Efficient Lighting Management Curricula

ASEAN
(ELMCA)

BASICS OF LIGHTING

Contract No.: TH/Asia-Link/013 (141-236)

BASICS OF LIGHTING
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A. Definition of Light
Light – “a visually evaluated radiant energy”

Of all the great band of radiant energy from radio waves through cosmic
waves, only a minute portion, roughly between 400 to 7600 Angstroms is capable of
producing the sensation of light in the human eye. This portion of radiant energy is
known as luminous flux.
Light is important to us because it enables us to see. There are three factors
necessary for seeing; 1) The Subject, your eyes; 2) The Object, the thing you see;
and 3) The Medium, which is light.

There are two major sources of light. In the natural environment, we have daylight
and in the absence of daylight we have artificial or electrical lighting.

B. Functions of Lighting

Light is one of many tools available that defines our space and architecture. It is wise
at the beginning of any project to determine the functions of light and to be certain
that each function has been examined.
1. Performance of Tasks:
Lighting is used to perform work, whether it be reading, assembling parts, or
seeing a blackboard. This function of light is referred to as task lighting. Visual
work is a primary reason for providing lighting.
2. Enhancement of Space And Structure:
It is by use of light that spatial volume, planes, ornament, and color are revealed
and emphasized. There are several prime examples in the architecture of the
past that evolved primarily in man’s desire for better lighting. For example, in the
structural system, the progress from bearing wall to curtain wall was driven by the
push of newly discovered technologies (both in materials and in technique), in the
evolving cultural desires for certain spatial characteristics, and in the desire to
admit daylight of a particular architectural quality—as with the Gothic church
window.
3. Focusing attention:
The quality of light in a space extremely affects one's perception of that space.
The timing and the direction of one's gaze—which are the vanguards of
understanding of the space—are often a function of the varying quality and
distribution of light throughout the space. Lighting draws attention to points of
interest and helps to guide the user in giving him all the necessary information
about the space.
 4. Provision of Security:
Lighting can enhance visibility and thereby engender a sense of security. Lighting
can also be used to illuminate potential hazards, such as a walkway elevations or
moving objects.

C. Importance of Light
a. Used for seeing

b. Affects people physically and psychologically

c. Changes material

d. Affects ambiance of spaces

D. Light as one of the most difficult medium to design

a. Quality cannot be measured

b. Formulas through experimentation

c. Eyes as means for seeing

E. Lighting Issues

Lighting has a strong social, emotional, and economic significance. Figure 1

illustrates the wide range and issues associated with light. Without light, life would not
have been possible.

Human Needs:

Basically, we need light to perform our daily tasks, to explore, and to move about
places. Light, aside from vision, has greater effect on our biological and psychological
needs. Its warmth, aside from benefiting on Vitamin D for free, creates a sense of
well-being and optimism in life.

Architecture:

Light defines a space and form and in architecture, introducing light into an area or
structure is a vital component. Light helps create/develop a sense of place and order.
A well illuminated space is also associated with optimism and cleanliness. Intimate
lighting, for theater for instance, develops a sense of excitement and anticipation.
Light in architecture is a medium of communication which one’s eye perceive.

Economics and Environment:

Current issues regarding global warming have made designers and engineers think
about energy efficient lighting systems. Energy efficient lighting systems do not only
help people save on operational or maintenance costs but also help in improving the
overall quality of our environment in general. Integrating these green alternatives will
help improve our society and the way we think about energy efficient lighting
systems.

Figure 1: The Overlapping Lighting Issues

Courtesy of Advance Lighting Guide by New Building Institute

2.0 THE HUMAN EYE

Our eyes enable us to experience our environment and help us to explore and discern
places or objects we encounter. It is our window to the world that helps us interact and
communicate with other beings. However, our perception of vision can only be achieved in
the presence of light. It is the light that we perceive that defines architecture and our
immediate environment (Schiler, 1)

Vision is the ability of the eyes to perceive a portion of radiation spectrum called light
(Moore,24) There are two aspects to this perception;

1. The biophysical aspects which relates to the function of the eyes; and

2. the translation or interpretation of these data by the brain.

A. The Eye Anatomy

The eye is considered as an optical system responsible for our vision. Roughly spherical in
shape, about 2.5 cm in diameter, this organ is composed of the several important pieces that
enable us to see and interpret images;

• The Focusing devices of the eye are the Cornea and Crystalline lens. The
Cornea is the outer window of the eye that receives light. It is the primary lens that
focuses the light entering the eye. The Crystalline Lens, a secondary lens, is a
 capsule containing a fibrous jelly with an average index or refraction of 1.437. Behind
this lens is a water jelly called Vitreous humor with index or refraction about 1.336
(nearly equal to that of the water)

• The Iris controls the light admitted by the eye. It contains an aperture called Pupil
that varies in diameter to adapt to changing light intensity.

• The sensing surface called Retina is where the image is formed. The Retina is
composed of two types of nerve pickups or photocells called the Rods and Cones
that transmit images via Optic Nerve to the brain.

o Rods sense the presence or absence of light in monochromatic or black and

white vision. They are less sensitive to color perception and details but highly
sensitive to light and motion

o Cones give more information on the color and details but require more light.
They can sense the red, green, and blue spectra. Colors are perceived by
measuring the difference in the ratio of these spectra.

o The Macula is the highly sensitive part of retina where the reflected image is
formed. It is responsible for providing the clearest vision and details. In the
center of the macula is the Fovea centralis where all the photoreceptors are
cones.

o The Fovea Centralis or Fovea is a part of the Retina that constitutes the
Center of Vision where the image is formed. It has a high concentration of
cones cells. Outside this range (called Parafovea) are found the rod cells
which can detect light 1/10,000 as bright as those sensed by the cones
(Moore, 24).

Fig.2 Cross section of the eye

Fig.3 Cross section thru the Retina

B. Vision: Perception of light

The perception of vision begins with the reflected light from an object or surface entering the
eye. The reflected light waves enter first the cornea. The intensity of the light is filtered by
the Pupil in the Iris. Too much light will cause the Pupil to constrict and insufficient light will
cause it to open wide to allow more light in entering.

Primarily, the light waves are bent or converged by the cornea, then further by the crystalline
lens and focus the light waves at the center of the Retina called Macula (Opposite the lens).
The image formed here is upside down.

Inside the Macula, the photoreceptors gather information converting light waves into
electrical impulses. These electrical impulses are then transmitted to the brain via the Optic
Nerves. The brain then interprets this image and corrects the position of the image.

Figure 4: Image formation in the eye

C. The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The eyes can only see a part of electromagnetic spectrum called visible light. It ranges from
blue light at wavelengths around 475 nanometers, nm to red light (about 675nm) into violet
light (725 nm). Beyond these are invisible light, which constitute the X rays (UV and Gamma
rays) and Infrareds (Microwaves).
 Fig 5. Electromagnetic Spectrum

White light is the combination of all the visible

wavelengths. A single color light or monochromatic
light can be filtered by absorbing the other colors.
For instance, a white light hitting a blue wall
bounces off the blue wavelength by reflection or
transmission. The other wavelengths are absorbed
so the eyes only receive the blue wavelength.

Fig.6: Color Absorption

D. Spectral Sensitivity

The Cones are responsible for our perception of color. Cones are classified according to
their sensitivity to long (L), medium (M), and short (S) wavelengths. Collectively, the eyes
are most sensitive to wavelengths between 530 and 555 nanometers, which is bright green
tending toward yellow (Montgomery, npag)

The L-Cones, which are Red-sensitive, can detect colors form red to yellow range.

Fig.7: L-Cones
 The M-Cones, which are Green-sensitive, can detect colors from green to
yellow(Figure 8).

Fig.8: M-Cones
The S-Cones, which are Blue sensitive, are stimulated by light ranging from blue to
violet (Figure 9).

Fig.9: S-Cones
The brain must compare the input from the three different kinds of cone cells, as well as
make many other comparisons. This comparison begins in the retina (which actually is an
extension of the brain), where signals from “red” and “green” cones are compared by
specialized red-green “opponent” cells.

These opponent cells compute the balance between red and green light coming from a
particular part of the visual field. Other opponent cells then compare signals from “blue”
cones with the combined signals from “red” and “green” cones. When one type of cone does
not work properly, the proper color calculations, by the brain, cannot take place.

