Radiation Tables (abridged)

Stefan-Boltzmann constant, σ = 5.7 G 10-8 W/m2.K4

λT (μm.K) F0-λ (T) λT (μm.K) F0-λ (T)

100 0.00000 7000 0.80814

500 0.00000 8000 0.85633
600 0.00000 9000 0.89007
700 0.00000 10000 0.91424
800 0.00002 12000 0.94514
900 0.00009 13000 0.95518
1000 0.00032 14000 0.96294
1100 0.00091 14500 0.96607
1200 0.00213 15000 0.96902
1300 0.00432 16000 0.97386
1400 0.00779 16500 0.97581
1500 0.01285 17000 0.97774
2000 0.06673 18000 0.98090
2500 0.16137 19000 0.98349
3000 0.27325 20000 0.98564
4000 0.48090 25000 0.99226
5000 0.63378 30000 0.99529
6000 0.73785 35000 0.99695
Convection heat transfer
Part 1
Heat Transfer
School of Civil and Mechanical Engineering
Curtin University

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Discussion of physics

Key characteristics and parameters

Thermal boundary layer

Governing equations

Solving equations

Alternative approaches

Nusselt number analysis

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Convection occurs when a fluid is in contact with a surface that has temperature difference with fluid.

Heat is carried away (or provided) by the fluid particles.

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Forced Convection: Fluid stream is induced by external effect (e.g. blower, fan)

𝑄 𝑄

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Natural Convection: Fluid stream is induced by temperature and accordingly density gradient. Density variation induced
by temperature difference is known as thermal Buoyancy.

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Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer (HBL)

A layer of viscous fluid, close to the solid surface, where velocity increases from zero (no-slip at wall) to free
stream velocity.

u
0.99 @
U

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Thermal Boundary Layer (TBL)

A layer of viscous fluid, close to solid surface, where temperature varies from wall temperature to a free
stream temperature, under certain profile.

T TS
0.99 @ T
T Ts

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Importance of TBL:

In both natural and forced convections, resistance to heat flow is concentrated in a thin layer adjacent to the
surface which is known as Thermal Boundary Layer (TBL)

Thermal Boundary Layer

𝛿𝑇 Fluid

Solid

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Correlating hydrodynamic & thermal boundary layer

Developing Fully developed

𝛿
is function of Prandtl number (material properties) which is named
𝛿𝑇
after the German physicist “Ludwig Prandtl”

Viscous diffusion rate Cp

Pr
Thermal diffusion rate k

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Convection mechanism

𝑄 = ℎ 𝐴 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞)

Area Temperature difference

Heat Transfer rate
(m2) (K)
(W)

Heat transfer coefficient

(W/m2.K)

• Simplify the entire mechanism into one coefficient, named convective heat transfer coefficient,

• Convective heat transfer coefficient from a surface is determined by characteristics of HBL and TBL.

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Convection mechanism

• Heat from solid surface is initially conducted into the fluid through no-slip boundary (Conduction)

• Subsequently carried away by stream of fluid particles (Advection)

Convection

Convection hD
Nusselt number, Nu
Conduction k

Heat Transfer 431 / Industrial Heat Transfer 631

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Nusselt number and Heat transfer coefficient

Depends on material properties (e.g. Cp, k, μ)

Flow condition (e.g. Velocity, Laminar/turbulent)

Geometry (e.g. shape, size)

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Basic equations in forced convection (Steady 2D)

Mass conservation (continuity) equation

Momentum conservation equation

Energy equation

Heat Transfer 431 / Industrial Heat Transfer 631

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Governing equation: Continuity

vdx vdydx
y

udy udy udydx

x

vdx

( v) ( u) 0
x y

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Governing equation: Momentum

y y dy
y
𝑦

dy u v
xy xy
y xy yx
y x
dx
xy
x
xy
u
y
Fy & x
p 2
x
Fx x x
dx
x v
xy
y
p 2
y
xy

𝑥
2 2
u u p u u
u v Fx
x y x x2 y2
2 2
v v p v v
u v Fy
x y y x2 y2

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Governing equation: Momentum

Navier-Stocks equations

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
ρ (𝑢 + 𝑣 ) = 𝐹𝑥 − + μ( 2 + 2 ) Inertial terms
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 External forces
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣 Pressure gradient
Viscous (diffusive) terms
ρ (𝑢 + 𝑣 ) = 𝐹𝑦 − + μ ( 2 + 2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

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Governing equation: Energy

q y dx (q y dx)dy
y

q x dy

q x dy (q x dy )dx
x

q y dx

T T
qy k qx k
y x

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Governing equation: Energy

In addition to heat flow by conduction, it is necessary to consider heat generation by

Viscous effects (𝑢𝜏𝑥𝑢 ),

Surface stresses (𝑢𝜏𝜎𝑥 ) and,
Internal energy.

