.24) 4.0 (5/32) 150 6 (0.24) 4.8 (3/16) 180
and up and up 10 (0.39) 4.8 (3/16) 200
and up and up
10 (0.39) 4.8 (3/16) 170
13 (0.51) 4.8 (3/16) 190
and up and up
Notes:
(1) Selection of electrode diameter should be based on joint design. For example, smaller diameters than those listed for material 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) and
over in thickness may be necessary for the first passes in the bottom of a groove.
(2) Amperage should be the minimum at which arc control can be maintained.
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21
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
SMAW flat position with nickel-based alloys are shown (3) The first drops of quenched or rapidly cooled weld
in Table 12. The amperage required for an electrode size metal are placed where they will be remelted to minimize
in a given joint is influenced by such variables as mate- porosity.
rial thickness, welding position, type of backing, and Another commonly used restrike technique involves
joint design. Slight reductions in current from the values restriking the arc where it can be readily removed. The
in Table 11 are necessary for overhead welding while restrike is made 13–25 mm (0.5–1 in.) behind the crater
vertical welding requires additional current adjustment on top of the previous pass and the restrike area is later
(typically 10–20% less current) compared to flat position ground level with the rest of the bead. This technique is
welding. Actual current settings should be developed on used when welds should meet tight radiographic inspec-
scrap material of the same thickness. tion standards. The method produces high quality welds
(3) Welding Procedure. Typical welding conditions with less operator skill than the “T” restrike method.
for several different joint designs are shown in Table 10. Arc blow can cause welding difficulties and defects
Whenever possible, the work should be positioned to and is caused by the arc being deflected from its normal
gain the advantages of speed and economy provided by path by magnetic forces. A dissimilar metal joint, such as
flat position welding. The recommended electrode posi- steel to a nickel-based alloy, can cause considerable arc
tion for flat position welding is at an incline of 20° from blow towards the steel side of the joint. One method to
the vertical, ahead of the puddle. That position facilitates try in overcoming arc blow is to change the location of
control of the molten flux and elimination of slag entrap- the ground connection on the work piece which changes
ment. It is essential that a short arc be maintained. the direction of the electrical path to the arc. AC welding
Overhead and vertical welding usually require a can also minimize arc blow problems, although most
shorter arc and lower current than flat position welding. nickel alloy electrodes are designed for DC welding and
For vertical welding, the electrode should be held at have limited AC operability. In extreme cases, demagne-
approximately a right angle to the base material. tization of the base material may be required. Being pre-
pared, before production begins, with an alternate
Because nickel-alloy weld metal does not flow
welding procedure such as AC electrode welding, may
readily, it should be placed where required. This is ac-
help to avoid added rework costs if the vessel or part
complished by proper electrode manipulation. The
should fail weld quality requirements during fabrication.
amount of weave will depend on such factors as joint de-
(4) Cleaning. The slag on shielded metal arc welds
sign, welding position, and type of electrode. A stringer
can be removed with stainless steel hand tools or wire
bead laid down without weaving may be used for single-
brushes. In multi-pass welding, it is essential that all slag
bead work or in close quarters on thick sections, such as
be removed before each subsequent bead is deposited.
at the bottom of a deep groove. If a weave pattern is used,
Slag removal from all completed welds is recommended.
it should not be wider than three times the electrode core
Removal is mandatory for high-temperature service
wire diameter. There should be no pronounced spatter.
and/or wet environments. Due to the shallow weld pene-
Excessive spatter is usually an indication the arc is too
tration characteristics and reduced fluidity of nickel
long, amperage is too high, the electrode has absorbed
welding electrodes, it is not possible to burn out depos-
moisture, or the wrong polarity is being used. Spatter can
ited weld slag.
also be caused by magnetic arc blow. When the arc is
broken for any reason, it should first be shortened
slightly and the travel speed increased to reduce the pud- 3.2.4.2 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW). The
dle size. This practice reduces the possibility of crater gas tungsten arc welding process is a versatile, all-
cracking and oxidation and eliminates the rolled leading position welding process used for production and repair
edge of the crater. welding. It can be used manually or adapted to automatic
equipment and is applicable to both thin sheet and plate
The manner in which the arc is restruck will have a
material. GTAW offers great control and is therefore
significant influence on the soundness of the weld. A re-
routinely used during tack and root pass welding. The
verse, or “T,” restrike is recommended. The arc should
disadvantage of the process is low productivity compared
be struck at the leading edge of the crater and carried
to other welding processes. For manual welding situa-
back to the extreme rear of the crater at a normal travel
tions, GTAW weld metal deposition rates are low.
speed. The direction is then reversed, weaving started,
Generally, power supplies equipped with high frequency
and the weld continued. This restrike method has three
start, pre-purge/post-purge, and up-slope/down-slope (or
advantages:
foot pedal) controls are recommended. It is usually rec-
(1) The correct arc length can be established away ommended that the GTAW welding torch be equipped
from the unwelded joint, with a gas diffuser screen (gas lens) to provide optimum
(2) Some preheat is applied to the cold crater, and shielding gas coverage. Generally, the gas cup diameter
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22
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
should be as large as practical to facilitate smooth flow of The alternative shielding gases for GTAW of nickel-
shielding gas without interfering with welder visibility. based alloys are helium (Class SG-He), or helium/argon
Typical GTAW welding parameters, which are sug- mixtures. The presence of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitro-
gested for the nickel-based alloys, are presented in Table gen or moisture can cause porosity.10 Hydrogen (Class
13. The manufacturer’s recommendations should be fol- SG-H) (<5%) can be added to argon for high speed sin-
lowed. Electrical polarity for the GTAW welding process gle pass welding. When using helium it should be noted
should be direct current electrode negative DCEN that the arc voltage for a given arc length is approxi-
(straight polarity). AWS A5.14/A5.14M, Specification mately 40% greater and as a result heat input is greater.
for Nickel and Nickel-Alloy Bare Welding Electrodes and Flow rates vary with cup size but are normally in the 12
Rods, lists the nickel-based electrodes. L/min (25 ft3/h) range for a number 8 cup size.
Two percent thoriated tungsten electrodes (classifica- Shielding gas flow rates need to be controlled to en-
tion EWTh-2) have been used traditionally, but now sure quality welds. Low flow rates will not properly
other compositions such as lanthanated and ceriated are shield the molten weld puddle from contamination from
used. The classification AWS A5.12/A5.12M, Specifica- surrounding medium. High flow rates can cause turbu-
tion Tungsten and Tungsten Alloy Electrodes for Arc lence and aspirate air into the gas shield. Nominal argon
Welding and Cutting, covers thoriated, lanthanated, and flow rates for manual GTAW are 5–12 L/min (11–
ceriated electrodes. The diameter of the tungsten elec- 25 ft3/h); mechanized processes may be higher. Flow
trode will vary with amperage. General recommenda- rates for helium should be approximately 1.5–3.0 times
tions for electrode diameter selection are also given in higher than for argon to compensate for the lighter
Table 13. It is recommended that the electrode be ground weight of helium. Gas cup size should be selected ac-
to a cone shape (included angle of 30–60°) with a small cording to the diameter of tungsten electrode used, while
flat 0.8 mm (0.03 in.) ground at the point. utilizing the largest cup possible to provide the most ef-
Stringer bead techniques, or narrow weave tech- fective shielding. Lack of proper shielding can cause po-
niques, using only enough current to melt the base mate- rosity, excessive oxide formation, and shallow
rial and allow proper fusion of the filler, are normally penetration. The protective atmosphere provided by the
recommended. During welding, the tip of the filler metal gas can be disrupted by drafts, fans, and generators.
should always be held under the shielding gas to prevent When fabricating thin sheet requiring full penetration
oxidation of the hot filler wire. Pausing or puddling the welds from one side or when reverse side oxidation
weld is not recommended as this adds to the welding heat (lower corrosion resistance and mechanical properties)
input, which can adversely affect corrosion resistance. should be avoided, it is recommended to use a backing
Welding grade argon (AWS A5.32/A5.32M, Specification
for Welding Shielding Gas, Class SG-A, 99.997% mini-
mum purity, shielding gas a dew point of –60°C [–75°F]) 10. This is especially true in the nonchromium nickel alloy
is recommended for all normal fabrication situations. welds and can cause deterioration of the tungsten electrode.
Table 13
Typical Parameters for GTAW Welding Process—Nickel Alloys
Tungsten Electrode
Joint Thickness Diameter Filler Wire Diameter Welding Current Arc Voltage
mm (in.) mm (in.) mm (in.) (amps) (volts)
0.8–1.6 1.5 1.6 15–60 9–12

(0.03–0.06) (0.060) (1/16)
1.6–3.2 1.5 or 2.4 1.6 or 2.4 50–95 9–12

(0.06–0.12) (0.060 or 3/32) (1/16 or 3/32)
3.2–6 2.4 or 3.2 2.4 or 3.2 75–130 10–13

(0.12–0.24) (3/32 or 1/8) (3/32 or 1/8)
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
6 (0.24) 2.4 or 3.2 2.4 or 3.2 90–200 10–13

and over (3/32 or 1/8) (3/32 or 1/8)
23
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
gas. Welding grade argon shielding gas is typically used increase in productivity when compared to the shielded
at flow rates of approximately 2 L/min (4 ft3/h). When metal and gas tungsten arc welding processes. It is well
proper shielding is achieved, the as-deposited weld metal suited for both manual and automatic welding situations.
should have a bright-shiny appearance and should re- The weld metal deposition rate is considerably higher but
quire only minor wire brushing between passes. to some extent control and ease of operation are reduced
A high helium/argon ratio shielding gas may result in with the GMAW process.
a discolored soot on the surface of the weld which can Four modes of weld metal transfer are possible with
easily be removed by stainless steel wire brushing or gas metal arc welding. The short circuiting transfer mode
wiping with a damp cloth. is used in all welding positions, provides good weld pud-
Often backing bars (usually copper) are used to assist dle control, and is considered a low heat input welding
in obtaining proper bead contours on the root side of process. However, because the process is relatively
GTAW welds. Backing gas is often introduced through “cold,” it is often regarded as a defect (cold lap) prone
small holes along the length of the backing bar. process especially when welding thick sections. The
There are situations where backing bars cannot be spray transfer mode is useful generally in the flat posi-
used. Under these conditions, open root welding is often tion only and is characterized as a moderate to high heat
performed. Such welding conditions are often encoun- input welding process with relatively high deposition
tered during pipe or tube circumferential butt welding. rates. The pulse-spray mode (either fixed frequency
Under these conditions where access to the root side of pulse or computer controlled pulse mode) is the optimum
the joint is not possible, special gas flow conditions have arc mode for all welding positions. It is less susceptible
been established which differ from the normal, published to cold lap defects when compared to short circuiting
recommendations. mode and is less prone to undercut when compared to the
Under these open root pipe welding conditions, the spray arc mode. The globular mode of weld metal trans-
torch flow rates are reduced to about 5 L/min (11 ft3/h) fer is rarely recommended, except for weld surfacing
and the back purge flow rates are increased in proportion (cladding) applications.
to pipe diameter to about 20 L/min (42 ft3/h). This ar- Constant current/voltage, fixed frequency pulse, vari-
rangement ensures that inert gas flows out of the weld able slope/inductance, and synergic welding power
joint, rather than oxygen being aspirated into the joint. supplies can all be used with the GMAW welding pro-
It is often difficult to get consistent penetration and cess. In a synergic computer (controlled pulse) power
good bead contour on the inside diameter of piping and supply, most of the machine settings are automatically
tubing. The use of pre-placed filler metal in the form of controlled by a computer that has been programmed with
shaped consumable inserts allows better penetration con- the essential variables relating to the material being
trol to achieve a smooth inside weld contour.11 Under welded. This feedback control enables the welder to con-
these conditions it is normally recommended that the centrate on welding rather than continually adjusting the
torch be held essentially perpendicular to the work piece. controls.
This back purge flow rate should be reduced at the end of The selection of weld metal transfer mode (spray,
the weld. pulse-spray, short circuiting, or globular mode) should be
In most cases, it is recommended that the torch be decided upon first. Such a decision requires information
held essentially perpendicular to the work piece. An ex- on joint design/thickness, welding position to be used,
ception is during groove welding where the “walking the required deposition rates, and welder skill levels. From
cup” technique is often used. “Walking the cup” refers to that information, the welding power supply and welding
a technique where the gas cup is used to walk the torch parameter selections can be made. Centerline cracking
along the weld. The gas cup is actually rocked back and that can occur during spray transfer mode welding can
forth while sliding it along the weld joint, allowing a often be minimized by using the lower heat input pulsed-
constant stick-out length and weaving motion. The tech- mode welding processes which lowers heat input and de-
nique is often used by pipe welders and in high preheat creases the weld size. Typical welding parameters for the
applications, to allow the welder to remain away from various weld metal transfer modes are documented in
the welding operation (hot work surface) and to weld Table 14. Electrical polarity for the GMAW process is
greater lengths without extinguishing the arc. direct current electrode positive DCEP (reverse polarity).
3.2.4.3 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW). The Shielding gas selection is critical to the GMAW weld-
gas metal arc welding process provides a considerable ing process. Most GMAW is accomplished with argon or
Ar-He mixtures. Helium additions can be effective in
increasing weld penetration and improving arc stability
11. Consumable inserts are found in AWS A5.30, Specification and wettability. The Ar+He gases usually contain about
for Consumable Inserts. 75% argon + 25% helium (AWS Classification SG-AHe-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
24
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
Table 14
Typical Parameters for GMAW Welding Process—Nickel Alloys
Wire Diameter Shielding Welding Current Arc Voltage Wire Feed Speed Joint Thickness
mm (in.) Gas (amps) (volts) m/min (in/min) mm (in.)
Short Circuit Transfer Mode
0.9 Ar+He 70–90 18–20 3.8–5.1 1.3–5

