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Università degli QUALITY IN MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING Lab 4

Studi di Padova Laboratory notes - A.A. 2016/2017 1/13

Lab Activity 4: Computed Tomography


Introduction

X-ray computed tomography (CT) has recently emerged as an advanced measuring


technology for quality control in a wide range of industrial applications. CT allows
obtaining a complete three-dimensional model of objects made of almost every
material in a relatively short time and analysing both outer and inner geometrical
features in a non-destructive way and without mechanical contact.
Moreover, metrological CT systems, thanks to a series of hardware and software
improvements, can be used to perform accurate dimensional measurements.

Main components and working principle

A source generates an X-ray cone beam that


propagates through the object material and is
attenuated due to absorption or scattering.
The attenuation is measured by capturing the
remaining X-rays by means of an X-ray
detector: a 2D gray image (radiograph) is
obtained in this way. A high number of images
are acquired from different angular position of
Figure 1: Cone beam CT configuration the workpiece. Mathematical reconstruction
of these radiographs leads to a 3D voxel
model (voxels are volumetric pixels). The last step concerns the elaboration of voxel-
based data starting from surface determination using dedicated thresholding
algorithms and followed by subsequent dimensional measurements or several other
types of analyses.

Figure 2: CT measurement procedure


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Comment:

The x-ray source is made up of a tube inside of which there is vacuum and a filament
of tungsten. The filament is activated by flow of electricity. The combination between
electric potential and current creates a ray of electrons. These are shot at a target tube
made from tungsten. The resulting impact of the electrons creates the radiation, which
is then directed at the workpiece and after traveling through it detected by a screen of
pixels. Depending on the density, thickness and x-ray absorption coefficient more or
less energy is detected by the sensor. The magnification is adjusted by position
between radiation outlet and screen.
Many 2D pictures (e.g. 360) are taken per full rotation and then combined during
reconstruction to a 3D volume using algorithms based on filtered retro-projection: The
views are cross-corelated and a voxel matrix of the levels of grey is created. The
distinction between workpiece and air needs to be done, therefore the threshold needs
to defined on a histogram representing the frequency levels of grey. After that
interpolation is used to define surfaces and the final 3D model is created.

Equipment

Nikon Metrology MCT225


X-ray source 225 kV / 225 W
X-ray spot 3 μm micro-focus
Detector 16 bit, 2000x2000 pixel
Accuracy specification 𝑀𝑃𝐸=9+(𝐿/50), 𝐿 in mm
Max sample size D = 250 mm, h = 450 mm
Temperature controlled enclosure
High precision linear guideways
Liquid-cooled X-ray gun
PLASTIC 170 mm
ALUMINIUM 75 mm
IRON 15 mm
Material penetration
Other suitable materials include:
STEEL, CERAMIC,
CARBON FIBRE, WOOD

Figure 3: Metrological CT system installed at


Lab Te.Si. (Rovigo)
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Comment:

This machine is a meteorological system which allows accurate measurements


because it has a temperature-controlled cabin, a optical guiding system for the moving
parts and a the MPE is defined by it’s manufacturer.

Examples of industrial applications

1. Polymeric component of a headlight

Figure 4: Injection molded polymeric component of a headlight

Material Polymer
Technology Injection molding
CT advantages Process and mold optimization, complete information on both
internal and external features and defects, comparison with the
nominal geometry.

Comments:

With the CT technology it is possible to reconstruct the 3D model of the workpiece to make a

dimensional comparison between the real part and the intended dimensions coming from the

CAD. This is possible because the CT gives as result a very dense quantity of information,

orders of magnitude higher than a common measuring technology, e.g. fringe projection. With

this amount of information it is easier to review the results with a 3D colour map and a

histogram of deviations from the nominal part. In this case a polymeric component of a car

headlight was analysed. The control software displays three windows with 2D sections of the

part and window with the full 3D model. It also provides a histogram of the frequency of the

different levels of grey, that allows to visually evaluate the right position of the threshold (which
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then required a mathematical refinement). After that phase, it is required to align the point

cloud to the CAD model, which is also a critical operation and it is performed with the typical

CMM procedure. After the alignment the colour map is retrieved. These kind of measurements

are performed by companies in order to control processes (to get info on the component as a

whole).