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 2

ρ𝑐𝑝 (𝑢 + 𝑣 ) = 𝑘 ( 2 + 2 ) + 2μ ( 2 + 2 ) + ( + )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Convection Conduction Viscous

dissipation

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Governing equation

𝜕 𝜕
(ρ𝑢) + (ρ𝑣) = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
ρ (𝑢 + 𝑣 ) = 𝐹𝑥 − + μ ( 2 + 2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2 𝑣 𝜕2 𝑣
ρ (𝑢 + 𝑣 ) = 𝐹𝑦 − + μ ( 2 + 2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
ρ𝑐𝑝 (𝑢 + 𝑣 ) = 𝑘 ( 2 + 2 ) + 2μ ( 2 + 2 ) + ( + )2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

In order to obtain the heat transfer rate from solid surface to fluid, the mass, momentum and energy equations are necessary to be
solved with appropriate boundary conditions. Once temperature and velocity distribution (profile) are known, the heat flux can be
estimated.

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 Convection

Approaches to solve equations

Exact mathematical solution of B.L. equations

Approximate analysis of B.L. equations using integral method

Numerical Analysis

Dimensional analysis, combined with experiments

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Exact solution for smooth flat plate

Assumptions

Flow is steady, t
0

Fluid is incompressible, 0

Boundary layer thickness is so small, u v

In the thin boundary layer, streamwise variation is negligible as compared to variation normal to
surface,
y x

u v
0
x y
2
u u u
u v
x y y2
2
T T T u 2
C p (u v ) k 2 ( )
x y y2 y

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Exact solution for flat plate; Blasius solution

u v
0
x y uy 0
0 on the surface
2
u u u
u v uy U
x y y2 In the free stream

2
T T T u 2
C p (u v ) k 2 ( )
x y y2 y

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 Convection

Exact solution for flat plate; Blasius solution

Blasius applied a transformation set of two partial equations (i.e. continuity and x-
• Defining non-dimensional momentum) into single ordinary differential equation.
variable and function
1

U
y
x

Defining non-dimensional f( ) xU f ( )
function by involving xU
stream-function (ψ)

u v
Where by definition of stream- y x
function

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Exact solution for flat plate; Blasius solution

U
• Defining non-dimensional u xU f U f
variable and function y y x
1

u
• Transforming equation and f
U
boundary condition
2

1 U f 1 U f
v f xU f xU
x 2 x x 2 x x

1 U
v f -f
2 x

Differential terms

2 2
u 1 U u U u U
f
f U f
x 2 y x y2 x

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 Convection

Exact solution for flat plate; Blasius solution

• Defining non-dimensional
variable and function
1 Transformed equation

• Transforming equation and 2f f f 0

boundary condition
2

Transformed B.C.

f (0) f (0) 0 On the surface

f ( ) 1 In free stream

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 Convection

Exact solution for flat plate; Blasius solution

η u/U∞
0 0
0.00015141 5.02E-05
0.00030282 0.00010048
• Defining non-dimensional 0.00045423 0.00015071
variable and function 0.00060564 0.00020095
1
0.00136269 0.00045214
0.00211974 0.00070333
0.00287678 0.00095452
• Transforming equation and
boundary condition 0.00363383 0.00120571
2 0.00741907 0.00246165
0.01120432 0.00371759
0.01498956 0.00497354
• Solving and obtaining Hydraulic
B.L. thickness
3

4.65258734 0.98364593
4.78875136 0.98701499
Solving the ordinary differential equation it will be obtained that 4.92491538 0.98975581
5.06107939 0.9919586

U
@y f 1 5.0
x

U x 5x
Re x (Hydraulic B.L thickness)
Re x
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 Convection

Exact solution for flat plate; Blasius solution

• Defining non-dimensional
variable and function
1
For laminar flow over a flat plat, it could be proven that

• Transforming equation and

boundary condition
2 Pr 1 / 3
T

• Solving and obtaining Hydraulic

B.L. thickness Therefore, heat flux on the surface
3

• Correlating hydraulic and

thermal B.L. T Re1x/ 2 Pr 1 / 3
4 q' ' k 0.332k (T Tw )
y y 0
x

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 Convection

Exact solution for flat plate; Blasius solution

• Defining non-dimensional Heat flux

variable and function
1
Q L

qdx 0.664 Re1L/ 2 Pr 1 / 3 b(T Tw )