(0.035) (150–200) (0.05–0.20)
0.9 He+Ar+CO2 70–90 17–20 3.8–5.1 1.3–5

(0.035) (150–200) (0.05–0.20)
0.9 Ar+He+CO2 70–90 17–20 3.8–5.1 1.3–5

(0.035) (150–200) (0.05–0.20)
1.2 Ar+He 100–160 19–22 4.4–5.7 3.2–19
(0.045) (175–225) (0.12–0.75)
1.2 He+Ar+CO2 100–160 19–22 4.4–5.1 3.2–19

(0.045) (175–225) (0.12–0.75)
1.2 Ar+He+CO2 100–160 19–22 4.4–5.1 3.2–19

(0.045) (175–225) (0.12–0.75)
Spray Transfer Mode
1.2 Ar 190–250 26–29 7.6–8.9 6–10

(0.045) (300–350) (0.24–0.39)
1.6 Ar 230–250 26–29 4.4–5.8 10 (0.39)

(1/16) (175–230) and up
Fixed Frequency Pulse Mode
1.2 Ar+He 120–150 18–20 4.4–5.1 3.2–19

(0.045) background (175–225) (0.12–0.75)
Peak amps
250–300
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1.2 Ar+He+CO2 120–150 18–20 4.4–5.1 3.2–19

(0.045) background (175–225) (0.12–0.75)
Peak amps
250–300
Synergic Mode(1)
0.9 Ar 50–125 — — 1.6 (0.06)

(0.035) and up
0.9 Ar+He 50–125 — — 1.6 (0.06)

(0.035) and up
0.9 Ar+He+CO2 50–125 — — 1.6 (0.06)

(0.035) and up
1.2 Ar+He 100–175 — — 5 (0.20)

(0.045) and up
Note:
(1) Detailed welding parameters are difficult to report for synergic welding systems because each welding machine uses unique setup parameters to
achieve proper welding characteristics.
25
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
25). In special situations, limited additions of carbon should be removed by grinding before depositing other
dioxide can be helpful. weld beads. Removal of defects and lack of penetration
Shielding gas containing carbon dioxide (0.25–1%) can be verified by dye penetrant examination before
can improve arc stability and is often used for out of rewelding.
position welding. However, because carbon dioxide is It should be recognized that the filler wire liner as-
present, the weld metal surface will oxidize depending sembly (part of the GMAW welding torch) is a high wear
on the amount of carbon dioxide in the gas. This oxi- item and should be replaced periodically. Wear of the
dized condition can increase the possibility of lack-of- liner occurs as a result of galling between the metallic
fusion defects. It is therefore recommended that multiple liner and the nickel-based filler wire. Some welding
pass welds made with carbon dioxide bearing shielding torches can be fitted with a nylon liner which would be
gas be lightly ground between passes to remove the expected to reduce wear and thus increase liner life. A
oxidized surface layer. worn liner will cause erratic wire feed, which will result
It is suggested that the welding torch be held nearly in arc instability. It is recommended that sharp bends in
perpendicular to the work piece. If the torch angle is held the GMAW torch cable be minimized. If possible, move
too far from perpendicular, oxygen from the atmosphere the wire feeder so that the torch cable is nearly straight
may be drawn into the weld zone and contaminate the during welding.
molten metal. As noted in Table 14, either Ar+He (SG-
3.2.4.4 Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW). In
AHe), Ar+He+CO2 (SG-AHeC), or He+Ar+CO2 (SG-
general, flux cored arc welding can be used for joining
HeAC) shielding gases are useful in short circuit mode.
nickel and nickel-based alloys in material thicknesses of
The use of Ar+He (SG-AHe) in the short circuit mode is
about 6 mm (0.24 in.) and over. The welding equipment
characterized by some spatter and some degree of arc
(power supply) is similar to those used in the gas metal
instability when compared to welds made with carbon
arc welding process. Operating characteristics and proce-
dioxide bearing shielding gas. Because the Ar+He (SG-
dures are similar to the welding of stainless steels. Com-
AHe) shielding gas is inert, the surface is expected to be
mercial flux cored welding consumables are becoming
bright and shiny without heavy oxidation. In multiple
available for fabrication purposes. Flux cored arc weld-
pass welding using Ar+He (SG-AHe) shielding gas, it is
ing is a process that utilizes an arc between a continuous
not mandatory to grind between passes to remove oxide.
filler metal and the weld pool. The process is used with
This situation also applies to the other modes of weld
shielding from a flux contained within a tubular elec-
metal transfer when using Ar+He (SG-AHe) shielding
trode, with or without additional shielding from an exter-
gas.
nally supplied gas. During welding, a slag cover is
Shielding gas flow rates are usually in the 15–
produced on the face of the weld bead. At the present
20 L/min (32–42 ft3/h) range. Flow rates vary with noz-
time, there are a limited number of flux cored welding
zle size. Shielding flow rates should not lead to turbulent
filler material compositions on the market as compared
flow. The welding torch gas cup size should be as large
to the number of filler materials available for gas metal
as is practical.
arc welding. There is not an AWS filler metal specifica-
Even though 100% welding grade AWS classification tion that covers these materials.
SG-A argon is used in spray transfer welding, some oxi-
The electrodes are designed to be used in one of two
dation and “soot” may be noted on the weld surface.
ways. They may be designed to run with a shielding gas,
Heavy wire brushing using stainless steel wire brushes or
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
usually pure carbon dioxide or a mixture of argon and
light grinding (80 grit) between passes is recommended.
carbon dioxide. Alternatively, the electrode may be
Care should be taken not to grind too heavily since some
designed to run open-arc, no shielding gas required. In
arc instability and arc wander has been noted in spray
either case, a slag is produced and covers the weld bead
transfer welds when heavy interpass grinding marks are
providing protection from the atmosphere. The manufac-
present. For groove welding, a way to increase arc stabil-
turer of the electrode should be consulted for shielding
ity is to direct the arc onto the base material ahead of the
gas and amperage range recommendations.
puddle rather than on the puddle itself.
The flux cored arc welding process provides an in-
During spray transfer welding, a water cooled weld-
creased productivity when compared to the shielded
ing torch is always recommended. During synergic
metal arc and the gas tungsten arc processes. It is more
welding, a water cooled torch is recommended when
flexible and adaptive than submerged arc welding and
amperages exceed 120 amps.
provides improved operating characteristics when com-
As with gas tungsten arc welding, back purging is pared with gas metal arc welding.
required to ensure the root surface of the weld joint is not
heavily oxidized. If the root surface or other weld beads 3.2.4.5 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW). The sub-
have not been adequately protected, any oxidized areas merged arc process can be advantageous in many
26
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
applications, especially for welds in thick sections and ing fluxes the proper weld deposit chemistry can be
surfacing applications. For example, compared with maintained. This will help to optimize the strength,
automatic gas metal arc welding, submerged arc welding cracking resistance, corrosion resistance, and other prop-
provides 35–50% higher deposition rates, thicker beads, a erties which are required to match the base metals being
more stable arc, and smoother as-welded surfaces. The joined. For this reason, it is very important to use the
operator is not exposed to the arc, eliminating the need for proper filler metal and flux combination.
protection against exposed welding arcs. The wire-flux In addition to alloying elements that are added delib-
combination is critical and should not be changed without erately, slag-metal reactions can also occur. This is par-
requalification. The welding consumable manufacturers ticularly true for silicon. Several of the nickel-chromium-
should be consulted for a wire/flux recommendation. molybdenum alloys are designed to maintain very low
(1) Flux. Selection and use of the proper flux is es- silicon levels. If an improper flux is selected, silicon
sential to successful submerged arc welding. In addition levels can rise to unacceptable levels. The final deposit
to protecting the molten weld metal from atmospheric chemical analysis using active fluxes is dependent on the
contamination, the fluxes provide arc stability and may welding parameters, particularly arc voltage. Changes in
contribute alloying elements to the weld puddle. welding parameters can affect the final deposit analysis,
The flux burden should be only sufficient to prevent therefore, it is important to carefully control all welding
exposure and blow-through. Excessive amounts of flux parameters.
can cause deformed bead surfaces. Neutral fluxes, on the other hand, produce deposit
Slag is easily removed from most joints and is usually analysis that varies little with changes in welding param-
self-lifting in exposed weld beads. Root pass beads and eters. Generally these fluxes do not have alloying ele-
beads deep in a weld groove may not self-peel and under ments incorporated in the flux. They are available, but
those conditions chipping and grinding is necessary. The are generally used less often when compared to the active
slag should be discarded, but unfused flux can be recov- fluxes.
ered by clean vacuum systems and reused. Maintenance Most manufacturers who offer a flux with their filler
of optimum particle size is extremely important with metal product will perform acceptance testing on that
nickel-based SAW fluxes used for welding nickel-based combination before shipping the product. It again is im-
alloys. The proper balance of heavy and fine unfused portant to stress that flux/wire combinations are critical
flux should be maintained. Optimally, the particle size and should not be changed without welding procedure
should be no larger than 0.8 mm (20 mesh) and no requalification.
smaller than 0.07 mm (200 mesh), otherwise the slag re- Submerged arc fluxes are chemical mixtures and will
moval and alloying characteristics of the flux can be al- absorb moisture if exposed to air. The fluxes should be
tered. Continued recycling of a flux can alter the balance stored in a dry area and open containers of flux should be
of fine/coarse particles. The flux manufacturer should be resealed for protection against moisture. One technique
consulted for further information regarding proper parti- for reclaiming flux that has absorbed moisture is to bake
cle size ratios. in a vented oven at 315–480°C (600–900°F) for 2 hours.
Although there are no AWS specifications for nickel Re-bake procedures should follow the flux manufac-
alloy fluxes, there are several types of welding fluxes turer’s recommendations.
available. The two most common types are fused and (2) Filler Metal. Filler metals for submerged arc
bonded fluxes. Fused fluxes are a chemical mixture of in- welding are the same as those used for gas metal arc
gredients that have been melted, solidified, crushed and welding. Wire diameters in the range of 0.9–2.4 mm
sized to produce the final product. Generally these fluxes (0.045–0.094 in.) are used. The 1.6 mm (0.06 in.) diame-
do not have alloying elements added and are seldom used ter is generally preferred because larger diameter filler
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
with the nickel-based alloys. The bonded fluxes, however, metals allow for excessive heat input resulting in the
are a mechanical mixture of ingredients held together potential for weld solidification cracking. Small diameter
with a binder (bonded). As the flux ingredients have not wire is useful for welding thin material; 2.4 mm (0.094 in.)
been melted (fused), it is possible to add alloying ele- diameter wire is used for heavy sections. Table 15 gives
ments to the flux mixture. The bonded fluxes are often representative parameters for some filler metals. Table 16
referred to as active or neutral. lists approximate filler metal quantities required for sub-
Active fluxes contain alloying elements in the flux merged arc butt welds in plate.
and are used in conjunction with highly alloyed nickel- (3) Current and Polarity. Direct current with either
based filler metals. Vital alloying elements in the filler electrode positive (DCEP–reverse polarity) or electrode
metal can be lost when they are exposed to the arc and negative (DCEN–straight polarity) is used in submerged
the surrounding flux. By adding elements such as chro- arc welding of nickel alloys. Electrode positive (DCEP–
mium, niobium, and manganese to submerged arc weld- reverse polarity) is preferred for butt welds because it
27
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
Table 15
Typical Parameters for Submerged Arc Welding—Nickel Alloys
ERNi-1 ERNiCu-7 ERNiCr-3
with INCOFLUX 6 (1) with INCOFLUX 5 (1) with INCOFLUX 4 (1)
Base Material Nickel Alloy Ni-Cu Alloy Ni-Cr-Fe Alloy 600 (2)
Filler Metal Dia., mm (in.) 1.6 (1/16) 1.6 (1/16) 1.6 or 2.4 (1/16 or 3/32)
Electrode Extension, mm (in.) 22–25 (0.87–1.0) 22–25 (0.87–1.0) 22–25 (0.87–1.0)
Polarity, Power Source DC, Constant Voltage DC, Constant Voltage DC, Constant Voltage
Travel Speed, mm/s (in./min) 4.2–5 (10–12) 3.5–5 (8–12) 3.5–5 (8–12)
Current, amps 250–300 200–280 200–280
Joint Restraint Full Full Full
Notes:
(1) INCOFLUX is a trademark of Special Metals Corporation.
(2) The conditions also apply to Ni-Fe-Cr alloy 800.
produces flatter beads with deeper penetration at low arc Circumferential welding of pipe joints is performed
voltage (30–33 V). Electrode negative (DCEN–straight with the same procedures used for butt joints in plate. The
polarity) is preferred for overlaying because it gives a degree of difficulty increases as the pipe diameter de-
slightly higher deposition rate and less penetration. Elec- creases and welding parameters should be adjusted accord-
trode negative (DCEN–straight polarity), however, re- ingly. The major difficulty in pipe welding is prevention of
quires a deeper flux depth, with resulting increased flux the molten slag from flowing either into or away from the
consumption. The shallow penetration with electrode weld pool as the pipe is rotated. The electrode position can
negative (straight) polarity increases the possibility of be used to control weld metal dilution and bead shape.
slag entrapment, especially in butt welding. Pipe diameter and joint design influence the operable elec-
(4) Welding Procedure. Typical as-deposited com- trode positions. Figure 5 shows the optimum position to
positions for submerged arc welding with some different help reduce the possibility of lack-of-fusion defects be-
flux/filler metal combinations are given in Table 17. Slag tween a weld pass and the sidewalls of the joint. Improved
entrapment is a possibility during any welding operation control of fusion and penetration can be achieved by use of
involving flux. The problem can be controlled by the use the gas tungsten arc process for the root pass welding.
of an appropriate joint design and proper placement of Improper welding parameters can cause weld crack-
the beads. In a multi-pass layer, beads should be placed ing. These welding parameters include excessive travel
so as to provide an open or reasonably wide root area for speed, excessive voltage, and highly concave weld pro-
the next bead. files that are produced during the root passes of the weld-
Bead contour is important. Slightly convex beads are ment or single or multi-pass fillet welds. Slower travel
more resistant to centerline cracking than flat or concave speeds (less than 250 mm/min [10 in./min]) and higher
beads. Bead contour is most effectively controlled by wire feed speeds can reduce the solidification cracking
adjusting voltage and travel speed. Higher voltages and susceptibility of the weld deposit.
travel speeds result in flatter beads.
The submerged arc process, with standard procedures, 3.2.4.6 Electron Beam Welding (EBW). Most
gives good results in thick section welding. Alloy 600 nickel alloys that can be successfully joined by conven-
plates 150 mm (6 in.) thick have been successfully tional arc welding processes can also be electron-beam
welded from one side (single-U joint design) in the fully welded. This process may be suitable for joining some
restrained condition with a suitable flux and ERNiCr-3. alloys that are considered difficult to arc weld.
Whenever highly restrained joints are welded, consider- Electron beam welding is a high energy density weld-
ation should be given to postweld stress-relieving. Weld ing process that can provide narrow and very deep weld
metal chemical composition remains virtually constant penetration patterns. For most welding conditions, a
throughout such joints without an increase in the level of square butt joint preparation is used. Filler metal is not
any elements present. normally added during electron-bean welding.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
28
Table 16
Metal Required for Submerged Arc Butt Welds in Plate
Compound Angle Joint Single U Joint V Joint
A, Degrees 40 40 50 50 50 40 A, Degrees 10 10 10 15 15 15 10 10 A, Degrees 60 70 60