In a dark room or during nighttime, the eyes loose its sense of color but well enough to
define an object in monochromatic or rod-based vision. This type of vision is called Scotopic
Vision. In the presence of light or during daytime, the eyes can sense colors and details.
This type of vision, which makes use of the cone cells, is called Photopic Vision.
Mesophic Vision is the combination of Scotopic and Photopic Vision in low light condition.
The combination of the higher total sensitivity of the rods in the eye for the blue range with
the color perception through the cones results in a very strong appearance of blue-ish colors
Fig.10: Photopic and Scotopic Vision

E. The Field of Vision

The Visual Environment

Physically, the visual environment is a 3-dimensional pattern of brightness and

colors visible to a person within the environment. It also includes emotional and
aesthetic values that are less easily measured but nevertheless important to the
design.

Both our two eyes provide us with binocular vision. The images seen by the two eyes
overlap to a certain extent, with each eye receiving slight different views. The difference of
the two views, called binocular parallax, leads to disparity between retinal images of the third
dimension of an object, providing depth of space. The binocular vision is maintained by the
nervous and muscular coordination of both eyes.

When a person with normal seeing apparatus looks at an object with both eyes at
the same time, the visual fields of the 2 eyes intermesh, as in Figure 10. The total
intermeshed visual field of both eyes is 180 degrees. However, due to some physical
attributes (nose, eye brows, and cheeks), this visual field may vary in shape.
Figure 11: The normal field of view of a pair of human eyes. The white central portion
represents the view seen by both eyes. The gray portions, right and left,
represents regions seen by each respective eyes alone. The dark areas
show the cut-off by the eyebrows, cheeks, and nose.

That portion of a person’s visual environment which can be detected by

his/her eyes when they are directly along some particular line of sight is
referred to as the Visual Field. Because of the nature and distribution of the
photo receptors of the eye, this visual field divides logically into 2 concentric
regions, the Central Field and the Surround.

Figure 12. The Visual Field

1) The Central Field-
This is hat region of the visual space that extends roughly 1 degree outwards
from the line of sight, in all directions. Within this region lie the eyes’ greatest abilities
to distinguish fine detail and perceive color. The eyes, the head, and the body of a
person attempting to recognize some visual detail are adjusted by both conscious
and sub-conscious adjusting mechanisms to bring the desired visual task into this
portion of the visual field.
2) The Surround-
The surround is that portion of the visual field which extends outward from the
central field to the spatial limits of visual sensation. The abilities to distinguish detail
or to perceive color decrease rapidly as the angle with the line of sight increases and
are virtually absent 30 ° from the line of sight.
F. Visual Disorders

Our visual perception is a complex subsystem involving the flow and processing of
information of the eyes and brain. Any disruption on the process may lead to visual
impairment. The type and extent of visual problems depend on the severity of the part

F.1 Visual disorders symptoms include

• Headaches from visual tasks

• Blurred or double vision
• Sensitivity to light
• Inability to concentrate or focus
• Reading or comprehension difficulties
• Trouble judging distances
• Sore eyes
• Loss of visual field.
Visual disorders may lead to total impairment of the eyes or blindness if untreated.

Visual acuity and contrast sensitivity can be measured by using a Snellen Chart. People with
normal vision can read the 20 ft line at 20 ft—20/20 vision—or the 40 ft line at 40 ft, the 100
ft line at 100 ft, and so forth. If at 20 ft the smallest readable letter is larger, vision is
designated as the distance from the chart over the size of the smallest letter that can be
read.

Patients with very poor vision may be unable to see any letters on the eye chart; they then
will be asked to count fingers at a given distance from their eyes. This distance becomes the
measure of their ability to see.
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines impaired vision in five categories:
• Low vision 1 is a best corrected visual acuity of 20/70.
• Low vision 2 starts at 20/200.
• Blindness 3 is below 20/400.
• Blindness 4 is worse than 5/300.
• Blindness 5 is no light perception at all.
• A visual field between 5° and 10° (compared with a normal visual field of about 120°)
enters category 3; less than 5° into category 4, even if the tiny spot of central vision is
perfect.
F.2 Causes

Birth defects or abnormalities during early age may lead to visual impairment. Some visual
disorders, like color blindness, are hereditary, and may no longer be amendable. Traumatic
injuries caused by an accident that directly affect the head portion may also lead to visual
impairment or total blindness if severely damaged. Diseases, such as diabetes, may lead to
visual impairment if untreated.

F.3 Common Visual Problems

 • Double Vision

Also called Diplopia, is a perception of seeing two images on a single object. The image
displacement includes shift in horizontal, vertical, or combination (diagonal). Misaligning of
two eyes relative to each other may lead to double vision. If the two eyes are misaligned and
aim at different positions, the brain accepts the two non-matching images resulting to double
vision.

Fig.13: Double Vision

• Color blindness

Color blindness is the inability to perceive certain colors, usually red and green. It is a
hereditary defect and affects his/her personal activities. Patients with color blindness have
difficulties in perceiving colors of an object and may result to confusions. Color blindness
may also result from macular degeneration, glaucoma, cataract, or diabetes.

In color blindness, some of the cones responsible for certain wavelengths (blue, red, and
green) are defective or malfunctioning. This results to the inability to detect/perceive some
colors.

F.4 Refractive Errors

In some cases, the focusing properties of the eyes are imperfect causing nearsightedness
(myopia ), farsightedness (hyperopia), old-sightedness (presbyopia), and uneven focusing
on different planes (astigmatism).

• Myopia

Myopia is a refractive error in which the focal point is in front of the macula (the center of
vision) during accommodation. This results to clear images for closer objects but blurry
images for distant object. It is also called nearsightedness.

In this case, the eyeball is too long, or the cornea is too steep, so images are focused in the
vitreous inside the eye rather than on the retina at the back of the eye. To compensate for
this refractive error, optical lens are used so that the focal point will hit the macula of the
retina.
 Fig.14: Myopic or Near-sightedness Vision

• Hyperopia

Hyperopia or hypermetropia is a visual defect also known as far-sightedness or long-

sightedness. In this situation, the eyeball is too short or the lens cannot become round
enough causing inability to focus on near objects, and in extreme cases causing our eyes to
suffer and be unable to focus on an object at any given distance. In this case, the focal point
is located at the back of the retina. As with myopic vision, this condition can be corrected
using optical lenses.

Fig.14: Hyperopia or Far-sightedness

Vision
• Astigmatism

Refers to the defect in which the surface of the cornea is not spherical but more sharply
curved in one plane than in another. As a result, horizontal lines may be viewed in a different
plane from vertical lines. Astigmatism may make it impossible to see clearly on the horizontal
and vertical lines at the same time.

F.5 Aging of the Eye

As the eye ages, it becomes less responsive to light perception. The scanning function
becomes slow and the adaptability of the eyes to different illumination levels occurs more
slowly. The lens becomes increasingly rigid and loses some of its ability to focus. The lens
becomes more yellow and more light is scattered within the eye, causing loss in visual acuity
and contrast sensitivity. Thus, at the age beyond 40, people typically need more light to see
better and require eyeglasses.

In addition to the degeneration of our aged eyes, diseases such as macular degeneration,
glaucoma, cataract, and presbyopia usually happen.

• Presbyopia

Presbyopia is a condition where the eyes exhibit progressively diminishing ability to focus on
near objects. This condition occurs as the eye age. It is also a condition where the crystalline
lens loses its elasticity and its ability to perform accommodation diminishes.

• Cataract

Cataract is a condition of clouding or of blocking the eyes’ natural lenses. The lens is mostly
made of water and protein. This protein is arranged in a precise way that keeps it clear and
allows light to pass through it. However as we age, some of the proteins may clump together
and start to cloud a small area of the lens. This is a cataract, and over time, it may grow
larger and cloud more of the lens, making it harder to see.

Fig.15: Person with cataract

• Macular Degeneration

Macular Degeneration is a medical condition that may result from aging of the eyes, usually
found in elderlies. The center of the inner lining of the eye or the macula suffers thinning,
atrophy, or in some cases, bleeding. This can result in loss of central vision, which entails
inability to see fine details, to read, or to recognize faces.

Fig.16: Vision of a normal person and with Macular Degeneration

 • Glaucoma

Glaucoma is a visual disorder often associated with dangerous buildup of eyes’ internal
pressure, which can damage the eyes’ optic nerve.