• Transforming equation and A 0

boundary condition
2
Local heat transfer coefficient

• Solving and obtaining Hydraulic

B.L. thickness q k
3 hx 0.332 Re1L/ 2 Pr 1 / 3
(T Tw ) x

• Correlating hydraulic and thermal

B.L.
4 Average Nusselt number
Local Nusselt number

Nu x 0.332 Re1x/ 2 Pr 1 / 3 Nu L 0.664 Re1L/ 2 Pr 1 / 3

• Finding Nusselt number
5

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 Convection

Exact solution for flat plate; Blasius solution

U
• Defining non-dimensional y f( )
1
variable and function x xU

• Transforming equation and

boundary condition
2f f f 0
2

U 5x
• Solving and obtaining Hydraulic @y f 1 5.0
3
B.L. thickness x Re x

• Correlating hydraulic and thermal

B.L. Pr 1 / 3
4
T

• Finding Nusselt number Nu x 0.332 Re1L/ 2 Pr 1 / 3

5

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 Convection

Approximate solution for flat plate

Integral method / Hydraulic B.L. thickness

U∞
• Momentum conservation
1 B C δ
Ufree stream, T∞

dx
Ts A D

Momentum change across C.V = Net acting force

d
u (U u )dy w
dx 0

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 Convection

Approximate solution for flat plate

Integral method / Hydraulic B.L. thickness

• Momentum conservation
1 Assume u( y) a by cy 2 dy3

• Estimation of velocity profile B.C. @y 0 u 0

2 @y u U
u
@y 0
y
2
u
@y 0 0 From momentum equation with zero
y2 pressure gradient

3
3 U u 3 y 1 y
a 0, b U , c 0, d 3
2 2 U 2 2

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 Convection

Approximate solution for flat plate

Integral method / Hydraulic B.L. thickness

d
• Momentum conservation u (U u )dy w
dx 0
1

3
u 3 y 1 y
Velocity
profile U 2 2
• Estimation of velocity profile
2 u
Wall shear w
stress y y 0

• Solving integral equation

3

BL thickness is zero U x
• Hydraulic B.L thickness Re x
2
140 x at leading edge 4.64
4 C C 0
2 13U x Re x

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 Convection

Approximate solution for flat plate

Integral method / Thermal B.L. thickness

T∞
• Energy conservation
1
y=ys
B C δT
Ufree stream, T∞
dx

Ts A D Tw

Enthalpy change across C.V = Net heat flux

d T
Cp (T T )udy k
dx 0
x y 0

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 Convection

Approximate solution for flat plate

Integral method / Thermal B.L. thickness

• Energy conservation
1 Assume T ( y) e fy gy2 hy3

• Estimation of temperature B.C.

profile @y 0 T Tw
2
@y T T
T
@y 0
y
2
T T qw
@y 0 2
0 cos tan t heat flux
y y y 0
k

3
T Tw 3 y 1 y
T Tw 2 T 2 T

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 Convection

Approximate solution for flat plate

Integral method / Thermal B.L. thickness

• Energy conservation
1 Nusselt number

• Estimation of temperature profile

2
Pr ≥ 1 Pr < 1

Velocity variation within

• Solving integral equation B.L. is neglected
3
1/ 2
1 4k
T
0.967 Pr 3 T
U Cp
• Thermal B.L thickness
4
U 1/ 2

Nu x 0.33Pr 1/ 3
. Re x
1/ 2 Nu x x
4
• Nusselt number
5

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 Convection

Numerical solution for flat plate

Various numerical methods to solve Des

Following code is an example of numerical treatment of Blasius equation.

Runge-Kutta method is applied through MATLAB ODE45

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CFD solution of convective heat transfer

Ref: X. Chen, H. Xia, A hybrid LES-RANS study on square cylinder unsteady

heat transfer, Volume 108, Part A, May 2017, Pages 1237–1254.

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Example 1

Castor oil at 38◦C flows over a wide, 6m long heated plate at 0.06 m/s. For a surface temperature of 93◦C, determine:
1) Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness
2) Thermal boundary layer thickness
3) Local heat transfer coefficient
at the end of plate and
4) Total heat flux from surface per unit width

Known

0.01 1) Operating temperature,

0 50 100 150 200 2) Material properties (i.e. Thermal diffusivity, thermal conductivity and viscosity)
3) Flat plate geometry
Kinematic viscosity - v [m2/s)

0.001
Castor
Olive oil Assumption(s)
Kerosene
0.0001 1) Laminar boundary layer
Water
2) Film temperature is average of surface and oil bulk temperature

0.00001
7.22 10 8 m2 / s

0.000001 k 0.213W / m.K

0.0000001
T(°C)

Heat Transfer
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 Convection

Example 1

Part 1: Hydrodynamic boundary layer

TS T 38 93
Tf 65.5 C
2 2
U L (0.06m / s)(6.0m)
Re L 6000
0.01 6.0 10 5 m 2 / s
0 50 100
Kinematic viscosity - v [m2/s)