B, Degrees 10 10 10 15 10 10
C, mm 10 13 10 10 10 10 R, mm 5 6 8 5 6 8 5 6 B, mm 0 0 6
(in.) (0.39) (1/2) (0.39) (0.39) (0.39) (0.39) (in.) (0.20) (0.24) (0.31) (0.20) (0.24) (0.31) (0.20) (0.24) (in.) 0 0 (0.24)
D, mm 0 0 0 0 6 6 C, mm 0 0 0 0 0 6 6
(in.) 0 0 0 0 (0.24) (0.24) (in.) 0 0 0 0 0 (0.24) (0.24)
Plate
Thickness Approximate Amount of Metal Deposited, kg/m (lb/ft)
mm (in.)
25 3.26 4.08 2.90 3.02 4.27 4.63 2.17 2.63 3.02 2.38 2.83 3.23 3.54 4.00 2.43 2.92 3.79
(0.98) (2.19) (2.74) (1.95) (2.03) (2.87) (3.11) (1.46) (1.77) (2.03) (1.60) (1.90) (2.17) (2.38) (2.69) (1.63) (1.96) (2.55)
29
32 4.61 5.30 4.21 4.39 5.92 6.32 3.08 3.68 4.26 3.51 4.06 4.58 4.79 5.39
Not for Resale
(1.26) (3.10) (3.56) (2.83) (2.95) (3.98) (4.25) (2.07) (2.47) (2.86) (2.36) (2.73) (3.08) (3.22) (3.62)
38 6.10 7.20 5.64 6.07 7.69 8.16 4.11 4.84 5.48 4.81 5.48 6.16 6.16 6.89
(1.50) (4.10) (4.84) (3.79) (4.08) (5.17) (5.48) (2.76) (3.25) (3.68) (3.23) (3.68) (4.14) (4.14) (4.63)
44 7.69 9.17 7.17 7.87 9.57 10.09 5.25 6.13 7.01 6.28 7.08 7.89 7.65 8.53
(1.73) (5.17) (6.16) (4.82) (5.29) (6.43) (6.78) (3.53) (4.12) (4.71) 4.22) (4.76) (5.30) (5.14) (5.73)
51 9.42 11.33 8.82 9.85 11.56 12.16 6.50 7.53 8.57 7.95 8.87 9.82 9.24 10.27
(2.01) (6.33) (7.61) (5.93) (6.62) (7.77) (8.17) (4.37) (5.06) (5.76) (5.34) (5.96) (6.60) (6.21) (6.90)
57 11.25 13.33 10.61 12.05 13.69 14.33 7.92 9.08 10.22 9.79 10.83 11.86 11.00 12.16
(2.24) (7.56) (8.96) (7.13) (8.10) (9.20) (9.63) (5.32) (6.10) (6.87) (6.58) (7.28) (7.97) (7.39) (8.17)
64 13.24 15.55 12.50 14.41 15.92 16.67 9.42 10.71 12.05 11.82 13.01 14.21 12.84 14.14
(2.52) (8.90) (10.45) (8.40) (9.68) (10.70) (11.20) (6.33) (7.20) (8.10) (7.94) (8.74) (9.55) (8.63) (9.50)
70 15.30 17.93 14.41 16.97 18.17 19.06 11.01 10.98 13.94 14.00 15.33 16.62 14.78 16.24
(2.76) (10.28) (12.05) (9.68) (11.40) (12.21) (12.81) (7.40) (7.38) (9.37) (9.41) (1.03) (11.17) (9.93) (10.91)
76 17.32 20.43 16.64 19.64 20.75 21.62 12.80 14.39 15.92 16.37 17.86 19.20 16.91 18.50
(2.99) (11.77) (13.73) (11.18) (13.20) (13.94) (14.53) (8.60) (9.67) (10.70) (11.00) (12.00) (12.90) (11.36) (12.43)
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
83 19.79 23.04 18.93 22.55 23.38 24.24 14.66 16.37 18.16 19.02 20.54 22.03 19.11 20.82
(3.27) (13.30) (15.48) (12.72) (15.15) (15.71) (16.29) (9.85) (11.00) (12.20) (12.78) (13.80) (14.80) (12.84) (13.99)
89 22.25 25.78 20.83 25.75 25.63 27.04 16.67 18.53 20.39 21.73 23.48 25.15 21.46 23.32
(3.50) (14.95) (17.32) (14.00) (17.30) (17.22) (17.17) (11.20) (12.45) (13.70) (14.60) (15.78) (16.90) (14.42) (15.67)
95 24.85 28.65 23.81 29.02 28.95 29.99 18.77 20.76 22.77 24.51 26.49 28.28 23.90 25.89
(3.74) (16.70) (19.25) (16.00) (19.5) (19.45) (20.15) (12.61) (13.95) (15.30) (16.47) (17.80) (19.00) (16.06) (17.40)
102 27.53 31.25 26.34 32.41 31.82 33.01 20.98 23.22 25.30 27.80 29.76 31.85 26.46 28.69
(4.02) (18.50) (21.00) (17.70) (21.78) (21.38) (22.18) (14.10) (15.60) (17.00) (18.68) (20.00) (21.40) (17.78) (19.28)
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
Table 17
Typical As-Deposited Compositions for Some Nickel-Based Submerged Arc Welds
Filler Metal Base
and Flux Material Ni C Mn Fe S Si Cu Cr Ti Others
ERNiCu-7 with Alloy 400 Bal. 0.06 5.00 3.50 0.013 0.90 26.0 — 0.48
INCOFLUX 5
ERNiCr-3 with Alloy 600 Bal. 0.07 3.21 1.75 0.006 0.40 — 19.25 0.17 Nb (Cb) + Ta = 3.3
INCOFLUX 4
Figure 5—Optimum Electrode Position for