Glaucoma is often referred as "sneak thief of sight" because the loss of visual field often
occurs gradually over a long time and may only be recognized when it is already quite
advanced. Once lost, this damaged visual field can never be recovered.

Fig.16: Vision of a normal person and one with Glaucoma

3.0 LIGHTING AND VISION

A. Light and Perception-

Light is needed for seeing and the amount required for good seeing is greater
than that required for mere discernment. The luminance resulting from the amount of
light on a task can be controlled more readily and extensively than can the other
factors of seeing—contrast, size, and time of viewing. Luminance is therefore used to
compensate for deficiencies in the other factors.

Factors affecting Visual Recognition for Perception and Comfort

Most of the studies of light and vision conducted in the past have dealt with the ability to
distinguish detail in the central field or near the line of sight. It has been found that the ability
to recognize detail in this part of the visual field is associated with 4 physical factors:
1) Contrast between the details of a task and its immediate background
2) Luminance of the task
3) Size of the task
4) Time of the viewing
Each factor is sufficiently dependent upon the magnitude of the others that a
deficiency in one, within limits, maybe compensated by augmenting one or more of the
others.
 Contrast-
Each critical detail of a seeing task must differ in brightness or color from the
surrounding background in order to be seen. Visibility is at a maximum when the
luminance contrast (and color contrast, if present) of details with the background is
greatest. Task contrasts very widely. For instance, examples of tasks with high
contrast are:
In schools; black type in white paper,
In offices; originals with good ribbon,
In stores; price tags in ink, and
In industry; light stitching on dark blue cloth
Examples of poor contrast in similar locations are repeatedly duplicated
materials, typed carbon, 5th copy, price tags in pencils, gray stitching on gray silk.
Size-
Within a given range, the larger the task detail, the more easily or accurately
seeing is done. It has been found that up to a certain point if the contrast and time
available for seeing are kept constant, the smallest detail which can detected
becomes progressively smaller as the luminance of the visual task is increased.
Time of viewing-
Tests have shown that the time required to recognize an object of a given size
and background with complete certainty is reduced as the luminance of the object
and background is increased.
Luminance of the Task
Visual perception and acuity increases as the luminance of the task increases
up to certain point. Excessive luminance or brightness on the visual field reduces
visual acuity and may lead to disability glare. Luminance is the photometric quantity
most closely associated with one‘s perception of brightness. It usually refers to the
amount of light that reaches the eye of the observer.

B. Visual Performance
1. Visual Adaptation

The human eye is capable of adapting to different illumination levels. All visual experiences
(brightness, color, distance, and perspective) are measured against some reference
experience that may be presented in the form of surrounding luminous environment or
expectation based on prior orientation (Moore, 26)

There are two visual effects that are particularly relevant to daylighting illumination:

1. General Adaptation and

2. Local Brightness Contrast

General Adaptation

The eyes do not perceive light in absolute value but rather adapt to the average value of the
brightness present within the field of view. Due to this characteristic of the eye to adapt,
daylight factor is a better measure of visibility than footcandles (Moore, 26) Daylight factor is
used to determine the interior daylight illumination levels. Daylight factor is measured as a
proportion of the total daylight available in the interior of a room over the daylight illumination
outside and is not considered as an absolute value.

As the interior illumination increases due to the increase in brightness, for instance, of the
sky, the eye adapts to the increase of illumination so that the effect is more closely related to
the proportion of the increase of interior light against the increase of exterior light (daylight
factor).

Physiologically, the process of adaptation includes the combination of rapid changing of the
pupil of the eye and a slower change in the sensitivity of the retina. Since the change in the
sky brightness is gradual, it allows comfortable adaptation of the eye. However, visual
discomfort occurs when there is an abrupt or rapid change in the illumination level.

Local Brightness Contrast

The eyes adapt to the average of the brightness level within the field of view. If an area of
high brightness is seen next to an area with low brightness, the eyes adapt to the average
creating discomfort and difficulties in discerning details on either areas. Local brightness
contrast can be minimized by using similar reflectances on adjacent surfaces by ensuring
that the surfaces surrounding the opening (i.e. windows) have a relatively high luminance
and reflectance.

To achieve comfortable brightness balance, it is desirable to limit the brightness ratios

between areas from normal viewpoint as follows:

3 to 1 Between task and adjacent surroundings

10 to 1 Between task and more remote darker surfaces

1/10 to 1 Between task and more remote lighter surfaces

20 to 1 Between fenestration (or luminaires) and adjacent surfaces

40 to 1 Anywhere in the field of view

2. Constancy

Constancy is the tendency to perceive the environment as it is known to be rather than on

the basis of appearance alone. (Moore, 27)

Types of Constancy

A. Size Constancy

As the distance of an object that we view increases, the retinal image becomes
smaller. The mind perceives the object as being far away rather than the object
changing in size. This perception can sometimes be deceiving. In the image below,
 the silhouette of the same size seems to become bigger as the background changes
are perceived in its surroundings.

Figure 17: Size Constancy; Image size is perceived by its surrounding. On the left, the boys
appear to have different heights and on the right, the circles at the center appear to be of
different sizes.

B. Brightness Constancy

Brightness Constancy is the ability of the eyes to see continuing levels of brightness even
though light may change their sensory properties. A white paper will still look white whether
we see it under the sunlight or during nighttime. This is because we do not view brightness
in absolute terms but we view it in context with its
surroundings.

Brightness constancy is only effective if the observer is able

to survey the entire surrounding environment, the source of
light and the surface receiving it. (Moore, 27)

The Herman Grid is an example that shows brightness

perception based on the surrounding area. The gray patches
at the intersection of the grid is an imaginary color due to the
perceptual effect of the surrounding black squares.

Fig.18: Brightness Constancy

C. Color Constancy

Color constancy is the tendency for a color to look the same under widely different viewing
conditions. The stability of colors is to be sought in the capacity of the brain to undertake an
operation which makes it independent of the continual change in the wavelength
composition of the light reflected from a surface. This in turn allows the brain to obtain
knowledge about a certain property of surfaces in spite of continual variations in what
reaches the eye from those surfaces.
3. Visual Acuity

Visual Acuity is the ability of the eyes to discern fine details and clarity. Visual acuity
of an observer increases as the lighting level also increases.

There are four distinct types of visual acuity: Detection, Resolution, Recognition, and
Localization.

Detection Acuity means the smallest line width or dot size you can detect.

Resolution Acuity is the smallest separation between dots or between bars in a

grating you can resolve.

Recognition Acuity is the smallest letter size you recognize and discriminate.

4. Contrast Sensitivity

Contrast Sensitivity is the ability of the eye to distinguish differences in illumination and is
also a function of task illumination. It is the ability to see a shade of gray on a white
background or to see white on a light gray background.

Contrast sensitivity is a function of the size or spatial frequency of the features in the image.
However, this is not a direct relationship as larger objects are not always easier to see than
smaller objects (as demonstrated by the image below).

In the image below, the luminance of pixels is varied sinusoidally in the horizontal direction.
The luminance of peaks and troughs remains constant along a given horizontal path through
the image. If the detection of contrast was dictated solely by image contrast, the alternating
bright and dark bars should appear to have equal height everywhere in the image. However,
the bars seem to be taller in the middle of the image.
 Fig 19: Contrast Sensitivity

C. Light and Expression (Emotion and Intellect)

1. Natural Environment-
Man is affected by his natural as well as his artificial environment. The extent
to which the natural environment can affect our emotional state is evident in the
change of mood that can be brought about by quite small changes in the weather. A
bright, clear day almost invariably contributes toward a state of well being, while a dull
over-cast day may tend to produce a state of depression.
Change is a stimulating aspect of the natural environment. Almost certainly
the changing light and shade of a bright, sunny day with cloud patches creates a
more stimulating feeling than the cloudless blue sky. The change from rain to sunlight
to rain presents a more stimulating pattern than the dull overcast sky. The night sky
too has its own character and will create its own mood, possibly one of contemplation
after the work of the day; often a mood where thought is stimulated rather than action.
It is a matter of common evaluation that a bright sunny day, with some clouds
to change the sky pattern, produces a happy and cheerful emotional state. What are
the features of the natural environment that we associate with this? There are the
Sun, a source of direct light high enough above our heads not to constitute a serious
glare source for normal performance; the Sky, a source of diffused light that grades
the Sun into its background; and finally nature itself, consisting of planes, edges,
forms, and meaning. The direct light gives pronounced modeling by light and shade
and cast shadows.
 The source of light, both the warm direct light from the sun and the cool
diffused light of the sky, are such as to contain all the colors of the spectrum, so that
the color of the environment is balanced, with no apparent distortion toward any
particular hue. The whole environment appears bright and “well-lit”.