2. Tensile specimen

Figure 5: Tensile specimen with polymer matrix and loaded with glass fibers

Material Polymer matrix; glass fibers


Technology Injection molding
CT advantages Fibers orientation and distribution to be correlated with mechanical
properties.

Comments:

The CT technology is also useful to analyse composite materials in a nondestructive way and
characterize their composition in terms of matrix and fibres by the different permeability of the
materials. After scanning the probe the histogram shows three peaks (fibres, matrix and
background) and from this, it is possible to separate the fibres from the rest and measure their
length and orientation. However, this is still a challenge because often the fibres are too close
and too entangled to be measured.

3. Micro-valve

10 mm

Figure 6: Ti6Al4V micro-valve produced by SLM process

Material Ti6Al4V
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Technology Additive manufacturing (Selective laser melting)


CT advantages Non-destructive analysis of internal channel and porosity.

Comments:

In this example the workpiece was produced with SLM and contains a complex internal cavity

which needed to be measured. With other techniques than CT this would have required

destruction of the piece which causes plastic deformation and thereby spoils the measurement

results. With the CT it is possible to obtain a 3D model of the workpiece, showing the canal

and porosity in the surrounding material. Of special interest is porosity at the border of the

canal because corrosion is likely to start of from there due to suboptimal flow of the medium to

be transported. This is possible because CT allows to determine the position of single defects

and not only the presence of porosity. Software instruments like sectioning planes allow to

better visualise the canal and measure it by using a virtual calliper.

4. Micro milling tool (Diameter = 500 µm)

Figure 7: Micro-milling tool worn after the milling process

Material Tungsten carbide


CT advantages Analysis of the tool wear due to the milling process.

Comments:

This example is similar to example No.1. The micro milling tool was scanned before and after

use to monitor its wear so two measurements are compared and not one point-cloud with a

CAD model. This might be useful to predict failure of a tool and thereby prevent damage on a

workpiece.
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5. Bottle

Figure 8: Polymer bottle

Material Polymer A (bottle body); polymer B (cup)


CT advantages Analysis of assembly and analysis of interfaces between each
component.

Comments:

In this case the material of bottle and cap are different. They can be detected as such by the

CT system. This means an analysis after assembly is possible. Deformations and junction lines

caused by the assembly can be detected, which allows determining whether the bottle seals

tight or leakage must be expected.

6. Dental implant

Figure 9: Titanium dental implant system composed of implant, abutement and screw

Material Titanium
CT advantages Analysis of assembly and analysis of contact surfaces between
each component.
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Comments:

This example was not discussed due to time issues, but again CT allows inspection after

assembly and internal examination. ……………………………………

Component used for the lab activity

Figure 10: Micro-milling test part made of Aluminum

Comments:

This part was created to test the abilities of micro milling tools. The characteristics of
it are very difficult to analyze with traditional techniques and therefore CT is used.

Step 1: Acquisition of 2D projections

Operation Critical aspects


1. Creation of a support system to hold the The support system material should have a
sample during the 360° rotation. low capability of X-rays absorption in order
to not disturb the CT scan.
Possible solution(s)

During the presentation polystyrene was used to mount the metal piece. Another option

would be carbon fibre.


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2. Positioning of the sample on the support - Cone beam artefact (also called
system. “Feldkamp” artefact) affects the quality
of measurements for those surfaces of
the sample which are scanned parallel
to the beam and near to the detector
borders (see Figure 11).
- The maximum thickness of material to
be penetrated by the radiation should be
minimized.
Possible solution(s)

Preferably use small pieces with the CT machine. Don’t go to the borders of the screen by

choosing a smart position.

3. Choice of the geometrical magnification The voxel size (𝑣𝑠) depends on the
and positioning of the sample inside the geometrical magnification (𝑚):
detector field of view. 𝒑𝒔
𝒗𝒔 =
𝒎
𝑆𝐷𝐷
𝑝𝑠 = pixel size; 𝑚 = ; 𝑆𝐷𝐷 = source to
𝑆𝑂𝐷

detector distance; 𝑆𝑂𝐷 = source to object


distance.