Submerged Arc Circumferential Welding on Pipe
Welding in a vacuum provides excellent protection Laser beam welding is performed in a normal air
against atmospheric contamination. Porosity may be a atmosphere, therefore shielding gas coverage is required
problem when welding some alloys because of the to prevent oxidation of the molten metal. Shielding gases
absence of residual deoxidizers. Oscillation of the beam usually consist of argon or helium.
is generally used to hold the molten pool open longer, The low welding heat input of the laser-beam welding
allowing the gases to escape. process results in high cooling rates, which in turn sup-
For more information on the EBW process, please presses precipitation of second phases and intermetallic
refer to AWS C7.1, Recommended Practices for Electron compounds during weld solidification.
Beam Welding. For EBW safety information, please refer For more information on the LBW process, please
to AWS F2.1, Recommended Safe Practices for Electron refer to AWS C7.2, Recommended Practices for Laser
Beam Welding and Cutting. Beam Welding.
3.2.4.7 Laser Beam Welding (LBW). Generally, 3.2.4.8 Brazing (B). Brazing the nickel and nickel-
the joint designs used for laser beam welding are similar based alloys provides an alternative to the standard fu-
to the joints used for electron-beam welding. As with sion welding processes. Brazing of the nickel alloys falls
EBW, laser beam welding is a high energy density weld- into two distinct categories. The first is low temperature
ing process and therefore produces a high depth to width brazing using silver-base brazing filler materials. The
ratio. Again in many instances filler metal is not added, melting temperature of these filler materials is in the
although it can be added via powder or hard wire addi- range of 590–760°C (1100–1400°F). Brazing is per-
tions. For most welding applications, a square butt joint formed in an air atmosphere using a brazing flux to en-
preparation is used. hance the flow and wettability of the brazing alloy.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
30
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
The second category is brazing performed in a con- Specification for Furnace Brazing; AWS C3.2, Standard
trolled atmosphere furnace using filler materials that Method for Evaluating Strength of Brazed joints in
have melting temperatures in the 970–1080°C (1790– Shear; AWS C3.8, Recommended Practices for Ultra-
1975°F) range. These filler materials are generally sonic Inspection of Brazed Joints; AWS A5.31, Specifi-
nickel-based alloys with alloying element additions that cation for Fluxes for Brazing and Braze Welding; and
suppress the melting temperature of the filler material to AWS A5.8, Specification for Filler Metals for Brazing
well below that of the base material. and Braze Welding.
As with all brazing operations, the filler metal is dis-
3.2.4.9 Resistance Welding (RW). Nickel alloys
tributed between closely fitted surfaces of the joint by
are readily welded to themselves and to other metallurgi-
capillary action. The accuracy of the fit up of the joint
cally compatible metals by spot, seam, projection, and
strongly influences the mechanical strength of the joint.
flash welding. The electrical resistivity of the alloys
All of the nickel alloys can be brazed, however some of
range from about 7 µΩ-cm (2.8 µΩ-in.) for commercially
the base alloys that are high in aluminum and/or titanium
pure nickel, to 138 µΩ-cm (54 µΩ-in.) for resistance-
content may require special attention, such as flash plat-
heating nickel alloys. The welding currents are lower
ing using electrolytic nickel prior to brazing. This is to
with the high-resistance alloys but the electrode force
allow the filler metal to wet and flow between the two
requirements increase because of their high strengths at
mating surfaces, as the tenacious oxide films of alumi-
elevated temperatures.
num and titanium tend to interfere with the wetting and
flow characteristics of the braze filler metal. For good electrical contact the surfaces of the parts
Cracking can be a problem when brazing with the should be clean. All oxide, oil, grease, and other foreign
lower temperature silver-base filler materials. If the part matter should be removed by acceptable cleaning meth-
to be brazed is under tensile stress, for example torque on ods such as ASTM A 380, Cleaning, Descaling, and Pas-
thin wall tubing to achieve proper alignment, the silver sivation of Stainless Steel Parts, Equipment, and
alloy will attack the grain boundaries of the nickel alloy Systems. Resistance welding of nickel and nickel alloys
base material and produce extensive intergranular crack- is also covered in AWS C1.1, Recommended Practices
ing. This phenomenon is know as liquid metal embrittle- for Resistance Welding.
ment (LME) and can be responsible for extensive (1) Resistance Spot Welding (RSW). Nickel alloys
damage to the base metal. The silicon level should be are relatively easy to spot weld in the same manner as
maintained low to minimize the chance of hot cracking other metals and use the same equipment and procedures
in the weld metal. as other steels or stainless steels. Since the thermal and
A second area of concern during brazing operations is electrical properties of the alloys vary depending upon
microstructural changes that can occur as a result of ex- their composition and condition, the spot welding vari-
posure to the intermediate temperatures typical of the ables will need to be established for each specific case.
melting temperatures of the brazing filler metals. Expo- The weld time is generally short to preclude any contam-
sure to intermediate temperatures can come from ex- ination from the atmosphere. Auxiliary shielding is not
tended holding times or slow cooling through the normally necessary during resistance spot welding.
intermediate temperature range. As discussed in 3.1.4.1, Nickel can be welded successfully with most conven-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
second phases can precipitate, during exposure at inter- tional spot welding machines. Upslope, downslope, and
mediate temperatures, that can significantly affect corro- forging force are advantageous when welding high-
sion resistance. To that end, parts should be heated only strength, high-temperature alloys. Forging force is used
long enough to have the filler metal flow and wet the to consolidate the weld nugget, preventing cracking and
base metal surface. Parts that are being furnace brazed porosity. Standard RWMA Class 1, 2, or 3 electrode
should be rapid cooled after the brazing operation by materials are acceptable. The decision for selecting elec-
back filling the furnace with argon or helium. This will trode materials and configuration should be made based
keep the cooling rates high enough that there is not suffi- on practices used for mild steel. A 75 mm (3 in.) radius is
cient time at intermediate temperature to form deleteri- a good average electrode nose radius for material up to
ous second phases. 3 mm (0.12 in.) thick. Sometimes a 125–200 mm (5–8 in.)
Additional information can be found in the following radius is preferred for heavier material (1.6–3 mm [0.06–
AWS publications: Brazing Handbook; AWS B2.2, Stan- 0.12 in.]) because it produces a larger nugget.
dard for Brazing Procedure and Performance Qualifica- (2) Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW). This pro-
tion; AWS C3.3, Recommended Practices for Design, cess is normally used to join sheet thicknesses ranging
Manufacture, and Inspection of Critical Brazed Compo- from 0.05–3 mm (0.002–0.12 in.) While most alloys can
nents; AWS C3.4, Specification for Torch Brazing; AWS be welded successfully using standard procedures, it is
C3.5, Specification for Induction Brazing; AWS C3.6, generally necessary to use an intermittent drive when
31
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
welding high-strength alloys so forging force can be A third use of plasma arc welding is to join very thin
applied. sheet (foil) material. The advantage of PAW over GTAW
(3) Projection Welding (PW). While the electrode is improved arc stability at very low amperages (0.1–
forces are higher and welding times are longer than for 50 amps) and the use of a pilot arc to improve arc starting.
steel parts, nickel alloys can be projection welded as eas- A variation of this process is often referred to as
ily as steel. The projections for nickel-based alloys are plasma transferred arc welding (PTAW). The main dif-
made in the same manner, and for the most part, with the ference between this process and standard PAW is a
same dimensions, as equivalent thicknesses in steel. Pro- modification to the welding torch that allows the use of
jection diameter should be 2.5–3 times the sheet thick- atomized powder filler material rather than solid wire.
ness, and the height from 50–80% of the sheet thickness. This process is often used for surfacing of alloys for wear
Nickel alloys are rarely projection welded because pro- applications where the filler material can not be formed
duction requirements are normally low and tooling to into a standard wire product. Its use with the nickel
form the projections is not justified. alloys is limited. Shielding gases used with process may
(4) Flash Welding (FW). Flash welding is well be an inert gas or a mixture of inert and active gases.
adapted to welding high-strength and heat-treatable al- Additional information concerning this process can be
loys. In the upsetting operation the molten metal is found in AWS C5.1, Recommended Practices for Plasma Arc
extruded from the weld zone. With the elimination of a Welding, and AWS WHB, Welding Handbook, Eighth
cast microstructure the weld will be strong and will not Edition, Volume 2.
be preferentially attacked by corrosion.
3.2.4.11 Electroslag Welding (ESW). A welding
While the upset force necessary to make flash welds
process that produces coalescence of metals with molten
in nickel alloys is higher than required for steel, the
slag that melts the filler metal and the surfaces of the
machine capacity requirements do not differ greatly.
workpieces. The weld pool is shielded by this slag which
Because of the higher material resistance, the initial jaw
moves along the full cross section of the joint as welding
spacing should be less than that used for ferrous materi-
progresses. The process is initiated by an arc that heats
als. Subsequently, close control of the welding variables
the slag. The arc is then extinguished by the conductive
is especially important.
slag, which is kept molten by its resistance to electric
3.2.4.10 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW). The nickel current passing between the electrode and the work-
and nickel-based alloys can be readily joined using the pieces. The electroslag surfacing (ESS) welding process
plasma arc welding process. The plasma torch can be is similar except that the filler metal is deposited on the
designed such that the arc runs in a transferred or non- surface of a material. Usually the filler metal is in the
transferred mode. The return current path during trans- form of strip which allows considerably greater deposi-
ferred arc welding is through the work piece, as it is with tion rates compared to wire. The nickel alloys are rou-
other welding processes. The return current path during tinely electroslag welded. Additional information can be
nontransferred arc welding is back though the welding found in the AWS C5.7, Recommended Practices for
torch. The most common application for a nontransferred Electroslag and Electrogas Welding, and AWS WHB,
arc is plasma spraying (PSP). Other than PSP, all welding Welding Handbook, Eighth Edition, Volume 2.
applications for the nickel alloys involve a transferred arc
3.2.5 Postweld Operations
process.
Two of the most common applications for this process 3.2.5.1 Postweld Heat Treatment. As stated ear-
are longitudinal seam welding and weld surfacing. Weld- lier, under the majority of conditions, postweld heat
ing can be performed with or without the addition of treatments are not required for the solid solution
welding filler material. Often welded pipe (and tube) is strengthened nickel and nickel alloys. High residual
manufactured without the addition of filler material stresses may be generated during the fabrication of a ves-
using continuous lengths of flat feed stock that are sel or structure and under some conditions postweld heat
formed on a pipe or tube mill. A square butt joint prepa- treatment may be recommended. This a design issue that
ration is used and a full penetration weld is made in one would be agreed upon between the designer of the com-
pass using the keyhole welding mode. ponent and the fabricator.
The second common use of PAW is weld surfacing to The rate of heating and cooling during postweld heat
provide a corrosion resistant layer onto a carbon or low treating should be controlled in order to achieve optimum
alloy steel. In this case welding filler material is added by results. Heating rates are generally not critical. One excep-
either using the cold wire or the hot wire feed method. tion is B-2 alloy (UNS N10665) where slow heat up rates
Careful control of travel speed and weaving techniques can lead to cracking during solution annealing. It is recom-
are required to produce a weld deposit that has accept- mended that B-2 alloy be charged into a furnace that is at the
ably low dilution levels. annealing temperature in order to maximize the heat up rate.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
32
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
Generally cooling rates are specified as rapid as possi- Excessive weld bead reinforcement should be ground
ble after postweld heat treatment. Water quenching is away to provide a smooth transition and thus minimize
often used for heavy cross sections, while rapid air cool- stress concentrations. If undercut is present, it should be
ing is sufficient for thin cross sections. The cross-over repaired or ground flush with the base material to elimi-
point where water quenching is recommended is usually nate notch effects. Care should be taken, however, to
placed at about 10 mm (0.40 in.) thickness. assure that the minimum wall or thickness requirements
When there are large differences in cross-sectional are not exceeded by excessive grinding.
areas in a welded structure, the heating and cooling rates Slag particles create crevices and should be removed.
may have to be controlled in order to minimize distortion Small slag particles resist cleaning and are difficult to re-
that might occur with rapid heating or cooling. Such move from areas where there is a slight undercut or other
structures can experience distortion sufficient to cause irregularity. Even in mildly corrosive media, slag, scale,
fit-up or assembly problems if rapid cooling rates cause and iron particles can set up active corrosion cells. Slag
excessive stresses. is particularly damaging in high-temperature service,
Prior to postweld heat treatment, all surfaces should 540°C (1000°F) and higher. In oxidizing environments,
be thoroughly cleaned of lubricants, paints, anti-seize the slag reacts with the environment to promote fluoride
compounds, and dirt because they may contain contami- attack on stainless steels and nickel alloys. In reducing
nants such as sulfur and lead. These contaminants, even environments slag absorbs sulfur, even if it is present at
in trace amounts, are known to cause embrittlement and low concentrations, resulting in sulfur attack of the un-
cracking during welding and postweld heat treatment. derlying surface. Much of this is covered by fabrication
Cleaning solvents should be chosen which are free of codes or agreements between the fabricator and the pur-
contaminants (such as sulfur, chlorine, and fluorine) and chaser.
may leave some residual films. Specific heat treatment All weld spatter and arc strikes should be removed.
and postweld heat treatment parameters should be ob- Weld spatter creates a tiny weld where the molten slug of
tained from the manufacturer or producer of the material. metal touches and adheres to the surface. Arc strikes
disturb the surface of the material and can cause small
3.2.5.2 Postweld Cleaning and Bead Profile crevices. In both cases, crevice corrosion can result
Blending. When welding is completed there are several unless these discontinuities are removed and the affected
procedures that should be followed to assure its expected area blended smoothly with the base metal.
service life. Surface or interpass peening and plannishing for dis-
Cleaning and finishing specifications should be a part tortion control or stress relief may cause loss of ductility,
of every fabricating procedure. Where possible, the weld cracking, or weld defects. Peening and plannishing
deposit should be inspected visually immediately after should be performed with directions from an engineer
welding. Visual inspection may disclose surface defects since excessive peening can cause cracking. Peening is
or other substandard conditions that can be repaired im- the permanent deformation of metal by impact (hammer-
mediately (see AWS B1.11, Guide for the Visual Exami- ing) with the intent of relieving stresses. Plannishing is
nation of Welds). Maximum corrosion resistance the permanent deformation of metal by rolling or press-
demands a smooth, nonoxidized surface, free from irreg- ing with the intent of moving the metal. Needle scaling
ularities and foreign particles. for surface cleaning is not considered to be peening.
Particles of free iron or steel on surfaces of nickel 3.2.6 Repair Welding Procedures. There are times
alloy weldments or parent metal can become the source that a defect will need to be repaired. This may be be-
or initiation point of pitting attack. Such iron particles cause of an equipment malfunction, an operator’s error, a
corrode in moist air or when wetted, leaving telltale rust localized defect in the filler wire or base metal, or other
streaks. There are effective methods of detecting and uncontrollable factors. The requirements for successful
eliminating surface iron deposits on chromium contain- weld repairs are more stringent than for the original
ing nickel alloys (see ASTM A 380, Cleaning, Descal- welding generally because of the localized nature of re-
ing, and Passivation of Stainless Steel Parts, Equipment, pair areas. This means that restraint will be higher,
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and Systems). Iron that is actually embedded in the metal groove preparation may be difficult, weld start and stop
can be removed by using pickling solutions or pastes. areas will be more difficult to blend smoothly (and will
Wire brushes used during the welding and postheat constitute a greater portion of the weld), and distortion
cleaning operation should be made of stainless steel and will be more difficult to control. Some controls should be
be reserved for use on nickel alloys only. Grinding established to ensure that recurring defects are examined
wheels that have been used on carbon steel alloys should and reviewed by a responsible person so that proper at-
not be used on nickel alloys. Grinding disks should not tention may be placed on efforts to solve the problem and
contain iron sulfide compounds. minimize needless repairs. A single adjustment of some
33
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
initial parameter (groove geometry, cleaning, gas flow, (7) Cleaning techniques for preparation and interpass
and electrode position) will often eliminate the cause of cleaning should be equally as stringent as used on the
these defects. original weld.
Some generalizations may be made which are appli- (8) If, in spite of preventative efforts, distortion in the
cable to repair welding of all the nickel-based alloys: repair areas is objectionable, then weld peening may be
(1) Never attempt to “burnout” or “meltout” a defect. used to provide further control. Pneumatic-hammer
It is sometimes tempting to fuse, by rewelding or remelt- peening may be applied after each pass and at the com-
ing, an area containing a minor defect, such as lack of fu- pletion of repair as needed. Peening should not be ap-
sion and crack, with the hope that the defective area will plied to the base metal (or in certain cases to the last or
be “healed” or floated to the surface of the weld. This is cover pass of the weld) if there is no annealing treatment
nearly impossible because the refractory oxide which scheduled after the repair operation. This is to prevent
covers the surface of defects, as well as the exposed sur- having a work-hardened surface, with resultant low duc-
faces of the metal, will not melt during the repair. It may tility in applications where high service strains are ex-
be displaced, broken into smaller particles, or simply pected. Also, peening should not be overly aggressive—
agglomerated and enlarged by the repair attempt (see the purpose is to relieve stresses, not remove or alter the
Table 5 for oxide melting point information). bead surface.
(2) Cracks that extend completely through the metal The solid solution strengthened nickel alloys do not
should be removed so that none of the oxidized crack undergo drastic metallurgical changes during thermal
face remains prior to repair welding. This means that it cycling or during thermal exposure if the service temper-
will be necessary to have a root opening in this type of atures are less than 590°C (1100°F), as do some of the
repair to avoid the problems described in (1) above. ferrous alloys. This is a benefit during repair welding.
(3) The amount of material removed for the repair Solid solution nickel-based alloys can suffer loss of
should be minimized to avoid unnecessary rewelding. ductility after prolonged service exposure above about
However, if deep grinding is done, additional material 590°C (1100°F). This can vary widely from alloy to alloy
may have to be removed to allow sufficient access for the and is very time and temperature dependent. This re-
welder to properly manipulate the electrode or torch. duced ductility can lead to cracking problems during re-
(4) If the defect being removed would not require repair operations. In many cases, a solution heat treatment
moval of the heat-affected zone of the original weld, fis- is necessary to restore ductility prior to welding repair.
sures or strain-age cracks are more likely to occur as a In addition to loss of ductility from high temperature
result of the repair. If the repair groove preparation can exposure, the surface condition, and perhaps the bulk
be adjusted to include removal of the heat-affected zone base metal, may be modified as a result of the service
without causing excessive rewelding, then this should be environment. Changes can occur as a result of carburiza-
done. A great deal of judgment should be used in this tion, sulfidation, and, certainly, oxidation, and each of
case since the effects of additional weld deposits may be these conditions will affect the repairability of the com-
as severe as a wide, multiple-exposure, heat-affected ponent. It is mandatory that these surface conditions be
zone. removed down to bright shiny metal before attempting to
(5) After defect removal and prior to repair welding, make any welding repairs.
the repair weld area should be reinspected to ensure that Conditioning the area to bright shiny metal also
the defect has truly been removed. Inspection should be applies to ambient and low temperature service envi-
the same as used to originally locate the defect with pre- ronments, including aqueous corrosion environments.
cautions taken to ensure removal of smeared metal that Corrosion product should be completely removed prior
might mask surface defects. This reinspection may save to attempting any repair welding. Cracking that may
many unnecessary and costly repairs that are due to in- have occurred as a result of environmental damage needs
complete defect removal or equally important, erroneous to be completely ground out and dye penetrant inspected
interpretation of nondestructive test indications. before any repair welding is started.
(6) Welding repair techniques will normally be man- If a localized area fails, there usually is a good chance
ual; but in any event, the repair should be kept as small as the component can be salvaged. There are occasions, for
possible and heat input minimized. If the repair is quite example, where a carburized area is the location of a fail-
large, then welding should be sequenced to minimize dis- ure. As long as the carburization was not the primary rea-
tortion. If tooling, jigs, or fixtures were used for the orig- son for the failure, the localized area may be ground free
inal weld, then where possible the same devices should of the carburized layer and a successful weld repair
be used for the repair effort. Efforts should be designed made. In this case, if the carburization caused the failure,
to reduce the residual stresses and distortion to a tolera- localized repair welding would probably result in only a
ble level. short extension of component life since another failure in
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- 34
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
another area of the carburized surface is likely to occur. 4. The Precipitation-Hardenable