2. The Artificial Environment-

As with the natural environment, a well-lit, light appearance assists in
promoting a sense of well-being, which can be obtained as easily form medium levels
of Illumination as with those substantially higher. A room in which the light is obtained
solely from units giving no light to the ceiling may appear oppressive, while a room
where the light sources are planned to give some light to the ceiling may have an
appearance of being well-lit, even with a reduced illumination level.
Rooms in which wall surfaces are hard, either this not being lit or because of
low reflectance, can appear dimly lit, although the effect maybe consciously planned
for special emotional appeal. For example, a dimmed auditorium may induce an air of
anticipation, a dim cocktail lounge may produce “atmosphere”, and exhibition
buildings may use high contrast effects to achieve “compelling” results. Such effects
are quite justifiable, but it is necessary to strike a balance between the amount of
light, acceptable contrasts within the visual field, and the emotional effects dictated by
the program.

4.0 COLOUR THEORY

Definition of Color

Color is the perceptual characteristic of light described by a color name. Specifically,

color is light, and light is composed of many colors—those we see are the colors of the
visual spectrum: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. Objects absorb certain
wavelengths and reflect others back to the viewer. We perceive these wavelengths as color.

Brief History of Color Theory

Although Aristotle and other ancient scientists had already written on the nature of
light and color vision, it was Sir Isaac Newton who identified light as the source of color
sensation. He investigated the refraction of light, showing that a prism could decompose
white light into a spectrum of colors and that a lens and another prism could recompose the
spectrum into white light. He also showed that the colored light does not change its
properties by separating out a colored beam and shining it on various objects. Newton noted
that regardless of whether it was reflected or scattered or transmitted, it stayed the same
color. Thus, he observed that color is the result of objects interacting with already-colored
light rather than objects generating the color themselves. This is known as Newton's theory
of color.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe first studied the physiological effect of opposed
colors in his Zur Farbenlehre (Theory of Colours) in 1810. Included here is his observation
that color arises at the edges and the spectrum occurs where these colored edges overlap.
Goethe arranged his color wheel symmetrically, believing that the colors diametrically
opposed to each other in this diagram are those which reciprocally induce the eye to see the
other. Thus, yellow demands violet; orange, blue; red, green; and vice versa: thus... all
intermediate gradations reciprocally evoke each other.

In 1801 Thomas Young proposed his trichromatic theory, based on the

observation that any color could be matched with a combination of three lights. This theory
was later refined by James Clerk Maxwell and Hermann von Helmholtz. As Helmholtz puts
it, the principles of Newton's law of mixture were experimentally confirmed by Maxwell in
1856.

At the same time as Helmholtz, Ewald Hering developed the opponent process
theory of color in 1872, noting that color blindness and afterimages typically come in
opponent pairs (red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white). Ultimately these two theories were
synthesized in 1957 by Hurvich and Jameson, who showed that retinal processing
corresponds to the trichromatic theory, while processing at the level of the lateral geniculate
nucleus corresponds to the opponent theory.

In 1931, an international group of experts known as the Commission Internationale

d'Eclairage (CIE) developed a mathematical color model, called CIE 1931 or CIE XYZ
which mapped out the space of observable colors and assigned a set of three numbers to
each. It was remodeled in 1976 as CIELAB and CIELUV. However, the most recent color
appearance model ratified by the CIE is CIECAM02 published in 2002.

PROPERTIES

Hue

Hue is the term for the pure spectrum colors commonly referred to by the "color
names" - red, orange, yellow, blue, green violet - which appear in the hue circle or rainbow.
Theoretically all hues can be mixed from three basic hues, known as primaries. When
pigment primaries are all mixed together, the theoretical result is black; therefore pigment
mixture is sometimes referred to as subtractive mixture.

Value or Tone

Value or tone is a measure of how light or dark a color is, without any consideration
for its hue. Think of it as taking a black-and-white photo of a subject where you clearly see
what’s in the photo but everything’s in grayscale.

The problem with a color’s value or tone is that how light or dark it seems is also
influenced by what’s going on around it. What appears light in one circumstance, can appear
darker in another circumstance, for instance when it’s surrounded by even lighter tones

Chroma / Saturation / Colorfulness

The chroma or saturation of a color is a measure of how intense it is. Think of it as

“pure, bright color”, compared to a color diluted with white, darkened by black or grey, or
thinned by being a glaze. Variations in chroma can be achieved by adding different amounts
of a neutral gray of the same value as the color you will want to alter.
 Tint

Tint is the mixture of a color with white (also called a pastel color).

Shade

Shade is the mixture of a color with black.

Color Temperature

Color temperature is one way of rating the tint of light from a particular source, which
comes from the theoretical relationship between the temperature of an object and the color
of its light. The light coming from a source of a particular color temperature will have a
particular tint to it. This is most apparent to the observer if the tint is extreme or if two
different sources are visible at the same time. Moreover, the color of the surfaces of objects
illuminated by such light will also be affected. Yellows will appear at full strength under low
color temperatures while blues will appear comparatively lifeless.

CIE Color Rendering Index (formerly Color Rendition Index)

Color Rendering Index is a measure of how well light will actually show the true
colors of an object or objects. This is an attempt to measure whether all of the colors are
properly rendered by the light from a given source and whether certain colors are missing.

COLOR TYPES: Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Colors

Primary Colors

Painter’s/ Traditional Primaries - red, yellow, blue (RYB) is a

historical set of subtractive primary colors. It is primarily used in art and
design education, specifically on painting. The common color wheel is based
on this set of painters’ primaries.
 Fig. 20
RBY (Red, blue, yellow)
Colors, their secondaries
(violet, orange, green) and
their mixture, black.
(Wikimedia Commons)

Light Primaries - red, blue, green (RGB): This definition is active

when colored light is mixed, as on your computer screen, or when theatrical
spotlights overlap on a white wall. Its effects are less familiar than pigment
mixture to most people. If all three primaries are mixed, the theoretical result
is white light. Therefore Light mixture is sometimes referred to as additive
mixture. They are the primary colors in the RGB color model.

Fig 21
RGB (red, green, blue)
Colors, their secondaries
(cyan, magenta, yellow) and
their mixture, white.
(Wikimedia Commons)

Print / Pigment Primaries - cyan (turquoise), magenta, yellow (CMY):

This definition of primaries mixes to clear colors across the entire spectrum. It
is used as the basis for color printing. The computer screen probably does not
give you a true turquoise--the color should be a blue-green-- because of
differences between color mixture in pigment and color mixture in light.
 Fig 22
CMY (cyan, yellow,
magenta) Colors, their
secondaries (red, green blue)
and their mixture, black.
(Wikimedia Commons)

In mixing colors, hues can be desaturated (reduced in purity,

weakened) in one of three ways: mix with white to lighten the value (tint), mix
with black to darken the value (shade), or mix with gray or the complement to
either lighten or darken the value (tone).

Secondary Colors

These 3 colors are what you get when you mix the primary colors together.
They're located in-between the primary colors to indicate what colors they're made
from. Secondary colors are usually more interesting than primary colors, but they do
not evoke speed and urgency.

Paint Secondary - Orange, Green, Purple.

Light Secondary – Cyan, Magenta, Yellow.

Printing Secondary – Red, Green, Blue

Complementary Colors

These are the colors directly across from each other on the color wheel. Don't
let the name fool you, they rarely look good when used together. They're called
"complementary" because, when used together, they become extremely vibrant and
have heavy contrast. Complementary colors are useful when you want to make
something stand out. For example, if you use a green background and have a red
circle on it, the red will jump off the page and be almost blinding.
 Paint Complementary: Red & Green, Blue & Orange, Purple & Yellow
Light Complementary: Red & Cyan, Green & Magenta, Blue & Yellow

Printing Complementary: Red & Cyan, Green & Magenta, Blue & Yellow

Analogous Colors

Red and Orange, Blue and Green, etc. These are colors right next to each
other on the color wheel. They usually match extremely well, but they also create
almost no contrast. They're good for very serene-feeling designs and artwork where
you want viewers to feel comfortable.