0.001
5.0 L 5.0 6m
0.387m
Re L 6000
0.0001

6.0 10 5 m2 / s
0.00001

0.000001

0.0000001
T(°C)

Heat Transfer
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Example 1

Part 2: Thermal boundary layer

6.0 10 5 m2 / s
Pr 831
7.22 10 8 m 2 / s

0.387m
T 1/ 3
0.041m
Pr (831)1/ 3

Heat Transfer
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 Convection

Example 1

Part 3: Heat transfer coefficient

U 0.06m / s
hL 0.332k Pr1/ 3 0.332(0.213W / m.K ) 5 2
(831)1/ 3
vL 6.0 10 m / s 6.0m

Part 4: Total heat transfer rate per unit of width

h 2hL 2(8.58) 17.16W / m2 .K

6m 2 2
q hA(TS T ) 17.16W / m .K ( )[(93 38) C ] 5665W / m
m

Heat Transfer
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 Convection

Experimental measurements, generalised by dimensional analysis

Owing to limitation of analytical solutions,

Experimental correlations to be developed

How???

1. To Identify the physical parameters that represent the problem (e.g. Fluid properties, Temperature)

2. To do the flow and thermal measurements

3. Determine the number of primary variables (i.e. mass, length, temperature, time)

4. Through the Buckingham P theorem, determine the number of non-dimensional groups

5. Determine the dimensionless groups that apply to the problem

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Experimental measurements, generalised by dimensional analysis

𝑓 ℎ, 𝑈∞ , 𝐷, 𝜌, 𝜇, 𝑘, 𝐶𝑝 = 0

Physical quantities = 7 & Primary variables =4 (i.e. Mass (kg), Length (m), Temperature (K) and Time (s) )

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Dimensional analysis, combined with experiments

Buckingham Π theorem

Number of non-dimensional parameters = Number of physical quantities – Number of primary variables

Number of non-dimensional parameters for convection = 7 – 4 = 3

ℎ𝐿
𝜋1 = 𝑁𝑢 = Nusselt number
𝑘
𝜌𝑉𝐿
𝜋2 = 𝑅𝑒 = Reynolds number
𝜇
𝜇𝐶𝑝
𝜋3 = 𝑃𝑟 = Prandtl number
𝑘

∅ 𝑁𝑢, 𝑅𝑒, 𝑃𝑟 = 0 𝑁𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑅𝑒, 𝑃𝑟)

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Dimensional analysis, combined with experiments

Empirical correlations

𝑁𝑢 = 𝑐𝑅𝑒 𝑛 𝑃𝑟 𝑚

log( 𝑁𝑢) = 𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑅𝑒 + 𝑚𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑃𝑟 + log 𝑐

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Dimensional analysis, combined with experiments

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 Convection

Example 3

A 25 μm-diameter polished-platinum wire, 6 mm long is to be used for a hot-wire anemometer to measure the velocity of 20◦ C air in the
range between 2 and 10 m/s (Fig.2.1). The wire is to be placed into the circuit of the Wheatstone bridge (Fig.2.2). Its temperature is to be
maintained at 230 ◦C by adjusting the current using the rheostat. To design the electrical circuit it is necessary to know the required current
as a function of air velocity. The electrical; resistivity of Platinum at 230◦C is 17.1 μ-ohms cm.

Fig.2.1 Fig.2.2

Find electrical current as function of air velocity.

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Example 3

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Convection heat transfer
Part 2

School of Civil and Mechanical Engineering

Curtin University

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Review
Exact solution for flat plate;
Blasius solution

• Defining non-dimensional
variable and function
1

• Transforming equation and

boundary condition
2
5x
Re x Pr 1 / 3
T
• Solving and obtaining Hydraulic
B.L. thickness
3
Local Nusselt number Average Nusselt number

• Correlating hydraulic and thermal

B.L.
4
Nu x 0.332 Re1x/ 2 Pr 1 / 3 Nu L 0.664 Re1L/ 2 Pr 1 / 3

• Finding Nusselt number

5

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Review Approximate solution for flat plate

Integral method

• Energy conservation
1 Nusselt number

• Estimation of temperature profile

2
Pr ≥ 1 Pr < 1

Velocity variation within

• Solving integral equation B.L. is neglected
3
1/ 2
1 4k
T
0.967 Pr 3 T
U Cp
• Thermal B.L thickness
4
U 1/ 2

Nu x 0.33Pr 1/ 3
. Re x
1/ 2 Nu x x
4
• Nusselt number
5

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Review

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The relation between fluid friction and heat transfer