This example illustrates how inspection of the compo-
nent is an important aspect in the decision-making pro-
Nickel-Based Alloys
cess regarding whether or not to do a weld repair. Once Precipitation-hardening occurs when an alloy is ex-
the decision has been made that repair welding is feasi- posed to a certain temperature range long enough to
ble, an area of the component should be ground clean cause very small phases, or particles, to come out of
and a test weld made to determine if the material can be solution and harden the metal. There should be enough
successfully welded. If this test is successful, the compo- of certain elements present in the alloy (such as Al or Ti)
nent should be thoroughly prepared by grinding the sur- to form these phases or particles. The precipitation-
face, if necessary, and cleaned prior to doing the actual hardened nickel-based alloys are also strengthened by
repair welding. If groove welding is necessary, the usual solid solution strengthening. Precipitation-hardening is also
precautions concerning joint design should be followed called aging, and both terms are used in this document.
to provide room for electrode and torch manipulation.
4.1 General Alloy Background Data. There are numer-
3.2.7 Inspection, Nondestructive Testing, and ous nickel alloys that, in addition to being strengthened
Quality Control. Visual inspection should be performed by solid solution strengthening, are also strengthened
on all welds. The inspection should be progressive, by the controlled precipitation of a second phase during
meaning that the inspector should: a heat treatment. The classes of alloys are similar
(1) Verify the use of correct base and filler material. to those listed in the solid solution section of this
(2) Verify that the welder is qualified to perform the document: nickel, nickel-copper, nickel-chromium-iron,
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
welding. nickel-iron-chromium, and nickel-iron-cobalt. (There are

(3) Verify the correct joint design and fit-up. no precipitation-hardenable nickel-molybdenum alloys.)
In this section only wrought precipitation-hardenable
(4) Verify cleanliness.
materials that are typically available in rounds, plate,
(5) Witness some or all of the welding process for sheet, pipe and tubing will be discussed.
correct:
(a) Welding current and polarity 4.1.1 Descriptions of the Alloys and Typical Appli-
(b) Preheat and interpass temperatures. cations. All of the precipitation-hardenable nickel alloys
(c) Arc length and electrode manipulation. (see Table 2) can be used at cryogenic temperatures since
(d) Use of gases or fluxes. they are metallurgically stable at low temperatures; they
(6) Visually inspect 100% of the welds for freedom do not go through the change in fracture mode (duc-
from weld discontinuities to the degree specified in the tile/brittle) that occurs in many ferrous alloys. Table 2
applicable code or specification. These discontinuities gives the chemical compositions of numerous precipita-
are: cracks, cold lap, porosity, slag inclusions, incom- tion-hardenable nickel-based alloys.
plete fusion, incomplete penetration, undercut, undersize The only precipitation-hardenable commercially pure
or oversized welds, excessive convexity or concavity, ex- nickel alloy of any commercial significance is alloy 301.
cessive weld spatter, poor slag removal, and excessive It has excellent corrosion resistance and has high
weld profile roughness. strength and hardness. Typical applications are extrusion
(7) Document (record) the results of the inspection. press parts, molds used in the glass industry, clips, dia-
phragms, and springs. It has properties which make it
Note: AWS B1.11, Guide for the Visual Examination of useful in spring applications up to 315°C (600°F), but is
Welds, and AWS WI, Welding Inspection, should be used seldom welded.
for further reference. Alloy K-500 is a precipitation-hardenable nickel-
copper alloy with good mechanical properties over a
Inspections may be conducted by anyone; however, wide temperature range. Strength is maintained up to
when welding is being performed to code or specifica- about 650°C (1200°F) and the alloy is strong, tough, and
tions, the inspector should be trained and certified in ac- ductile at temperatures as low as –250°C (–420°F). It is
cordance with the applicable code as agreed upon by the nonmagnetic to –135°C (–210°F). It has excellent corro-
purchaser and fabricator. AWS QC1, Standard for Certi- sion resistance to a wide variety of environments. Typical
fication of Welding Inspectors, is available from AWS. applications are pump shafts and impellers, pulp and
When welding with codes and/or specifications the paper mill doctor blades and scrapers, oil well drill
welding procedures and welders should be qualified and collars and instruments, electronic components, springs,
certified in accordance with the requirements of the and valve trim. There is no SMAW electrode, but nickel-
codes or specifications requirements copper filler metals are preferred when lower weld
35
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
strengths are acceptable. There is a matching filler wire precipitate out during exposure to the intermediate
available for GTAW and GMAW welding temperature. The two terms, age-hardening and precipi-
The precipitation-hardenable nickel-chromium-iron tation-hardening, can be used interchangeably.
alloys offer good corrosion resistance to a wide variety of There are two systems of hardening for the precipita-
environments. They are most heavily used in the aero- tion-hardenable nickel alloys. The first is the nickel-
space industry because of their high strength-to-weight aluminum-titanium system, which is used by most of the
ratio and their resistance to oxidation. Their maximum alloys. The second is the nickel-niobium-aluminum-
useful temperature, however, is limited to the intermedi- titanium system, which is becoming more prominent.
ate temperature range 700–815°C (1300–1500°F), since The alloys in both families have a high degree of
they lose strength rapidly when exposed to temperatures weldability. The significant difference between these
that exceed their aging temperatures. Typical applica- two systems is the rate at which precipitation occurs.
tions are jet engine components, pump bodies and parts, The nickel-aluminum-titanium hardened alloys respond
rocket motors and thrust reversers, space craft, nuclear quickly to precipitation-hardening temperatures, whereas
power plant components, bolts, extrusion dies, and form- the nickel-niobium-aluminum-titanium system responds
ing tools. rather slowly and therefore can be welded and directly
The precipitation-hardenable nickel-iron-chromium aged with less possibility of cracking.
alloys are similar to the nickel-chromium-iron alloys ex- 4.1.3 Heat Treatment. All of the aluminum-titanium-
cept they have lower nickel contents. They generally hardened alloys can be welded in the aged condition. Be-
have good corrosion resistance to a variety of environ- cause of the problem of base-metal cracking, however,
ments and have good strength properties. Alloy 901 is the weld and heat-affected zone should not be subse-
used in aerospace applications. Alloy 902 has a unique quently exposed to age-hardening temperatures. How-
ability to produce certain changes in length and strength ever, the un-aged weld and HAZ strength properties will
which makes it especially suitable for many types of not match the age-hardened base material properties,
precision equipment where elastic members are subject which can lead to design problems. If service tempera-
to temperature fluctuations. Applications include tuning tures are to be in the age-hardening range, the weldment
forks and other mechanical resonators, electromechani- should be annealed and re-aged before being put in ser-
cal filters, clock hair-springs, and bourdon tubes. Alloy
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
vice. If this is not done, the weldment will probably