Warm & Cool Colors

Traditional / Psychological

Although any pair of colors opposite each other on the color circle are
complementary colors, there is one complementary contrast that is more
important and more effective than any of the others: the warm/cool color
contrast.

This is a "metacomplementary" relationship between all the "warm"

hues (from red to yellow) as a group and all the "cool" hues (from blue green
to blue violet) as a group. It came to the fore in artists' thinking during the
middle 18th century, but was first systematically presented in the English
artist Charles Hayter's Introduction to Perspective in 1813.

Fig. 23: The first warm/cool

color diagram from Hayter,
1813 (sky blue is placed at
top, because in Hayter's time
it was defined as the "purest"
or most fundamental color)
(http://www.handprint.com/HP/
WCL/color12.html)
 Warm colors are often said to be hues from red through yellow,
browns and tans included; cool colors are often said to be the hues from blue
green through blue violet, most grays included. There is historical
disagreement about the colors that anchor the polarity, but 19th century
sources put the peak contrast between red orange and greenish blue. This
concept is related to the color temperature of "visible light", an important
consideration in photography, television and desktop publishing. The
determination of whether a color appears warm or cool is relative. Any color
can be made to appear warm or cool by its context with other colors.

Color theory has ascribed perceptual and psychological effects to this

contrast. Warm colors are said to advance or appear more active in a
painting, while cool colors tend to recede; used in interior design or fashion,
warm colors are said to arouse or stimulate the viewer, while cool colors calm
and relax. Most of these effects, to the extent they are real, can be attributed
to the higher saturation and lighter value of warm pigments in contrast to cool
pigments. Thus, brown is a dark, unsaturated warm color that few people
think of as visually active or psychologically arousing.

Warm/Cool based on Radiating Bodies

Fig 24: A spectrum showing color temperature in absolute (Kelvin) scale (Holek /
Wikimedia Commons)

The hottest radiating bodies (e.g. stars) have a cool color while the
less hot bodies radiate with a warm color.

It is interesting to compare the traditional association of color with

temperature with that of a theoretical radiating black body, where the
 association of color with temperature is reversed. For instance, the hottest
stars are blue and the coolest are red.

COLOR SYSTEMS

Traditional RYB Color System

RYB (an abbreviation of red-yellow-blue) is a historical set of subtractive primary

colors. It is primarily used in art and design education, particularly painting. It predates
modern scientific color theory.

RYB Color Triangles

Fig. 25: Tobias Mayer's trichromatic

mixing triangle (1758) the "primaries"
are red, yellow, and blue (Wikimedia
Commons)

Goethe’s Color Triangle

In Goethe's original triangle the three primaries red, yellow, and blue are arranged
at the vertices of the triangle. The other subdivisions of the triangle are grouped into
secondary and tertiary triangles, where the secondary triangle colors represent the mix of
the two primary triangles to either side of it, and the tertiary triangle colors represent the mix
of the primary triangle adjacent to it and the secondary triangle directly across from it.
 Fig. 26: Goethe’s Color Triangle

(http://www.cs.brown.edu/cours
es/cs092/VA10/HTML/Goethes
TriangleExplanation.html)

RYB Color Wheel

Fig. 27: Newton's color

circle, showing the
ROYGBIV colors
correlated with musical
notes and symbols for the
planets.

(Wikimedia Commons)

Fig.28: Standard RYB Color

Wheel (Wikimedia Commons)
 RGB Color System

The RGB color model is an additive color model in which red, green, and blue light
are added together in various ways to reproduce a broad array of colors. The name of the
model comes from the initials of the three additive primary colors, red, green, and blue.

The main purpose of the RGB color model is for the sensing, representation, and
display of images in electronic systems, such as televisions and computers, though it has
also been used in conventional photography. Before the electronic age, the RGB color
model already had a solid theory behind it, based in human perception of colors.

RGB is a device-dependent color space: different devices detect or reproduce a

given RGB value differently, since the color elements (such as phosphors or dyes) and their
response to the individual R, G, and B levels vary from manufacturer to manufacturer, or
even in the same device over time. Thus an RGB value does not define the same color
across devices without some kind of color management.

Typical RGB input devices are color TV and video cameras, image scanners, and
digital cameras. Typical RGB output devices are TV sets of various technologies (CRT, LCD,
plasma, etc.), computer and mobile phone displays, video projectors, multicolor LED
displays, and large screens as JumboTron, etc. Color printers, on the other hand, are usually
not RGB devices, but subtractive color devices (typically CMYK color model).

Fig. 29: The RGB Cube (WIkimedia Commons)

CMYK Color System

CMYK, short for cyan, magenta, yellow, and key (black), and often referred to as
process color or four color) is a subtractive color model, used in color printing, also used
to describe the printing process itself. Though it varies by print house, press operator, press
manufacturer and press run, ink is typically applied in the order of the abbreviation.

The CMYK model works by partially or entirely masking certain colors on the typically
white background (that is, absorbing particular wavelengths of light). Such a model is called
subtractive because inks “subtract” brightness from white.
 In additive color models such as RGB, white is the “additive” combination of all
primary colored lights, while black is the absence of light. In the CMYK model, it is just the
opposite: white is the natural color of the paper or other background, while black results from
a full combination of colored inks. To save money on ink, and to produce deeper black

Fig. 30: The CMY (cyan, magenta,

yellow) Colors with their secondaries
(red, green, blue) and their mixture
(black). (Wikimedia Commons)

tones, unsaturated and dark colors are produced by substituting black ink for the
combination of cyan, magenta and yellow.

The “black” generated by mixing Cyan, Magenta and Yellow primaries is

unsatisfactory, and so four-color printing uses black ink in addition to the subtractive
primaries. Common reasons for using black ink include:

• Text is typically printed in black and includes fine detail (such as serifs), so to
reproduce text or other finely detailed outlines using three inks without slight
blurring would require impractically accurate registration (i.e. all three images
would need to be aligned extremely precisely).

• A combination of 100% cyan, magenta, and yellow inks soaks the paper with ink,
making it slower to dry, and sometimes impractically so.

• A combination of 100% cyan, magenta, and yellow inks often results in a muddy
dark brown color that does not quite appear black. Adding black ink absorbs
more light, and yields much “blacker” blacks.

• Using black ink is less expensive than using the corresponding amounts of
colored inks.

Munsell Color System

The Munsell system was derived from the published book called “Munsell Book of
Color” written by Alfred H. Munsell in 1915. It divides hue into 100 equal divisions around a
color circle. This is similar in approach to the Newton Color Circle except that the circle is
distorted by assigning a unit of radial distance to each perceptable difference in saturation
(called units of chroma). Since there are more perceptable differences for some hues, the
figure will bulge outward to 18 values for some hues compared to only 10 for another.
Perpendicular to the plane formed by hue and saturation is the brightness scale divided into
a scale of "value" from 0 (black) to 10 (white). A point in the color space so defined is
specified by hue, value, and chroma in the form H V C.
 Fig.31: The Munsell color system, showing: a circle of hues at
value 5 chroma 6; the neutral values from 0 to 10; and the
chromas of purple-blue (5PB) at value 5. (Wikimedia Commons)

Devised by Munsell in 1905 (and later revised), this system relies on a system like
that of Newton’s color wheel to locate hue and saturation on a disk using circular
coordinates. Hue is determined along the edge of the disk, and saturation the distance from
the center. Brightness is measured along the axis running perpendicular to the disk, creating
a cylindrical coordinate system.

It was designed to allow the viewer to describe and compare colors of objects. They
must be viewed under the same illumination, however. The illumination used is north skylight
(the one usually favored by painters).

Hue: 10 hues, each subdivided into 10 subdivisions, for 100 equally-spaced subhues

Chroma (Saturation): 0 (gray) to 10-18 (full color), depending on the hue

Value (Brightness): 0 (black) to 10 (white)

Designations: H V/C
 The actual 3D shape of the system is somewhat irregular, as it is set by how well
the average human eye can distinguish the various combinations of HVC.