Consider forced convection over flat plate

u 3 U
w w
y y 0 Using velocity profile 2 1/ 2
from integral solution 3 u0 u0
1/ 2
w
4.64 2 4.64 x
x U x

w
cf c fx 0.646 Re x 1 / 2
1 U 2
2

Heat transfer to fluid

Stanton number
Thermal capacity of flowing fluid

hx Nu x
St x
C pU Re x . Pr
2/ 3
St x 0.332 Pr Re x 1 / 2

Nu x 0.322 Pr 1 / 3 Re1x/ 2 c fx
c fx 0.646 Re x 1 / 2 St x Pr 2 / 3
2

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Example 1

Air at 27 °C and 1 atm flows over a flat plate at speed of 2 m/s. The plate temperature is 60 °C. The drag force exerted on the first
40 cm of the plate is 5.44 mN. Calculate heat transfer coefficient

Correlating heat transfer and fluid friction

Ta=27 °C 40 cm
U0=2 m/s Tw T0
Tf 316.5K
2
Tw=60 °C p 101325
1.115kg / m 3
Fd=5.44 mN RT 287 316.5

pr 0.7
3
5.44 10
Cf w 0.4 1 6.098 10 3

1 2 1
u0 (1.115)2 2
2 2

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Example 1

Air at 27 °C and 1 atm flows over a flat plate at speed of 2 m/s. The plate temperature is 60 °C. The drag force exerted on the first
40 cm of the plate is 5.44 mN. Calculate heat transfer coefficient

Correlating heat transfer and fluid friction

Ta=27 °C 40 cm
U0=2 m/s
2
Cf
St. Pr 3
Tw=60 °C 2
2 3
Fd=5.44 mN 6.098 10
St.(0.7) 3

2
3
St 3.88 10

3
h c p u0 St 1.115(1006)2 3.88 10

h 8.698W / m 2 .K

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Convective heat transfer in turbulent flow

Molecular diffusion of momentum (ν) and heat (α), in turbulent flow will be enhanced by random turbulent movement (eddy motions). That
will introduce new diffusivity parameters as:

εM - Eddy momentum diffusivity (m 2/s)

εH - Eddy thermal diffusivity (m2/s)

Then, effect of turbulence will appear in shear stress and heat flux equations as:

du
( M )
dy
Molecular Turbulent

dT
q (k Cp H )
dy

εM and εM are normally determined by experiment or from hypothesis such as “Prandtl mixing length”.

M
PrT Turbulence Prandtl number
H

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Boundary layer thickness in turbulent flow

It has been experimentally shown that velocity profile in turbulent boundary layer
1/ 7
u y
u0

This expression cannot be used at y=o, due to presence of laminar boundary layer

Using integral equation boundary layer thickness could be derived as:

0.381Re x1 / 5
x

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Reynolds analogy for turbulent flow

This provides a relation between the heat transfer coefficient and skin friction factor for Prandtl number of unity

du
m
dy dT
q cp
dT du
q cp H
dy
k

Integrating between wall and mean flow

Nu C fx
St
Re x . Pr 2

Colburn’s modification significantly extends range of validity for 0.6<Pr<50

Pr 1/ 3
Nu C fx
St
Re x 2

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Forced convection inside tubes & ducts

Limit for boundary layer growth in pipe flow?

For Laminar flow

x fd H x fd
0.05 Re D 0.05 Re D . Pr
D Hydrodynamic
D Thermal

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Forced convection inside tubes & ducts

In the fully developed region

velocity profile will be as

Using this velocity profile and

considering energy balance
Therefore, Nusselt number in the fully developed flow is
Nu 4.364 constant and is not function of location.

2
u r
1
U a

For non-circular cross sections, Hydraulic Diameter (Dh) introduced to be used instead of pipe diameter.

flow area
Dh 4
wetted perimeter

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Natural Convection:

Natural convection occurs when a body placed in a fluid with higher or lower temperature.

Force induced by density (i.e. weight) difference between fluid particles is known Buoyancy.

Natural (free) convection is a buoyancy driven flow.

Heat transfer coefficient for natural convection is generally lower than forced convection.

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Density and temperature, liquid and gases:

Density of liquid water as function of temperature

Density of vapour Nitrogen as function of temperature

Data reference: National institute of standard and technology, http://webbook.nist.gov/

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Therefore, temperature gradient induces density gradient

Temperature (K)
Density (kg/m3)
velocity (m/s)

Liquid water Air

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Natural convection in environment; Costal air-breezing

Day Night

Image from NASA's Tutorial: Aviation weather.

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Natural convection in environment, Large scale in atmosphere

Three-dimensional view of the global wind circulation

patterns due to unequal heating at the equator and the poles.

Image from NASA's Remote Sensing Tutorial: The

Water Planet - Meteorological, Oceanographic and
Hydrologic Applications of Remote Sensing.