902 is not usually welded. The molybdenum-containing strain-age crack due to the high stresses caused by the
alloys (such as alloys 925, 718, 725) have outstanding welding and the aging.
resistance to general corrosion, pitting, crevice corrosion, Cracking of the type termed “strain-age cracking” can
and stress-corrosion cracking in many environments. result when high residual welding stresses are present
They are used for surface and down-hole hardware in during the aging operation or as a result of cold working,
sour gas wells and for oil-production equipment. particularly in the alloys hardened only by aluminum/
The nickel-iron-cobalt group of precipitation- titanium. This cracking occurs in the parent-metal heat-
hardenable alloys are a specialized group of alloys that affected zone, which is the location of the highest stress
combine high strength with a low and constant coeffi- level. Since little, if any, stress relief occurs at aging tem-
cient of thermal expansion at temperatures up to about peratures, high residual weld stresses may represent a
425°C (800°F). They also are highly resistant to thermal loading in excess of the rupture strength of the base
fatigue and thermal shock. Typical applications are gas metal at aging temperatures. The residual stresses, when
turbine rings, casings, seals, shafts, shrouds, and vanes. added to the precipitation-hardening stresses, are often
4.1.2 Metallurgy enough to cause cracking. Additional comments on
strain age cracking are found in 4.1.6.1.
4.1.2.1 Hardening Systems. Precipitation- With alloys hardened by the aluminum-titanium sys-
hardenable alloys, unlike solid solution alloys, have a tem, direct aging should be avoided to reduce the proba-
secondary phase that is intentionally precipitated during bility of cracking (direct aging is the aging without a
an intermediate temperature heat treatment. In the pre- prior anneal). After they are welded, they should be
cipitation-hardenable alloys, the strength of the alloy is stress relief annealed before precipitation-hardening.
increased by a factor of two or three by exposing the (Stress relieving these alloys is usually done at tempera-
metal to the intermediate temperature range of approxi- tures over 870°C (1600°F)). It is important that the stress
mately 540–815°C (1000–1500°F) for a predetermined relief anneal be carried out with a fast, uniform rate of
amount of time. This treatment is called either precipita- heating to avoid prolonged exposure to temperatures in
tion-hardening, because particles that harden the alloy the precipitation-hardening range (540–815°C [1000–
precipitate out during the thermal treatment, or age- 1500°F]). The best method to attain this high heating rate
hardening, because it takes time for these particles to is to charge the weldment directly into a furnace pre-
36
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
heated to the appropriate temperature. If the part mass is as a similar solid solution strengthened alloy. The parti-
large in relation to furnace area, it may be necessary to cles that precipitate out during the precipitation-harden-
preheat the furnace to 95–260°C (200–500°F) above the ing treatment go back into solution, thus causing a
normal temperature and then reset the furnace controls decrease in strength and hardness. The process is revers-
when the parts reach the proper temperature. In a similar ible, that is, the material can be annealed and re-precipi-
fashion, relieve the stresses created by repair or alteration tation-hardened back to its former high strength, but this
welding by rapid heating to the proper annealing temper- usually requires that the part be removed from service
ature prior to re-aging. and reheat treated.
Sometimes a satisfactory postweld stress relief (an-
4.1.5 Weldability. The precipitation-hardenable
neal) is not possible, particularly with complicated struc-
nickel alloys are usually welded by the gas tungsten arc
tures. Preweld heat treatments may be helpful in such
process, but other methods are applicable. The gas
cases. Two procedures that have been used successfully
shielded processes are more successful since, by the very
for alloy X-750 are:
nature of the process, the arc is protected by an inert gas.
(1) Heat at 850°C (1550°F) for 16 h, air-cool, and
The shielded metal arc process is seldom used because it
weld; or
is difficult to transfer sufficient amounts of the highly
(2) Heat at 1060°C (1950°F) for 1 h, furnace-cool at a
oxidizable elements aluminum and titanium across the
rate of 15–55°C/h to 650°C (25–100°F/h to 1200°F), air-
arc. The coating provides an atmosphere which oxidizes
cool, and weld.
the aluminum and titanium.
These treatments do not produce the optimum me-
Essentially all of the precipitation-hardenable nickel
chanical properties, but they usually solve a weld crack-
alloys are either welded autogenously (without added
ing problem.
filler metal) or with bare wire that is the same composi-
The alloys hardened by the niobium-aluminum-
tion as the base materials. Therefore, a separate table of
titanium system have good resistance to postweld crack-
filler metal compositions is not a a part of this document.
ing. Tests have shown that alloy 718 annealed sheet can
For additional information, contact the alloy manufactur-
be welded and directly aged without cracking. However,
ers for filler metal recommendations.
repair welding or welding of sheet in the aged condition
Heat input during welding should be held to a moder-
and re-aging after welding (highly restrained condition)
ately low level to obtain the highest strength level. For
can result in base-metal cracking. Highly restrained or
multiple-bead or multiple-layer welds, several small
complicated structures should be annealed after welding
beads should be used instead of a few large, heavy beads.
and prior to age hardening to avoid base-metal cracking.
In gas-shielded welding of multiple-pass joints, some
The rapid-heating procedure described for aluminum-
interbead or interlayer cleaning should be done to re-
titanium-hardened alloys should be used.
move oxide films as they accumulate. The oxide films
Generally, alloys hardened by the niobium-aluminum-
should be removed when they become heavy enough to
titanium system are welded in the annealed or solution-
be visually apparent on the weld surface. The oxide films
treated condition. If complex units are annealed in
should be removed by abrasive blasting or grinding.
conjunction with welding or forming operations, the
Power wire brushing will only polish the oxide surface.
annealing temperature should be consistent with the
If oxide films are not removed, they can inhibit proper
specification and end-use requirements.
fusion and result in laminar oxide stringers. Oxide inclu-
4.1.4 Influence of Welding on Service Performance sions of this type act as mechanical stress risers and can
significantly reduce joint efficiency and service life.
4.1.4.1 Corrosion Resistance. Precipitation-hard-
Rigid or complex structures should be assembled and
ened nickel alloys react in a similar fashion as solid
welded with care to avoid excessively high stress levels.
solution alloys in regard to how welding affects corro-
Units or subassemblies should be given sufficient anneal-
sion resistance. See the section on corrosion resistance in
ing treatments to ensure a low level of residual stress
the solid solution portion of this document for more
when they are precipitation-hardened. Any part that has
information.
been subjected to severe bending, drawing, or other
4.1.4.2 Elevated and Low-Temperature Perfor- forming operations should be annealed before it is
mance. See 3.1.4.2 and 3.1.4.3 for a more detailed welded. Heating should be done in controlled-
description of how welding affects elevated and low- atmosphere furnaces to limit oxidation and minimize
temperature performance. subsequent cleaning operations. If a thermal treatment
One of the drawbacks of using a precipitation- has been performed on material containing partially
hardenable alloy is that if it is exposed to temperatures filled weld grooves, the oxide should be removed from
above those used to harden the material, it rapidly loses the welding area by grinding or abrasive blasting before
strength to the extent that it has about the same strength welding is resumed.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
37
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
4.1.6 Weld-Associated Cracking Problems steel. As shown in Figure 2, the difference in penetration
patterns shows up as a reduced square butt joint thickness
4.1.6.1 Strain-Age Cracking. Strain-age cracking
and a reduced land thickness requirement. The sluggish-
in the precipitation-hardenable, nickel-based alloys is the
ness of the nickel alloy weld puddle is accommodated by
intergranular fracturing that occurs when components
larger weld preparation angles. Detailed weld joint prep-
containing residual stresses are heated through the range
arations are shown in Figure 3 for a wide variety of struc-
of temperatures in which precipitation reactions proceed.
tural design situations.
It is most often, but not always, weld associated and is
Joint preparation angles and desired shapes can be
most commonly encountered in alloys hardened by
prepared using plasma arc cutting, shearing, water jet
nickel-aluminum-titanium. The essential ingredient is re-
cutting and laser beam cutting. In addition, edge prepara-
sidual stress, whatever its origin. Fracture occurs when
tion can also be prepared using standard machining and
the sum of the residual stresses, plus any further stresses
grinding techniques. Oxyfuel gas cutting does not work
caused by thermal gradients, or restrained dimensional
on the nickel-based alloys.
changes associated with aging or other causes exceed the
As part of weld joint preparation, all surfaces should
fracture strength. If a weld is present, the strength will
be thoroughly cleaned of lubricants, machining fluids,
vary throughout the heat-affected zone because partial
paints, anti-seize compounds, dye penetrant liquids, dirt,
aging has occurred in this region. The fracture may be
and grease as they may contain contaminants, such as
perpendicular or parallel to the fusion line. It may extend
sulfur and lead, that could affect the crack resistance of
hundreds of inches or be just a few grains in length. It
the alloy. These contaminants, even in trace amounts, are
may appear to have multiple origins and spread in several
known to cause embrittlement and cracking during weld-
directions at once, or appear to have formed from a series
ing. Cleaning solvents should be carefully chosen so they
of adjacent voids which grew together. This latter charac-
do not contain contaminants (such as sulfur, chlorine,
teristic is common to stress-rupture failures, and strain-
and fluorine) and that they leave no residual films.
age cracking is very similar to stress-rupture fracture.
Some precipitation-hardenable nickel alloys are very 4.2.2 Welding Processes
difficult to weld without strain-age cracking. These al-
4.2.2.1 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW).
loys usually contain high levels of aluminum/titanium.
SMAW is rarely used to weld these alloys because of the
The alloys lower in aluminum/titanium and the alloys
difficulty in transferring reactive elements aluminum and
strengthened by the niobium-aluminum-titanium system
titanium across the arc in a flux environment.
have more success in producing crack-free welds. It is a
general rule that it is not wise to directly age harden 4.2.2.2 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) (see
weldments of the precipitation-hardenable nickel alloys 3.2.4.2). The precipitation-hardenable nickel alloys are
hardened by aluminum/titanium. They should be an- routinely welded with the GTAW process. In addition to
nealed after welding, with the following sequence: weld, the comments in 3.2.4.2, particular attention should be
anneal, age-harden. given to providing adequate gas coverage during weld-
ing. The precipitation-hardenable nickel alloys have rela-
4.1.6.2 Microfissuring. In contrast to strain-age tively high levels of highly oxidizable elements, such as
cracks that can be rather extensive in nature, an individ- Al and Ti, that can cause surface oxides to form more
ual microfissure is usually only one or two grains long, readily than is the case with solid solution nickel alloys.
although many of them may occur near each other along Therefore, more care is required to assure adequate weld
the full length of a weld bead. Often when small and not puddle gas protection during welding. In those cases
too close together they do not influence mechanical where surface oxides do form during welding, they
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
properties. These cracks usually occur in partially liquid should be removed by light grinding.
grain boundaries in the heat-affected zone during weld-
ing. Microfissuring susceptibility increases with increas- 4.2.2.3 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW). The
ing grain size and increased heat input from welding. GMAW process is applicable for welding some precipi-
tation hardened alloys. Strengthening mechanism, fabri-
4.2 Welding Requirements and Recommendations
cation geometry, intended service, and prior thermal
4.2.1 Welding Joint Design and Preparation, Mate- treatments will dictate weldability.
rial Storage, and Handling. With regard to weld joint Precipitation hardened materials are typically welded
design and preparation, the precipitation-hardenable in the solution annealed condition. However, intended
nickel-based alloys are similar to the solid solution service, geometry shape, and strengthening mechanism
nickel-based alloys, as discussed in 3.2.3, Welding Joint may allow welding to be performed in the aged condi-
Design and Preparation. As discussed in 3.1.5, Weldabil- tion. Welding precautions and parameters are similar to
ity, the nickel alloys have slightly different weld joint de- the solid solution grades with additional attention given
sign requirements when compared to stainless or carbon to heat input, bead geometry, and interbead cleaning.
38
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
Low heat input parameters should be developed when eliminating surface iron deposits (see ASTM A 380,
welding hardened alloys. Pulsing power supplies are Cleaning, Descaling, and Passivation of Stainless Steel
very effective for producing high quality welds with re- Parts, Equipment, and Systems). Iron that is actually
duced heat input. Solidification cracking (centerline) will embedded in the metal can be removed by pickling in
be reduced with slightly convex weld bead geometries. paste or liquid forms. Wire brushes should be made of
Many of the precipitation hardened alloys are strength- stainless steel and be reserved for use on nickel alloys
ened by additions of Al, Ti, and Nb. These elements have only. Iron contaminated grinding wheels should NOT
a strong tendency to form oxides and light grinding may be used. Grinding disks should not contain iron sulfide
be required between layers. compounds.
Excessive weld bead reinforcement should be ground
4.2.2.4 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) The
away to minimize stress concentrations. If undercut is
SAW process is rarely used to weld these alloys because
present, it should be repaired or ground flush with the
of the difficulty in transferring reactive elements, alumi-
base material to eliminate notch effects. Care should be
num and titanium, across the arc in a flux environment.
taken, however, to assure that the minimum wall or
4.2.2.5 Brazing. These alloys are routinely brazed thickness requirements are not exceeded by excessive
but is out of the scope of this document to discuss braz- grinding.
ing details and procedures. Information on brazing the Slag particles create crevices and should be removed.
nickel-based alloys is listed at the end of 3.2.4.8 of this Small slag particles resist cleaning and are difficult to re-
standard. This section on brazing in the solid solution move from areas where there is a slight undercut or other
portion of this document also applies to the precipitation- irregularity. Even in mildly corrosive media, slag, scale,
hardenable nickel-based alloys. In addition to these com- and iron particles can set up active corrosion cells. Slag
ments, the following additional information applies to is particularly damaging in high-temperature service,
the precipitation-hardenable nickel alloys. 540°C (1000°F) and higher. In oxidizing environments,
It is advisable to braze the nickel-based precipitation- the slag reacts with the environment to promote fluoride
hardenable in the annealed condition. This is particularly attack on stainless steels and nickel alloys. In reducing
important when silver brazing, since the flow tempera- environments slag absorbs sulfur, even if it is present
ture of the silver braze alloys are in the precipitation- at low concentrations, resulting in sulfur attack of the
hardening range of the nickel alloys. If these alloys are underlying surface.
silver brazed in the precipitation-hardened condition All weld spatter and arc strikes should be removed.
cracking may result due to the high stresses created in the Weld spatter creates a tiny weld where the molten slug of
material. This is not an issue when copper or nickel braz- metal touches and adheres to the surface. Arc strikes dis-
ing because the flow temperatures of these braze alloys turb the surface of the material and can cause small crev-
are higher than the precipitation-hardening temperature ices. In both cases, crevice corrosion can result unless
range. these discontinuities are removed and the affected area
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Additional information can be found in the Brazing blended smoothly with the base metal.
Handbook, published by the American Welding Society. Surface or interpass peening and plannishing for dis-
tortion control or stress relief may cause loss of ductility,
4.2.3 Postweld Finishing. When welding is com- cracking, or weld defects. Peening and plannishing
pleted there are several procedures that should be fol- should be performed with directions from an engineer.
lowed to assure its expected service life. Peening is the permanent deformation of metal by impact
Cleaning and finishing specifications should be a part (hammering) with the intent of moving the metal or re-
of every fabricating procedure. Where possible, the weld lieving stresses. Plannishing is the permanent deforma-
deposit should be inspected visually immediately after tion of metal by rolling or pressing with the intent of
welding. Visual inspection may disclose surface defects moving the metal. Needle scaling for surface cleaning is
or other substandard conditions that can be repaired im- not considered to be peening.
mediately (see AWS B1.11, Guide for the Visual Exami-
nation of Welds). Maximum corrosion resistance 4.2.4 Repair Welding Procedures. The repair proce-
demands a smooth, nonoxidized surface, free from irreg- dures outlined in 3.2.6 are true regardless of the alloy or
ularities and foreign particles. its heat-treat conditions prior to repair. In addition, cer-
Particles of free iron or steel on surfaces of nickel tain specific precautions should be taken with the precip-
alloy weldments or parent metal can become the source itation hardenable alloys, depending on the heat treat
or initiation point of pitting attack. Such iron particles condition of the base material. The three conditions
corrode in moist air or when wetted, leaving telltale rust considered are: (1) as-welded, (2) solution treated or
streaks. There are effective methods of detecting and annealed, and (3) precipitation hardened.
39
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
4.2.4.1 Repair of As-Welded Material. If the of the heat-treating cycles desired. Prior to making re-
repair is being made after primary welding and prior to pairs or modifications of hardened parts, the following
heat treatment, these factors should be considered. The should be considered:
general precautions described in (1) through (3) above (1) Will the strength of the as-welded repair be
should be followed: adequate to carry service loads?
(1) If the alloy is one of those most susceptible to (2) Will the repair area be exposed to temperatures
strain-age cracking, then the additive strain of the pri- near the precipitation-hardening temperature in service?
mary and repair welds may cause postweld strain-age If a low-strength repair is tolerable, then a filler metal
cracking. with maximum ductility and low as-welded yield
(2) If it is one of the more tolerant alloys, then added strength should be chosen. If maximum strength is re-
distortion may be the only concern. quired, then the filler metal and process should be se-
(3) If tests show or experience would indicate, that lected with this in mind and, if necessary for strength
strain-age cracking will occur as a result of the repair op- purposes, provisions made for local precipitation harden-
eration, then the assembly should be annealed or solution ing (preceded by a localized anneal if necessary) of the
treated prior to repair welding. repair area. Because cracking in the heat-affected zone is
a potential problem, peening may be used to provide
4.2.4.2 Repair of Solution Annealed. Repairs some mechanical stress relief before exposure to the
made on assemblies that have been solution-treated or local hardening treatment.
annealed after primary welding should be precleaned Strain-age cracking will not occur at temperatures
using the same cleaning techniques as used for original below the lower levels of the aging temperature range.
welding. Particular care should be taken to clean both Therefore, if the repair area will not be exposed to tem-
sides of the repair weld area to remove oxides resulting peratures near the precipitation range, no special
from the heat-treating operation. Because restraint and postweld treatments should be considered unless they are
subsequent residual stresses may be greater because of for strengthening. If the part is to be exposed to tempera-
the localized nature of repair welds, particular care tures near or above the precipitation-hardening tempera-
should be taken to limit the size of the repair weld. Peen- ture, then it may be desirable to make repair weld tests
ing may be used to provide some degree of stress relief on the hardware and expose these local areas to the ser-
of repair welds prior to subsequent heat treatment. vice temperature for several hours to ensure that cracking
will not take place in service. Preweld cleaning and pre-
4.2.4.3 Repair of Precipitation-Hardened Mate-
cautions should be the same as used for other repairs. In
rial. Repair welding of age-hardened assemblies will be
general, when welding an aged material, use a low heat
necessary at times because parts that have been in service
input practice.
will be damaged and require repairs. Reheat treating of
finish machined or assembled parts prior to repair is usu- 4.2.5 Inspection. Inspection techniques, testing and
ally impossible because of dimensional requirements or quality control criteria are similar to those used for the
because components of the assembly will not be tolerant solid solution nickel alloys in 3.2.7.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
40
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
Nonmandatory Annexes
Annex A
Safety and Health
(This Annex is not a part of AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002, Guide for the Joining of
A1. Fumes and Gases • Where ventilation may be questionable, air sampling
should be used to determine if corrective measures
Many welding, cutting and allied processes produce should be applied.12
fumes and gases which may be harmful to ones health. • Follow OSHA guidelines for Permissible Exposure
Fumes are mixtures of fine solid particles and gases Limits (PEL) for various fumes.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
which originate primarily from welding consumables