Fig.32: Munsell Color Tree

(http://www.tasi.ac.uk/images/mun
sell_tree.jpg)

Fig. 33: A Munsell Color Circle with 5 principal hues:

(clockwise from top) red [5R], yellow [5Y], green [5G], blue [5B],
and purple [5P]. All hues are from Value 5 Chroma 6 in the
equator of the color sphere, thus the 5 attached before the first
letter.
 Ostwald Color System

The Ostwald system was derived from the publication “Color Atlas” in 1919, Like the
Munsell color system match colors to a set of standard samples. It was formulated by Nobel
Prize for Chemistry 1909 Awardee Wilhelm Ostwald. The Ostwald system creates a color
space based on dominant wavelength, purity, and luminance, mapping the values of hue,
saturation and brightness. Establishing the values for these parameters is done with a disc
colorimeter which mixes on a disk amounts of the pure spectral color at the dominant
wavelength with white and black. Thus the point in the Ostwald color space is represented
by values C, W, and B to represent the percentages of the circle. For example 35, 15, 50
represents 35% full color, 15% white, and 50% black.

The OSTWALD system is based upon an analysis of reflectance curves.

Ostwald Color Space

Here, the color-space is essentially defined by a double cone. The hue is specified by
the direction away from the central axis, as it was in both Newton’s color wheel and the
Munsell system. In the Ostwald system, the hue is set by the dominant wavelength of the
reflectance curve for each color. In a manner similar to the other two systems, saturation is
determined by the distance from the central axis, and brightness the location along this axis.
So here we have

Dominant Wavelength (Hue)

Purity (Saturation)

Luminance (Brightness)

If the “pure (or full) color” is at the “equator” of the color-space, going toward the
“north pole” gives the effect of adding white at the expense of the color while keeping black
fixed. Going toward the “south pole” gives the effect of adding black at the expense of the
pure color while keeping the white fixed.
 Fig.34: Ostwald Color Space is a double cone with the north pole being
white and the south pole being black.

(http://www.daicolor.co.jp/english/color_e/color_e01.html)

Oswald Color Triangle

Description of Processes:

Tinting: adding white to the full color

Toning: adding gray to the full color

Shading: adding black to the full color

Natural Color System

The Natural Color System (NCS) is a proprietary perceptual color model published
by the Scandinavian Colour Institute (Skandinaviska Färginstitutet AB) of Stockholm,
Sweden. It is based on the color opponency description of color vision, first proposed by
German physiologist Ewald Hering. The system is usually used for matching colors (using
printed reference cards), rather than mixing colors.

Fig.35: A color circle

derived from opponent
color processing from
the original illustrations
by Ewald Hering (1920).
(Handprint Media)
 NCS Elementary Colors

Fig.36: NCS Primary Colors (NCSColor.com)

The NCS system starts with six elementary colours, which are
perceived by human beings as being "pure". For example, the elementary red
colour is only red, not a red with a little bit of yellow or a reddish-blue. These
six elementary colours correspond with the perception of colour in our brain.

The four chromatic elementary colours are Yellow (Y), Red (R), Blue (B) and Green
(G), and the two non-chromatic elementary colours are White (W) and Black (S). [Black
translates as svart in Swedish.] All other colours can be described in terms of their degree of
visual resemblance to the elementary colours. These resemblances are the elementary
attributes (yellowness, redness, blueness, greenness, whiteness and blackness).

NCS colour notations are based on how much a given colour seems to resemble two
or more of these six elementary colours.

Fig.37: NCS Color Space (NCSColor.com)

NCS Color Space

 In the three-dimensional model named the NCS Colour Space, all imaginable
surface colours can be placed and thus be given an exact NCS notation.

In order to more easily understand the parts included in the NCS notation, the double cone is
divided into two two-dimensional models, the NCS Colour Circle and the NCS Colour
Triangle.

NCS Color Circle

Fig.38: NCS Color Space (NCSColor.com)

The NCS Colour Circle is a horizontal section through the middle of the colour space
seen from above where the four chromatic elementary colours are placed like the cardinal
points of a compass.

Each quadrant between two elementary colours has been divided into 100 equal
steps, where every 10th step is shown in the NCS Colour Circle. The hue of the colour you
find in the NCS Colour Circle, it describes whether the colour is a yellow or a yellowish red
etc. In the figure the hue Y90R, a yellow colour (10%) with 90% redness, has been marked.

Pure grey colours have no hue and are given nuance notations followed by -N to
describe Neutral. The pure grey scale is a scale from white to black and we provide NCS
Colour Samples from 0300-N, which is white, to 9000-N which is black.

NCS Color Triangle

The NCS Colour Triangle is a vertical section through the colour space for the
different hues. The base of the triangle is the grey scale from white (W) to black(S) and the
apex of the triangle is the maximum chromaticness (C) in the current hue, here Y90R. In the
triangle you can find the nuance of the colour, which shows the visual amount of whiteness,
blackness and chromaticness.

Fig.39: NCS Color Triangle (NCSColor.com)

NCS Notation

NCS Sample Notation

 In for example the NCS notation 1050-Y90R, 1050 describes the nuance, i.e. the
degree of resemblance to whiteness (40%) and blackness which is 10% and to the
maximum chromaticness which is 50%. The whiteness is not shown but is the remaining 40
% (100-10-50=40). The hue Y90R describes the degree of resemblance between Yellow
and Red (Y and R). Y90R describes yellow with 90% redness and 10% yellowness.

Pantone Color Matching System

The Pantone Matching System (PMS) was created in 1963 to make a uniform
standard for spot colors. There can be very drastic differences in color when you choose a
PMS color and then print the job as four-color process. It is highly recommended that if you
are going to print four-color, and you have chosen a Pantone color to match, that you have a
PMS book that shows a four-color swatch next to the PMS color so you will be aware of
possible color shifts. This chart is to give you an idea of the PMS Colors... use a PMS book
for an accurate match. Colors may vary among different computer monitors as well.

Pantone Goe System

On September 5, 2007 Pantone introduced the Goe System. Goe consists of over
2,000 new colors in a brand new matching and numbering system.

Fig.40: A sample of the PANTONE Color System (Pantone Inc.)

 CIE Color Systems

The Commission Internationale d'Eclairage / International Commission on

Illumination (CIE) system characterizes colors by a luminance parameter Y and two color
coordinates x and y which specify the point on the chromaticity diagram. This system offers
more precision in color measurement than do the Munsell and Ostwald systems because the
parameters are based on the spectral power distribution (SPD) of the light emitted from a
colored object and are factored by sensitivity curves which have been measured for the
human eye. Based on the fact that the human eye has three different types of color sensitive
cones, the response of the eye is best described in terms of three "tristimulus values".
However, once this is accomplished, it is found that any color can be expressed in terms of
the two color coordinates x and y.

The colors which can be matched by combining a given set of three primary colors
(such as the blue, green, and red of a color television screen) are represented on the
chromaticity diagram by a triangle joining the coordinates for the three colors.

In the study of the perception of color, one of the first mathematically defined color
spaces was the CIE 1931 XYZ color space (also known as CIE 1931 color space), created
by the Commission internationale de l'éclairage/ International Commission on Illumination/
(CIE) in 1931. The outer curved boundary is the spectral (or monochromatic) locus, with
wavelengths shown in nanometers. Note that the colors depicted depend on the color space
of the device on which you are viewing the image, and no device has a gamut large enough
to present an accurate representation of the chromaticity at every position.

The CIE XYZ color space was derived from a series of experiments done in the late
1920s by W. David Wright and John Guild. Their experimental results were combined into
the specification of the CIE RGB color space, from which the CIE XYZ color space was
derived.

Fig.41: The CIE 1931

color space chromaticity
diagram. (Wikimedia
Commons)
 CIE L*a*b* (CIELAB) is the most complete color space specified by the International
Commission on Illumination (Commission Internationale d'Eclairage, hence its CIE
initialism). It describes all the colors visible to the human eye and was created to serve as a
device independent model to be used as a reference.

The three coordinates of CIELAB represent the lightness of the color (L*, L* = 0
yields black and L* = 100 indicates diffuse white; specular white may be higher), its position
between red/magenta and green (a*, negative values indicate green while positive values
indicate magenta) and its position between yellow and blue (b*, negative values indicate
blue and positive values indicate yellow). The asterisk (*) after L, a and b are part of the full
name, since they represent L*, a* and b*, to distinguish them from Hunter's L, a and b,
described below.

Since the L*a*b* model is a three-dimensional model, it can only be represented

properly in a three-dimensional space. Two-dimensional depictions are chromaticity
diagrams; sections of the color solid with a fixed lightness. It is crucial to realize that the
visual representations of the full gamut of colors in this model are never accurate; they are
there just to help in understanding the concept.