The sample should never exceed the


detector borders during the 360° rotation.
𝑝𝑠 = 0.2 mm; 𝑆𝐷𝐷 =_______________; 𝑆𝑂𝐷 =_______________;
𝒎 =_______________; 𝒗𝒔 = _______________.
4. Setup of CT scanning parameters. The higher the voltage, the higher the X-
The main parameters are: voltage (kV), rays power of penetration.
current (µA), power (W), exposure time The higher the current, the higher the X-
(ms). rays intensity.
The power depends on voltage and current.
The higher the power, the bigger the focal
spot: the resolution will worsen.
Increase the exposure time to get a brighter
image without increase the power. The
noise is reduced, while the acquisition time
is enlarged.
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Each parameter has a different effect on the histogram of gray values (see Figure 12).
Objectives:
- the ‘Max’ grey value should be close to 60000 to have a bright image and minimize the
noise;
- the ‘Min’ value must be greater than 10000 to avoid getting too dark images;
- maximize the contrast between material and background.
Chosen values:
Voltage = ____________ kV
Current = ____________ µA
Power = ____________ W
Exposure time = 1000 ms

Figure 11: Cone beam artefact visible on the


poles of a CT scanned sphere
Figure 12: Grey level histogram

Step 2: Three-dimensional reconstruction

 ‘Comparison of sequential images’ to compare first projections with last ones; the aim

is to check that no movement of the sample and no flux variations occurred during the

acquisition.

 Calculation of the ‘Center of rotation’ through cross-correlations techniques.

 Beam hardening* and noise corrections when required.


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* Beam hardening refers to the fact that – as the beam moves through absorbing material – low
energy photons (i.e. soft X-rays) are more rapidly attenuated than high energy photons. So after a
certain travel distance into absorbing material, the soft X-rays will extinguish and only the hard X-rays
will fully penetrate the part and reach the detector […]. So it looks like the first millimeters of
penetrated material absorbs more rays (soft and hard rays) than the interior part that only attenuates
the remaining hard rays. This effect is clearly visible in the reconstructed CT voxel image.
[Source: Kruth et al (2011). Computed tomography for dimensional metrology. CIRP Annals – Manuf.
Tech.].

Figure 13: : Effect of beam hardening before and after software correction

Step 3: CT data elaboration

1. Surface determination procedure

The surface determination procedure defines the boundary between material and surrounding

air.

 Standard surface determination uses one gray value which is applied globally to the

object: the ‘ISO50%” threshold value (“automatic mode”, Figure 14-left), which is the

mean value between the background and material peaks in the grey level histogram.

 Advanced surface determination uses the ‘ISO50%’ as starting value and then locally
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adapted grey values (“advanced mode”, Figure 14-right). This procedure is more

accurate and should be always preferred when performing dimensional analyses.

Figure 14: “Automatic mode” (left) and “Advanced mode” (right) for surface determination

2. Alignment with CAD model

Different types of alignment can be applied depending on the specific application.

In this section, a best-fit registration and a 3-2-1 registration will be applied on two different

samples.

Case study #1: Best-fit registration

Workpiece: cellular structure produced by selective laser melting (SLM) of Ti6Al4V (Figure 15-

a,b)
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Operations:

- Preliminary manual rough alignment;

- Best fit between scanned volume and CAD model (Figure 15-c) or between two scanned

volumes (e.g. comparison before and after a fatigue test).

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 15: SLM tensile specimen with cellular structure (a); CT scan of the cellular structure
(b); best-fit between CT volume (grey pixels) and CAD model (red line) (c).

Case study #2: 3-2-1 registration

1. Spatial registration (definition of the principal axis).

2. Planar registration (definition of the secondary axis).

3. Origin of the 3 axis for the workpiece’s coordinate system.

Workpiece: micro-milling test part made of aluminum (Figure 10)

Operations:

- Definition of geometrical elements to be created for the 3-2-1 registration;

- Geometrical elements created in the software by least-squares fitting.


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Registration step Geometrical element(s) Axis/Origin coordinate

Spatial registration

Planar registration

Origin Point

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