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Natural convection in industrial processes; Solar updraft tower (30-200 MW)

Schematic of solar updraft tower Solar Updraft Tower, Manzanares, Spain

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Natural convection in industrial processes; Natural draft cooling tower

Schematic of Natural draft cooling tower The I.M. Cooling Tower, Monceau, Belgium

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A closer look, Simple geometry of vertical flat plates

δ Quiescent fluid
Quiescent fluid

HBL

HBL

δ
Vertical hot plate Vertical cold plate

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Governing equations
Setting x-axis along flow direction it could be
assumed that u>>v

Generalized form of x-momentum equation

2
u u 1 dp Fx u
u v ( )
x y dx y2

X,u

Y, v Vertical hot plate

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Volumetric thermal expansion coefficient, β

This thermodynamic property of the fluid is to measure density changes by temperature variations. And at constant pressure it is
defined as:

1
T p

Therefore, if density change is just due to temperature variation, the buoyancy term may be related to expansion coefficient.

Boussinesq approximation:

1 1 (T T )
T T T

For Ideal gases

1 1 p 1
T p RT 2 T

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Natural convection on vertical flat plate, Set of equation

u v
0 Continuity
x y

2
u u u
u v g (T T) ( ) X-Momentum
x y y2

2 Viscous dissipation is neglected. This term is

T T T
u v ( ) Energy confidently negligible for small velocities associated
x y y2 with natural convection.

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Non-dimensional form of equations

By defining non-dimensional parameters as

x y
x* , y* L, is length characteristics
L L

u v
u* , v* u0 is an arbitrary velocity reference. There is no known physical velocity to
u0 u0 be referenced.

T T
T*
TW T

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Non-dimensional form of equations

By defining non-dimensional parameters as

u* u* g ( Tw T )L 1 2 *
u
u* v* T* X-Momentum
x* y* u 02 ReL y * 2

Defining arbitrary u0 to simplify equations.

1/ 2
g (Tw T ) L3
u 02 g ( Tw T )L Re L
v2

T* T* 1 T* 2
u* v* Energy
x* y* Re L Pr y * 2

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Grashof number
Grashof number is measure of Buoyancy force to viscous force ratio and defined as

g (Tw T ) L3
GrL
v2

Grashof number, in natural convection, plays the same role as Reynolds number in forced convection

u* u* 1 2 *
u
u* v* T*
x* y* GrL1/ 2
y *2
Re L GrL1 / 2
T* T* 1 2
T*
u* v*
x* y* GrL1 / 2 Pr y * 2

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Similarity solution for flat plate

1/ 4
y Grx
1/ 4
T T Grx
T* f( ) 4 ( x, y )
Non-dimensional variables x 4 TW T r
& functions

Transformed equations
f 3 ff 2( f ) 2 T* 0

T* 3 Pr fT * 0

0 f f 0, T* 1
Transformed B.C.

f 0, T* 0

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Solution

Image Ref: Incropera et al., Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer, 6th edition.
1/ 4
Grx dT *
Nu x
4 d * 0

Grx
1/ 4
0.75 Pr 1 / 2
Nu x g (Pr) g (Pr)
4 (0.609 1.221 Pr 1 / 2 1.238 Pr)1 / 4

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Rayleigh number and effect of turbulence

Rayleigh number is an alternative indication of ratio-to-viscous intensity ratio, which also incorporates Prandtl number as:

g (Tw T )x3
Ra x Grx Pr

Natural convection boundary layer is not restricted to laminar regime and developing
hydrodynamic instabilities may lead to transition to turbulence.

Rayleigh number will be a measure to identify transition to turbulence.

As an example, for a free convection along a vertical flat plate this threshold is Ra x, Critical = 109

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Example 2
Consider a 0.25 m long vertical plate that is at 70 ◦C. The plate is suspended in air that is at 25 ◦C. Estimate the boundary layer thickness at
the trailing edge of the plate if the air is quiescent. How does this thickness compare with that which would exist if air is were flowing over the
plate at a free stream velocity of 5 m/s.

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Assumption(s)

1) Constant material properties with reference of film temperature

2) Negligible buoyancy effect for forced convection case

Tw T2 20 60
Tf 320.5 K
2 2

Air material properties @ 320.5 K:

6
17.95 10 m2 / s
Pr 0.7

Assuming air as ideal gas:

1 1 3 1
3.12 10 K
T 320.5

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Natural convection boundary layer

Flow regime:

g (Tw T ) L3 9.81(3.12 10 3 )(70 25)0.253

GrL 6.69 107
v2 17.95 10 6 2

Rax Grx . Pr 4.68 107 Laminar

Recalling solution of B.L equation (i.e. graph), at the boundary layer (f’(η)=0)

x L, y , 6

And therefore,
6L 6(0.25)
Natural 0.024 m
(GrL / 4)1 / 4 (1.67 107 )1 / 4

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Forced convection boundary layer

Forced convection with air velocity of 5 m/s:

U air L 5(0.25)
Re L 7
6.97 104 Laminar
v 17.95 10

5L 5(0.25)
Forced 0.0047 m
Re 1L/ 2 (6.97 104 )1 / 2

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Numerical solution and benefits

Complicated geometries and flows could be evaluated

If temperature gradient is high, validity of Boussinesq approximation is uncertain.