A related color space, the CIE 1976 (L*, u*, v*) color space, which preserves the
same L* as L*a*b* but has a different representation of the chromaticity components.
CIELUV can also be expressed in cylindrical form (CIELCH), with the chromaticity
components replaced by correlates of chroma and hue.

Fig.42: 1976 CIELAB Color Space.

(http://www.newsandtech.com/issues/2002/02-02/ifra/02-
02_greybalance.htm)
 Fig. 43 The 1976 CIELUV Color Space (aka. CIE Luv*)

(hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu & Photo Research, Inc.)

The CIE 1976 (L*, u*, v*) color space, also known as the CIELUV color space, is a
color space adopted by the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) in 1976, as a
simple-to-compute transformation of the 1931 CIE XYZ color space, but which attempted
perceptual uniformity. It is extensively used for applications such as computer graphics
which deal with colored lights. Although additive mixtures of different colored lights will fall on
a line in CIELUV's uniform chromaticity diagram (dubbed the CIE 1976 UCS), such additive
mixtures will not, contrary to popular belief, fall along a line in the CIELUV color space
unless the mixtures are constant in lightness.

Conceptually, the big advantage attributed to the 1976 diagram is that the distance
between points on the diagram is approximately proportional to the perceived color
difference.

The CIE system characterizes colors by a luminance parameter Y and two color
coordinates x and y which specify the point on the chromaticity diagram.

Since CIELAB and CIELUV, the CIE has been incorporating an increasing number of
color appearance phenomena into their models, to better model color vision. These color
appearance models, of which CIELAB is a simple example, has culminated with CIECAM02.
Fig. 44: The blackbody curve on the CIELUV 1976 Diagram. As a heated object
becomes incandescent, it first glows red, then yellow, white, and finally blue. One of the
parameters used to characterize these light sources is their "color temperature", the
temperature associated with the nearest point on the blackbody curve.
(hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu & Photo Research, Inc.)
 5.0 UNITS OF LIGHT:
QUANTITIES AND LAWS

Transmission, Reflection, and Absorption

Light is a form of radiated electromagnetic wave emitted by vibrating
molecules. Each vibration travels away from the surface at the speed of light.
Because the speed is constant (), the frequency of vibration determines the
frequency and length of the wave. (Moore, 17) When the radiation strikes a
substance, it is either reflected, absorbed, or transmitted (if the material is
transparent)

I. Laws of Light Distribution

A. Light Control and Distribution

The development of modern light sources and the recent rise in cost of energy
has heightened the need to adopt only the most efficient lighting method. The key to
efficiency in lighting methods is light control and distribution and its fundamental
importance is enumerated as follows:

1) To utilize light sources efficiently. In the architectural program of such buildings as

factories and schools, economics is a critical factor.
2) To achieve lighting effects that cannot be achieved in any other way. For example,
to throw light through small, dark openings.
3) To control brightness

To achieve these ends, an understanding of the laws of light distribution is

necessary. In a similar way to sound, light waves are acted upon by the surfaces
which they meet in at least 2 of 3 ways:

1) They will be reflected back

2) They may pass through the medium
3) Some waves will be absorbed by the material

1. Reflection
- is the process in which part of the light rays falling on a surface is thrown
back into the general direction from where they came from.
- When light strikes an opaque reflecting surface, only a certain part of the
incident light is reflected, the remainder being absorbed as heat. The
percentage of total light falling on the surface which is reflected back is
called the reflection factor = RF.
- 1.1 Four Types of Reflection:

1) Specular reflection- A ray of light striking the surface maybe reflected in

several different ways depending upon the nature of the surface. If the surface
is smooth, the light ray will be reflected as a further simple ray of light, the
angles between both the incident and reflected rays and the vertical to the
surface will be equal. (i.e. ceramic, mirror, glass)

Figure 45.

2) Diffuse reflection- occurs when the reflected light is scattered in all

directions so much so that the reflecting surface will appear equally bright all
over. This eliminates any directionality of the reflected light. Flat white paint
and unfinished white plaster are good examples of diffuse surfaces

Figure 46.
 3) Spread reflection- the reflected light is so diffused that a clear image of
the incident ray cannot be seen, yet the general direction of the
reflected image obeys the laws of specular reflection. (i.e. etched
metal, smooth plaster)

Figure 47

4) Scattered reflection- The incident ray is broken up into a multiplicity

of separate reflected rays. Rippled glass and crinkled metal foil are
good examples. Such surfaces sparkle because at many angles of
view the incident ray is seen as though it was coming from a series of
small mirrors.

2. Transmission
- is the process by which part of the light rays falling on a surface goes
through the surface in the original direction of the incident light rays.

2.1 Four Types of Transmission:

1) Direct transmission- this transmission occurs through clear materials; the

incident ray passes through the material, with a loss due to absorption and
reflection of bouncing light rays. The angle at which the ray leaves is the same
as that at which it entered, but with a shift in position because of refraction.
 Figure 48.

2) Diffuse transmission- occurs when the light rays beaming through a

transmitting medium are scattered in all directions. This phenomenon
observes the directional characteristics of the incident light beam and hides
the shape of the light source.

Figure 49

3) Spread transmission- the emerging ray is so diffused that a clear image of

the incident ray cannot be seen, but the general direction of the diffused beam
follows the pattern of direct transmission. At certain angles of view the
material will be brighter than at others. (i.e. acid-etched or sand-blasted
(frosted) glass or plastic).
 Figure 50

4) Scattered transmission- the incident ray is broken up into a multiplicity of

regularly transmitted rays. At many angles of view, the incident ray can be
seen at great brightness. Such material has sparkle and must be used with
caution if uncomfortable brightness is to be avoided. Factory ribbed, stippled
and pebbled glass or plastic exhibit this characteristic.

2.2 Phenomena accompanying Transmission

1) Refraction- occurs when a light ray leaves one material and enters
another of greater or lesser optical density, thus changing the velocity
and direction of light.

Figure 51

2) Total reflection or Internal reflection- the fact that a ray bends outward
when it emerges from a denser material presents certain problems. When
the angle of incidence increases above a certain value, the ray does not
emerge but is reflected back inside the material—it is “internally reflected”.
This principle is used in the reflective prism.
 Figure 52 Figure 53

3) Translucence- materials that diffuse the light passing through them are
described as translucent. This diffusion results from the transparent value
of the material and by the unevenness of its lucent surface.

4) The increase in the reflection of light as the angle of incidence to a

transmitting surface increases
- if a material has a high transmission factor, such as polished glass,
when light travels perpendicular to the surface; only a very small amount
of light is reflected back as the angle of incidence increases; when the
beam of light lies nearly flat along the plane of the glass, nearly 100% of
the light is reflected; consequently no light is transmitted.
It can be seen that there is considerable difficulty in illuminating
pictures covered with glass. If the light source is far back, then its
reflected image can be seen from the viewing position, and, if it is close to
the picture, the amount of light reflected increases so that only a few light
rays gets through the glass.

3. Absorption
- process by which light rays are taken in by the material surface and converted
into heat energy.
RF + TF + AF = 100%
TF ≠ 100%
RF ≠ 100%
AF ≠ 0%
Units of Measure

Solid Angle

Solid Angle (ω) is a portion of space around a point described by a cone whose tip is
exactly at the point source (Schiler,13). This can be determined by defining a sphere
centered around the tip of the source. The sphere contains all of the solid angles around the
point. A given solid angle contains only a portion of the sphere intercepted by the cone
proportional to the ratio of the cone's base to the total surface of the sphere. The unit of
measurement for solid angle is steradian (sr).

Figure 54

A 1-ft square on the surface of an imaginary sphere with a radius of one foot would
define one steradian. It is the solid angle from the point that is being described, but as long
as the radius unit is the same as the surface area unit, it describes the same geometric
angle. A steradian unit could be defined as one square foot at the distance of one foot
(English unit) or one square meter from the distance of one meter. Although the surface area
is different, the steradian would still be the same. Doubling the radial distance would reduce
the same surface area into one-quarter of a steradian. The steradian measures a solid angle
that continues to expand, resulting in much larger surface area but lower density for the
same amount of energy (Schiler, 13)

Luminous Flux

Luminous flux (Φ) is the photometric term for the flow of light. It is analogous to the
rate of flow of water from a sprinkler head (measured in gallons per minute). The unit of
measurement of luminous flux is called Lumen. Luminous flux is express by the equation

Φ =dQ / dt

where Q is the luminous energy or the amount of energy transmitted in the visual spectrum.