with a minor amount from the base metal. In addition to
shielding gases that may be used, gases are produced A2. Chromium and Nickel in Welding
during the welding process or may be produced by the Fume
effects of process radiation on the surrounding environ-
ment. Acquaint users with the effects of these fumes and Compounds of chromium, including trivalent and
gases. The amount and composition of these fumes and hexavalent chromium, and of nickel may be found in
gases depend upon the composition of the filler metal fume from welding processes. They originate almost en-
and base material, welding process, current level, arc tirely from the filler material, with only a small contribu-
length and other factors. tion from the base metal. The specific compounds and
concentrations will vary with the composition of the base
A1.1 Possible Effects of Over-Exposure metals, the welding materials used, and the welding pro-
• Depending on material involved ranges from irritation cesses. Immediate effects of overexposure to welding
of eyes, skin, and respiratory system to more severe fumes containing chromium and nickel are similar to the
complications. effects produced by fume from other metals. The fumes
can cause symptoms such as nausea, headaches, and diz-
• Effects may occur immediately or at some later time.
ziness. Some persons may develop a sensitivity to chro-
• Fumes can cause symptoms such as nausea, head- mium or nickel which can result in dermatitis or skin rash.
aches, dizziness, and metal fume fever. Chronic (long term) effects of exposure to chromium
• The possibility of more serious heath effects exist and nickel in welding fume are unknown. However, the
when highly toxic materials are involved. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
• In confined spaces the gases might displace breathing (NIOSH) has concluded that some forms of hexavalent
air, causing asphyxiation. chromium and nickel and their inorganic compounds
should be considered occupational carcinogens. These
A1.2 How to Avoid Overexposure conclusions were published in NIOSH Criteria Docu-
• Keep your head out of the fumes. ment 76-129 and 77-164. The conclusions were based on
• Do not breath the fumes.
• Use enough ventilation or exhaust at the arc, or both, 12. AWS F1.3, Sampling Strategy Guide for Evaluating
to keep fumes and gases from your breathing zone Contaminates in the Welding Environment, AWS F3.2, Ventila-
and general area. tion Guide for Welding Fume Control, and AWS F1.1, Method
• In some cases, natural air movement will provide for Sampling Airborne Particulates Generated by Welding and
enough ventilation. Allied Processes.
41
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
data from the chromate producing industry and from • Test the atmosphere of the confined space for (1) suit-
nickel ore-refining processes. No determination has yet able oxygen content, (2) no combustibles or reactives,
been made concerning the health effects on welders or (3) no toxics. Note: The testing requires special
users of chromium- or nickel-containing alloys. Never- equipment and training.
theless, consideration should be given to the NIOSH • Isolate lines by capping or double valving and vent-
conclusions. ing, if feasible—keep vents open and valves leak-free.
To protect against the effect of overexposure to chro- • Lock out all systems not required during heating.
mium and nickel in welding fume, do not breathe fumes • Provide means for readily turning off power, gas and
and gases. Keep your head out of fumes. Use enough other supplies from outside the confined space.
ventilation or exhaust at the arc, or both, to keep fumes • Protect or remove any hazardous materials or material
and gases from your breathing zone and general area. In which may become a physical or health risk when
some cases, natural air movement will provide enough heated.
ventilation. Where ventilation may be questionable, use
air sampling to determine if corrective measures should A3.4 Required Actions During Work in a Confined
be applied. Space
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
• Continually ventilate and monitor the space to ensure

safe conditions that fumes and gases do not exceed
safe exposure limits as found in Occupational Safety
A3. Confined Spaces and Health Administration (OSHA), Code of Federal
Many different places require heating work. Some of Regulations, Title 29, Labor, Chapter XVII, Part
these places lack room and become “confined spaces.” 1910, “Occupational Safety and Health Standards,”
Confined spaces have the following characteristics: 1000.
• Limited space entry or exit, or • Use NIOSH/MSHA (Mines Bureau of Safety and
• Poor ventilation—lack of safe breathing air and possi- Health Administration) approved breathing apparatus
ble buildup of hazardous gases, fumes, and particulates. when proper ventilation cannot be provided or when
the material being welded or heated has such toxicity
A3.1 Examples of Confined Spaces as to require this type of apparatus either by code,
• Small rooms instruction, or good practice.
• Process vessels • Keep unnecessary persons and nonessential equip-
• Pits ment out of and away from the confined space.
• Tunnels • Do not allow equipment to block exit or possible
• Vats rescue efforts.
• Reactor vessels • Place as much equipment as possible outside the
• Underground utility vaults confined space.
• Unventilated corners of a room • Do not go into a confined space unless a watchperson,
• Storage tanks properly equipped and trained for rescue, is outside
• Pipelines and maintaining continuous communications with
• Sewers worker inside.
• Silos • Provide means for turning off power gases and fuel
• Degreasers from inside the confined space, if feasible, especially
• Boilers if outside turn-off means is not provided, feasible, or
• Compartments of ships certain.
• Ventilation and exhaust ducts.
A3.2 Reasons for Deaths and Serious Injuries from A4. Radiation
Welding in Confined Spaces
• Fire Most arc welding cutting and allied processes produce
• Electric shock quantities of radiation requiring precautionary measures.
• Explosions Radiation is electromagnetic energy given off by the arc
• Asphyxiation or flame that can injure eyes and burn skin. The welder
• Exposure to hazardous air contaminants. sees visible light radiation. However, the welder does not
see ultraviolet or infrared radiation. Radiation is silent
A3.3 Actions Required Before Approving Start of and can go undetected, yet injury occurs. Have all users
Work in a Confined Space learn about the effect of radiation. The two most com-
• Open all covers and secure them from closing. mon injuries of radiation are skin burns and eye damage.
42
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
A4.1 Nonionizing Radiation. The intensity and wave- • Follow OSHA regulations which require a Hearing
length of nonionizing radiation (such as ultraviolet, visi- Conservation Program if noise levels reach 85 dB on
ble light, or infrared radiation) depend on the process an 8 hour, Time Weighted Average (TWA) basis.
welding parameters, electrode and base metal composi- • If noise level is questionable, have a certified safety
tion, fluxes, and any coating or plating on the material. specialist or Industrial Hygienist take measurements
Processes using argon produce larger amounts of ultra and make recommendations.
violet radiation than those using most other shielding
gases.
A4.1.1 How to Protect Against Nonionizing