Density could be defined as function of local temperature.

Critical Rayleigh number (Transition to turbulent) could be locally investigated for specific geometry

P. Brady, J. Reizes, Interaction between turbulent natural convection in a

2D Rayleigh-Benard cell, simulated by Lattice
channel and surroundings, 8th Australian natural convection workshop,
Boltzmann Method, OpneLB showcases
The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia, 16-17 December 2013.

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Dimensional analysis

hL
1 Nu Nusselt number
k
g (Tw T ) L3
2 Gr 2
Grashof number

Cp Prandtl number
3 Pr
k
( Nu , Gr , Pr) 0 Nu f (Gr , Pr)

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Dimensional analysis

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Empirical correlations
Nusselt number is expressed as function of Grashof and Prandtl number.
Applicability of correlation is restricted to range of Gr, Pr and some other conditions such as object inclination.

Example: The long horizontal Cylinder

2
0.387 Ra1D/ 6
Nu D 0.60 Ra D 1012
9 / 16 8 / 27
1 ( 0.559 / Pr)

Image Ref: Incropera et al., Fundamentals of

heat and mass transfer, 6th edition.

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:
Example 3

A glass-door firescreen, used to reduce exfiltration of room air through chimney, has a height of 0.71 m and a width if 1.05 m and reaches a
temperature of 232 ◦C. If the room temperature is 23 ◦C, estimate the convection heat rate from fireplace to the room.

Assumptions:
1) Uniform temperature on screen
2) Stagnant room air

Material properties of air @ T f 400 K

3
k 33.8 10 W / m.K
6
26.4 10 m2 / s
6
38.3 10 m2 / s

Pr 0.69

1 1
0.0025 K
T

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:

Flow regime:

g (Tw T ) L3 9.81(0.0025)(232 23)0.713

Ra L 1.813 109 Turbulent
v 26.4 10 6 38.3 10 6

Empirical correlation:
2 2

0.387Ra1L/ 6 0.387(1.813 109 )1 / 6

Nu L 0.825 9 / 16
0.825 9 / 16
147
1 0.492 1 0.492
Pr 0.69

Average heat transfer coefficient will be

3
Nu L .k 147 33.8 10
h 7.0 W / m 2 .K
L 0.71

And finally heat transfer rate is calculated as:

q h A(Tw T ) 7(1.02 0.71)(232 23) 1060 W

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Radiation
Part 1 – Process and Properties
Heat Transfer
School of Civil and Mechanical Engineering
Curtin University

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Fundamentals

Convection Radiation
Conduction
& other modes

qConduction kl (Tb TS ) qConvection hA(Tb TS ) q Radiation q emiited q absorbed

Body temperature higher than surrounding (T b>TS)

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Fundamentals

Solid hot object surrounded by the air:

Conduction, convection and radiation participate in the heat transfer process

Thermal radiation is the third mode of heat transfer by which energy may be transferred through a perfect vacuum.

Unlike Conduction and convection modes, where a media involves, thermal radiation does not need a media and take place

with or without media.

This mode is also known as “Electromagnetic Radiation”, as energy is transferred by electromagnetic waves.

Transmission of solar energy through outer space (vacuum) is the most common example of thermal radiation.

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Fundamentals

Mechanism

A body with non-zero temperature has oscillating electrons

Oscillation is sustained by internal energy at certain temperature

Oscillation of single electron propagates energy as a beam at

speed of light (3×108 m/s)

The single beam is an electromagnetic wave with wavelength (λ)

depending on oscillation frequency of its source (f)

Therefore in a macroscopic view thermal radiation transmits

various energy levels over range of wavelength

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Fundamentals

Thermal radiative wave

c
Spectrum of electromagnetic radiation
f

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Fundamentals

All form of matters emit radiation

Gases or Semitransparent solids Solid and liquid

Volumetric emission Surface emission

(Spherical pattern) (Hemispherical pattern)

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Radiation intensity
Definition of Solid angle
(Geometrical concept)

2D Configuration: differential angle 3D Configuration: differential solid angle

dl dAn
d d
r r2
Ratio differential area of sphere to radius square
Ratio of differential arc length to radius

Unit: degree [°] Unit: Steradian [sr]