One lumen is defined as the luminous flux of light produced by a light source that
emits one candela of luminous intensity over a solid angle of one steradian.
 =

Luminous Flux measured

in Lumens Water Flow Rate measured in
Gal/min
Figure 55

Luminous Intensity

A light source emits light (luminous flux) in various directions from the source. The
amount emitted may vary in each direction. Luminous Intensity, (I) is the amount of luminous
flux in a given direction measured in lumens per solid angle (Moore, 19). Candela (cd) is the
unit used to describe luminous intensity, and refers to the rate at which the energy is leaving
the source in a specific direction.

Luminous Intensity, I =dΦ / dω

Luminous intensity Water flow intensity

- measured in - measured gallons per
Candelas 45° cone
Figure 56

Illuminance

When the luminous flux strike a surface, it is said to be illuminated. The light energy
arriving at the surface is called illumiance, E. Illuminance is the density (concentration) of
luminous flux incident on a surface. It is similar to the gallons of water sprayed over a
square-foot area. The unit of measurement of illuminance is footcandle (lumens/sq.ft) or Lux
(lumens/sq.m)

E=F / A (arriving)
where F =the flux and A= surface area

Illuminance: 1 Lux or 1
Footcandle Water Collection Rate: 1 Gal/sq. ft./hr

Figure 57

Exitance and Luminance

The amount of light leaving or exiting a surface can be identified as directional or non
directional, reflected or transmitted (Schiler, 15). The term for the total luminous flux density
leaving a surface is called exitance, M. With disregard to the direction, exitance is used to
be called emittance. Exitance, M is measured in lumen per square foot.

M =dΦ /dA (leaving)

The magnitude of exitance would depend on the surface reflectivity (if it is being
reflected) or transmissivity (if the light is being transmitted). In particular, the term used to
define the luminous flux density leaving a projected surface in a particular direction is
Luminance, L. This is often called brightness and it provides us a means to measure how
bright the surface looks.

The unit of measurement for luminance is footlambert (fL), which is equal to one lumen
per square foot. It is named after Johann Heinrich Lambert (1728–1777), a German
mathematician, physicist and astronomer. For a perfect reflective surface, the incidence
illuminance (light receive) of one foot-candle would be equal to the luminance (light
leaving) of one foot-Lambert.

• Lambert’s Emission Law

Lambert’s Emission Law or Lambert’s Cosine Law states that the observed radiated light
is directly proportional to the cosine of the angle θ between the observer's line of sight and
the surface normal

• lluminance vs Luminance

For a perfect reflective surface, the incidence illuminance (light receive) of one foot-
candle would be equal to the luminance (light leaving) of one foot-Lambert.
Figure 58

Figure 59

Inverse Square Law

From a point source, the luminous flux spreads in all direction away from the source.
Because the direction is not parallel, luminous flux spread over an even larger area as it
travels further away from the source. The resultant luminous flux is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance from the source to the surface.
 E = I /d2
This might also be express as
E2 = E1 (d1/d2)2

For instance, when the distance from the

source is doubled, the same amount of
luminous flux is spread over an area four
times as large and the illuminance is
reduce to one-quarter or 25 %. Similarly,
when the distance is tripled, the illuminance
is reduced to one-ninth.

Figure 60

Cosine Law

The surface intercepts the light at maximum if it is oriented perpendicular to the

source (normal to the source of light). If the surface is tilted relative to the direction of light,
the area exposed to the source is lesser resulting to reduced illuminance. If the surface is
tilted parallel to the direction of light, no light is intercepted and the illuminance is zero.

For surfaces that are not perpendicular to the source, the illuminance is reduced by
the cosine of the angle of the incidence. This is called the cosine effect. It is analogous to the
glass collecting rainwater; water collection is at maximum if the opening of the glass faces
the direction of rainwater.

Figure 61
 E2 = E1cosα = E1sinβ

When the surface is tilted at 30°, the illumination is

reduced by a factor of 0.87

45°, reduction factor of 0.71

60°, reduction factor of 0.50
90° (surface parallel to direction of light), reduction
factor is 0, that is no light is intercepted.

Figure 62

6. PHOTOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS

Photometry

Photometry is the science of measuring light quantity perceived by the eyes. It is

usually represented using graphs (polar, rectilinear, or beam angle) or tabulated.
The table provides luminous intensity values at different angle
The graphs provide visual representation of the distribution of luminous intensity and
help us visualize the efficiency, for instance, of a luminaire.

Figure 63
Photometric Data/Reports

Photometric data or reports describe the direction and intensity of the luminous flux
by a luminaire. Most Photometric Reports include the description of the luminaire setup
(lamp type, ballast, etc), light Intensity Distribution in candelas, expressed as function of
horizontal and vertical angle from the luminaire, table listing total lumen output from the
luminaire in specific zone, spacing criterion of multiple luminaires and coefficient of utilization
table for quickly calculating average room illuminances

Photometric Graphs

1. Luminous Intensity Distribution Curve using Polar Graphs

Luminous Intensity distribution curves are usually

represented using polar graphs because it allow us to visualize
both the orientation and light distribution of a luminaire.
Figure 64

A vertical candlepower distribution curve is obtained by taking measurements at

various angles of elevation through the center of the light in vertical plane. Unless specified,
the vertical plane is used to represent an average such as would be obtained by rotating the
lamp or light fixture about its vertical axis.

Candlepower curves can be plotted on the choice of plane (perpendicular or parallel).

Each lamp and light-fixture combination has a unique set of candlepower distribution.

Figure 65

The distribution depends upon the reflector design, shielding type, and lamp-ballast
selection. For light distributed symmetrically in all direction around the vertical axis, then only
half of the curve is shown, with the missing half implied to be an exact match.
Figure 66

Generally, luminaires are classified by the International Commission on Illumination

(CIE) according the percentage of light distribution directed upward or downward as shown
below:

Direct: 90-100% downward

Figure 67

Semi-direct:60-90% downward, 10-40% upward

Figure 68
Semi-indirect:10-40% downward, 60-90% upward

Figure 69

Indirect lighting:90-100% upward

Figure 70

General diffuse:40-60% upward, 40-60% downward

Figure 71

2. Rectilinear or Cartesian Graphs

Light intensity distribution can also be plotted on a graph of angle vs. intensity on a
Cartesian plane. It is use for lamps that have rapid distribution variation over a short angular
distance. It is used as a substitute to polar graphs
 Figure
72

The horizontal scale represents the degree from the beam axis and the vertical scale
represents the luminous intensity in candela

3. Beam Angle

Beam angle is the angle within which the diversity of illumination produced on a
surface at right angle containing the luminous flux. It is represented by an angular cone of
light created by the distribution of the luminaire in the plane of the beam axis

Beam angle is an alternative to polar graphs that represent the light distribution of luminaire
(including the width of coverage) at various distances. It is useful in determining spaces
between luminaires

In order to get useful figure, beam angle should be reduced to 10°

Figure 73

4. Spectral Power Distribution Curve

Spectral power distribution chart is use to illustrate the light radiation spectrum emitted
by the lamp or luminaire. It is used to provide the user with a visual profile of the color
characteristics of a light source. It is shown as a radiant power emitted by the source at each
wavelength or band of wavelengths over the visible region (380 to 760 nm).
The spectral power distribution of a light is directly related to the power distribution of the
light. Changes in power distribution of the lamp would mean changes in the spectral
emission. A flat or smooth curve implies less distortion on object colors than with few
discreet line

Daylight and Incandescent produce smooth, continuous spectra

HID produce discrete lines or bands
Fluorescent Lamp has both continuous and discrete spectrum -- a continuous or
broad spectra from their phosphor, plus the line spectra of the mercury discharge.
The Vertical axis correspond to Radiant Power and the Horizontal axis correspond
to wavelength

Daylight HID-Mercury

Incandescent Fluorescent

Figure 74
References

• Young, Hugh and Freedman, Roger. University Physics. 10th ed. 2002.
Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd. Singapore

• Jacob, Stanley et.al. Structure and Function in Man. 5th ed. 1982. Merriam &
Webster Inc. Manila, Philippines

• Schiler, Marc. Simplified Design of Building Lighting. 1992. John Wiley &
Sons. Canada

• Moore, Fuller. Concepts and Practice of Architectural Daylighting.1991.Van

Nostrand Reinhold. New York