A6. Electrical Hazards
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Radiation Electric shock can kill, cause severe burns, and cause
• Use welding helmet with correct shade of filter plate serious injury if falling happens because of the shock.
according to ANSI Z49.1 (available from AWS).
A6.1 How to Avoid Electric Shocks:
Note: Transparent welding curtains are not intended
• Use proper precautionary measures, recommended
as welding filter plates, but rather are intended to pro-
safe practices, and train personnel to avoid injuries,
tect passerby from incidental exposure.
fatalities, and electrical accidents as follows:
• Protect exposed skin with adequate gloves and cloth- • Read the instruction manual before installing, operat-
ing according to ANSI Z49.1. ing, or servicing the equipment.
• Beware of reflections from welding arcs and protect • Have all installation, operation, maintenance, an re-
all persons from intense reflections. Note: Paints pair work performed only by qualified people. Prop-
using pigments of substantially zinc oxide or titanium erly install and ground the equipment according to the
oxide have a low reflectance for ultraviolet radiation. instruction manual and national, state, and local
• Choose safety glasses with side shields according to codes.
ANSI Z87.1. • Do not touch live electrical parts.
• Have anyone near the welding area wear safety • Wear dry, insulating gloves in good condition and
glasses with UV protective side shields. protective clothing.
• Insulate yourself from the workpiece and ground by
A4.2 Ionizing Radiation. Grinding thoriated tungsten wearing dry gloves, rubber soled shoes or standing on
electrodes produces airborne dust which emits ionizing a dry insulated mat or platform.
radiation from the thoria. This dust may be inhaled. • Do not use worn, damaged, undersized or poorly
Avoid breathing this dust by wearing a breathing filter. spliced cables. Make sure all connections are tight,
clean and dry.
• Do not wrap cables carrying current around your
A5. Noise body.
• Ground workpiece if required by codes.
Noise may result from the process, power source or • If required, ground the workpiece to a good electrical
other equipment. Engine-driven generators may be quite earth ground. The work lead is not a ground lead. Use
noisy. Excessive noise is a known health hazard. a separate connection to ground the workpiece to
earth.
A5.1 Effect of Overexposure to Noise
• Wear a safety harness to prevent falling if working
• Loss of hearing that is either full, partial, temporary or above floor level where there are no other protective
permanent. measures such as railing, wall, guard fences, or the
• Noise can cause accidents and create stress that can like.
affect your physical, mental well-being and other • Turn off all equipment when not in use. Disconnect
bodily functions and behavior. the power to equipment if it will be left unattended or
out off service.
A5.1 How to Protect Against Noise
• Disconnect the input power or stop the engine before
• Reduce the intensity and shield the source where installing or servicing the equipment.
practical. • Lock the input disconnect switch open, or remove line
• Use engineering control methods, such as room fuses so power cannot be turned on accidentally.
acoustics, to control noise. • Use only well maintained equipment. Repair or re-
• If engineering methods do not drop the noise to ac- place damaged parts before further use.
ceptable levels, wear personal protective devices such • Keep all covers in place.
as ear muffs or ear plugs appropriate for the situation. • Follow lockout out procedures as required be OSHA.
43
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
A6.2 How to Treat for Electric Shock without an approved method for eliminating the haz-
• Turn off the power. ard.
• Use nonconducting materials, such as wood, to pull • Keep a charged fire extinguisher nearby and know
the victim from the live contact. how to use it.
• If the victim is not breathing, give cardiopulmonary • After heating, make a thorough examination for evi-
resuscitation (CPR) after breaking contact with the dence of fire. Remember that easily visible smoke or
electrical source. flame may not be present for some time after the fire
• Call a physician and continue CPR until breathing has started.
starts, or until a physician has arrived. • Be aware that overloading and improper sizing can
• Treat electrical burn as thermal burn applying clean, cause overheating of electrical equipment.
cold (iced) compresses. • Be sure all electrical equipment and wiring are in-
• Prevent contamination and cover with a clean, dry stalled properly and have recommended circuit pro-
dressing. tection.
• Be sure the work cable is connected to the work as
close to the welding area as practical. Work cables
connected to the building framework or other loca-
A7. Fire and Explosion Prevention tions some distance from the welding area increase
Hot work surfaces can cause fire or explosion if pre- the possibility of the welding current passing through
cautionary measures are not followed. lifting chains, crane cables, or other alternate circuits,
This can create fire hazards or overheat lifting chains
A7.1 Typical Combustible Materials and Conditions or cables until they fail.
• Parts of buildings such as floors, partitions, and roofs. • Do not heat in atmospheres containing dangerously
• Contents of the buildings such as wood, paper, cloth- reactive or flammable gases, vapors, liquids, or dust.
ing, plastics, chemicals, and flammable liquids and • Do not apply heat to a container that has held an
gases. unknown substance or a combustible material whose
• Outdoor combustible materials include dry leaves, contents, when heated, can produce flammable or
grass, and brush. explosive vapors.
• Explosions may occur when welding is performed in • Do not apply heat to a workpiece covered by an
spaces containing flammable gases, vapors, liquids, or unknown substance or whose coating can produce
dusts. flammable, toxic, or reactive vapors when heated.
A7.2 How to Prevent Fires • Develop adequate procedures and use proper equip-
ment to do the job safely.
• Remove any combustible material from the work area.
• Provide adequate ventilation in work areas to prevent
• Where possible, move the work to a location well
accumulation of flammable gases, vapors, or dusts.
away from combustible materials.
• Clean and purge containers before applying heat.
• If relocation is not possible, protect combustibles with
• Vent closed containers, including castings before
a cover of fire resistant material.
preheating, welding, or cutting. Venting prevents the
• Remove or make safe all combustible materials for a
buildup of pressure and possible explosion due to the
radius of 11 meters (35 feet) around the work area.
heating and the resultant expansion of gases.
• Use a fire resistant material to cover or block all open
doorways, windows, cracks, and other openings.
• If possible, enclose the work area with portable fire
A8. Burn Protection
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
resistant screens.
• Protect combustible walls, ceilings, and floors from A8.1 How to Prevent Burns
sparks and heat with fire resistant covers. • Wear dry hole-free insulating gloves.
• If working on a metal wall or ceiling, prevent ignition • Touching hot equipment can cause burns—always
of combustibles on the other side by moving the com- wear insulated gloves or allow a cooling period when
bustibles to a safe location. touching these and any associated parts of equipment
• If relocation of combustibles cannot be done, desig- that are near the actual heating operation.
nate someone to serve as a fire watch, equipped with a • Wear oil-free protective garments such as leather
fire extinguisher, during the welding operation and for gloves, heavy shirt, cuffless pants, high shoes, and a
one half-hour after welding is completed. cap.
• Do not heat material having a combustible coating or • Wear high top shoes or leather leggings and fire resis-
combustible internal structure, as in walls or ceilings, tant boots.
44
AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
• Use approved helmets or hand shields that provide (2) Wear proper eye and hand protection. Use face
protection for the face, neck and ears, and wear a head shields, safety glasses, and goggles as appropriate. Watch
covering to protect the head. out for sharp objects, pinch points, and moving objects.
• Keep clothing free of grease and oil. (3) Avoid wearing items that can be caught in ma-
• Remove any combustibles, such as a butane lighter or chinery such as rings, necklaces, bracelets, long hair, and
matches, from your person before doing any heating. loose clothing.
• If combustible substances spill on clothing, change to (4) Use the right tool for the job. Keep a firm grip on
clean fire resistant clothing before heating. tools to prevent their slipping away. Do not overload or
• Do not attempt to repair or disconnect electrical force a tool beyond its expected capabilities. Foresee re-
equipment under load. Disconnecting under load sults of unexpected occurrences such as tools slipping
produces arcing of the contacts and may cause burns away, binding, or coming loose from their handles.
or shocks. Check any tool that has become jammed or otherwise
A8.2 How to Protect Others From Burns: overstressed for damage before reuse. Anticipate the re-
• Use noncombustible screens or barriers to protect active force from tools.
nearby persons or watchers. (5) When using tools that involve weights and spring
• Mark hot work pieces to alert other persons of the tension, be certain that all pressures are released in a safe
burn and fire hazards. manner. Anticipate what might happen to a component
• If the job requires several persons, have all wear proper that is to be loosened or unbolted from its working posi-
protective gear and follow all required procedures. tion.
(6) Follow lock-out procedures for equipment and
tools specifying such a procedure. Intermittent or by-
passed interlocks create a definite hazard; avoid such
A9. Mechanical Hazards acts.
The use of, or the proximity to, mechanical equipment

can present hazards to the welder. A knowledge of the
proper use of power tools, such as grinders, chippers,
drills, and various hand tools, is important to welder
A10. Further Information
safety. Know and understand the safe limits and proper This guide may involve hazardous materials, opera-
use of cranes, positioners, and other material handling tions, and equipment. Refer to ANSI Z49.1, Safety in
equipment, and use the appropriate guards and personal Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes and AWS Safety
protective equipment, and Health Fact Sheets, along with applicable material
The following recommendations are made concerning safety data sheets,13 so as to be aware of health and
frequently encountered mechanical hazards in welding: safety precautions associated with the materials and
(1) Adhere to grinding wheel speed limitations. Do processes discussed in this document.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
not grind on the side of a wheel not designed for such

service. When starting a new wheel, stand to the side
until it reaches speed and correct any abnormalities 13. Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) are available through
noted. Be sure guards are in place and used. the material suppliers.
45
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
Annex B
Guidelines for Preparation of Technical Inquiries
for AWS Technical Committees
(This Annex is not a part of AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002, Guide for the Joining of
B1. Introduction sion should be identified in the scope of the inquiry,

along with the edition of the standard that contains the
The AWS Board of Directors has adopted a policy provisions or that the inquirer is addressing.
whereby all official interpretations of AWS standards
will be handled in a formal manner. Under that policy, all B2.2 Purpose of the Inquiry. The purpose of the inquiry
interpretations are made by the committee that is respon- should be stated in this portion of the inquiry. The pur-
sible for the standard. Official communication concern- pose can be either to obtain an interpretation of a stan-
ing an interpretation is through the AWS staff member dard requirement, or to request the revision of a
who works with that committee. The policy requires that particular provision in the standard.
all requests for an interpretation be submitted in writing. B2.3 Content of the Inquiry. The inquiry should be
Such requests will be handled as expeditiously as possi- concise, yet complete, to enable the committee to quickly
ble but due to the complexity of the work and the proce- and fully understand the point of the inquiry. Sketches
dures that should be followed, some interpretations may should be used when appropriate and all paragraphs, fig-
require considerable time. ures, and tables (or the Annex), which bear on the in-
quiry should be cited. If the point of the inquiry is to
obtain a revision of the standard, the inquiry should pro-
B2. Procedure vide technical justification for that revision.
All inquiries should be directed to: B2.4 Proposed Reply. The inquirer should, as a pro-
posed reply, state an interpretation of the provision that is
Managing Director, Technical Services the point of the inquiry, or the wording for a proposed
American Welding Society revision, if that is what inquirer seeks.
550 N.W. LeJeune Road
Miami, FL 33126
All inquiries should contain the name, address, and B3. Interpretation of Provisions of
affiliation of the inquirer, and they should provide the Standard
enough information for the committee to fully under-
Interpretations of provisions of the standard are made
stand the point of concern in the inquiry. Where that
by the relevant AWS Technical Committee. The secre-
point is not clearly defined, the inquiry will be returned
tary of the committee refers all inquiries to the chairman
for clarification. For efficient handling, all inquiries
of the particular subcommittee that has jurisdiction over
should be typewritten and should also be in the format
the portion of the standard addressed by the inquiry. The
used here.
subcommittee reviews the inquiry and the proposed reply
B2.1 Scope. Each inquiry should address one single pro- to determine what the response to the inquiry should be.
vision of the standard, unless the point of the inquiry Following the subcommittee’s development of the re-
involves two or more interrelated provisions. That provi- sponse, the inquiry and the response are presented to the
47
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

AWS G2.1M/G2.1:2002
entire committee for review and approval. Upon approval information that such an interpretation can be obtained
by the committee, the interpretation will be an official in- only through a written request. The Headquarters staff
terpretation of the Society, and the secretary will transmit can not provide consulting services. The staff can, how-
the response to the inquirer and to the Welding Journal ever, refer a caller to any of those consultants whose
for publication. names are on file at AWS Headquarters.
B4. Publication of Interpretations B6. The AWS Technical Committee

All official interpretations will appear in the Welding The activities of AWS Technical Committees in regard
Journal. to interpretations, are limited strictly to the Interpretation
of provisions of standards prepared by the Committee or
to consideration of revisions to existing provisions on the
basis of new data or technology. Neither the committee
B5. Telephone Inquiries nor the staff is in a position to offer interpretive or con-
Telephone inquiries to AWS Headquarters concerning sulting services on: (1) specific engineering problems, or
AWS standards should be limited to questions of a gen- (2) requirements of standards applied to fabrications out-
eral nature or to matters directly related to the use of the side the scope of the document or points not specifically
standard. The Board of Directors’ policy requires that all covered by the standard. In such cases, the inquirer
AWS staff members respond to a telephone request for should seek assistance from a competent engineer experi-
an official interpretation of any AWS standard with the enced in the particular field of interest.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
48

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AWS G2.1M/G2.

Guide for the

Copyright American Welding Society

Guide for the Joining of

Under the Direction of

550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, Florida 33126

Copyright American Welding Society

Copyright American Welding Society

AWS Subcommittee on Nickel Alloys

Copyright American Welding Society

Copyright American Welding Society

Copyright American Welding Society

Guide for the Joining of

1. Scope This standard addresses these two categories of

Commercially Pure Nickels

Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum Alloys (Cont’d)

Nickel and Nickel-Copper Alloys

N03301 301 93.0m 0.60M 0.25M 0.30M 4.00–4.75 0.25–1.00 0.50M Mn

Nickel-Chromium-Iron and Nickel-Iron-Chromium Alloys

tributing to the weld structure—the two base materials

Unfortunately, further cold work on a fabrication is often

200 N02200 830–871 1525–1600

Full penetration welds are preferred where maximum re-

DESIGNS FOR HIGH-TEMPERATURE SERVICE

Figure 1—High-Temperature Fabrication Issues

melts at approximately 1454°C (2650°F), but nickel

about 15–20°C (60–70°F). However, if the base metal is

required by the purchaser. This will help ensure that

Commercially Pure Nickels

N02200 Alloy 200 ENi-1 ERNi-1

N04400 Alloy 400 ENiCu-7 ERNiCu-7

Nickel-Chromium-Iron and Nickel-Iron-Chromium Alloys

N06600 Alloy 600 ENiCrFe-3 or ENiCrFe-1 ERNiCr-3

N06002 Alloy X ENiCrMo-2 ERNiCrMo-2

K93600 Invar Note (4) Note (4)

Figure 3—Joint Designs for Nickel-Based Alloys

ing composition filler metals, which can lower the corro-

Figure 4—Approximate Filler Metal Weight per Foot of Weld

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (manual or machine) GTAW TIG, heli-arc

2.4 (3/32) 22–24 55–75

Base Base Base

mm (in.) mm (in.) amps mm (in.) mm (in.) amps mm (in.) mm (in.) amps

0.8–1.6 1.5 1.6 15–60 9–12

1.6–3.2 1.5 or 2.4 1.6 or 2.4 50–95 9–12

3.2–6 2.4 or 3.2 2.4 or 3.2 75–130 10–13

6 (0.24) 2.4 or 3.2 2.4 or 3.2 90–200 10–13

Short Circuit Transfer Mode

0.9 Ar+He 70–90 18–20 3.8–5.1 1.3–5

0.9 He+Ar+CO2 70–90 17–20 3.8–5.1 1.3–5

0.9 Ar+He+CO2 70–90 17–20 3.8–5.1 1.3–5

1.2 He+Ar+CO2 100–160 19–22 4.4–5.1 3.2–19

1.2 Ar+He+CO2 100–160 19–22 4.4–5.1 3.2–19

Spray Transfer Mode

1.2 Ar 190–250 26–29 7.6–8.9 6–10

1.6 Ar 230–250 26–29 4.4–5.8 10 (0.39)

Fixed Frequency Pulse Mode

1.2 Ar+He 120–150 18–20 4.4–5.1 3.2–19

1.2 Ar+He+CO2 120–150 18–20 4.4–5.1 3.2–19

0.9 Ar 50–125 — — 1.6 (0.06)

0.9 Ar+He 50–125 — — 1.6 (0.06)

0.9 Ar+He+CO2 50–125 — — 1.6 (0.06)

1.2 Ar+He 100–175 — — 5 (0.20)

A, Degrees 40 40 50 50 50 40 A, Degrees 10 10 10 15 15 15 10 10 A, Degrees 60 70 60

Figure 5—Optimum Electrode Position for