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Radiation intensity
Solid angle
(Geometrical concept)
n

dAn rd rSin d r 2 Sin d d

rdθ

rSinθ dAn
d Sin d d
rSinθdΦ r2
θ

2
d 2 Sin d d 2 [Sr]
0 0
h

Φ
dΦ

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Radiation intensity
Spectral radiation intensity and Emission Power

Iλ Spectral radiation intensity [W/m2.sr.μm]

Iλ,Eλ
Definition: Rate of energy transmission at wavelength of λ,
per unit of solid angle,
per unit of area,
per unit of in direction of (θ,ϕ)
dω
dA
dq dq dq
I dq , dE
dASourceCos .d .d d dASource

dE I Cos .d Emission Power [W/m2.sr.μm]

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Radiation intensity
Spectral radiation intensity and Emission Power

If spectral and directional intensity of radiation are known, the heat flux associated with emission
into any finite solid angle could be estimated. For example spectral hemispherical emissive power
would be:
2
E 2 I Cos .Sin .d .d
0 0

E I

E E d Total emission power (W/m2)

0

Where

E I

Question: How would you determine spectral emission power for semi-transparent solid?

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Radiation intensity
Irradiation

All concepts introduced and developed for radiation

Iλ,Gλ emission could be extended for incident radiation.

Fundamentally, spectral irradiation is defined as the

rate at which radiation of wavelength λ is incident on dω
surface
dω 2
G 2 I Cos .Sin .d .d
dA 0 0

Accordingly, total irradiation is defined as:

G G d
0

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Radiation intensity
Example 1

A small surface of area (A1=10-3 m2) is known to emit diffusely, and from measurements the total intensity associated
with emission in normal direction is In=7000 Wm2.sr.
Radiation emitted by A1 is intercepted by three other surfaces (A2=A3=A4=10-3 m2), which are located 0.5 m away
from A1 and orientated as shown. Assuming surface areas small enough find:

1) Intensity of emission in each of three direction.

2) Solid angle subtended by three surfaces.
3) Rate at which radiation is intercepted by three surfaces.

Ref 2, Example 12.1

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Radiation intensity
Example 1

Known

1) In= 7000 W/m2.sr (total intensity)

2) A1=A2=A3=A4=10-3 m2
3) r12=r13=r14= 0.5 m

Assumption(s)
1) Diffuse emitter: Intensity of emitted radiation is independent of direction.
2) Small surface areas: Small compared to distance between surfaces.

Part 1: Intensity of emission in three direction

Diffuse emitter: by definition, I12=I13=I14=In=7000 W/m2.sr

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Radiation intensity
Example 1

Part 2: Solid angles

dAn An
d
r2 r2

A2Cos 10 3 Cos30
1 2 2
2
2
3.46 10 3 sr
r 0.5

A3, 4 3
10
1 3 1 4 2 2
4.00 10 3 sr
r 0.5

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Radiation intensity
Example 1

Part 3: Intercepted radiation

q1 j I A1 cos 1 j 1 j

3
q1 2 I A1 cos 1 2 1 2
7000 Cos30 3.46 10 12.1 10 3 W
3
q1 3 I A1 cos 1 3 1 3
7000 Cos 0 4 10 28.0 10 3 W

3
q1 4 I A1 cos 1 4 1 4
7000 Cos 45 4 10 19.8 10 3 W

Critical
Assumption??

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Blackbody

Definition: An idealised surface where the spectral

emissive power, Eλb exhibits maximum possible energy Perfect absorber or emitter
at every wavelength of radiation spectrum

0.6
Blackbody
0.5 Real body
Characteristics:
0.4
1) Blackbody absorbs all incidents of radiation, regardless of
wavelength and direction.
E(λ)

0.3

0.2 2) For a prescribed temperature and wavelength, no surface can

emit more energy than a blackbody.
0.1
3) Blackbody radiation is function of temperature and wavelength,
yet independent of direction. This means blackbody is a diffuse
0
0 2 λ(μm)
4 6 8 10 emitter.

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Blackbody

Spectral blackbody emission

power Plank determined an expression for spectral blackbody radiation
intensity, using “quantum theory”.

2hc02
I ,b ( ,T )
0.6 5 hc02
exp( ) 1
Blackbody kT
0.5 Real body
Where Universal Plank (h) and Boltzmann (k) constants are
0.4 deployed as:
34
h 6.626 10 J .s
E(λ)

0.3
23
k 1.381 10 J /K
0.2

0.1
With assumption of surface radiation, spectral emissive power is
obtained as:
0
0 2 λ(μm)
4 6 8 10 2 hc02
E ,b ( , T ) I ,b ( , T )
5 hc02
exp( ) 1
kT

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Blackbody

Spectral blackbody emission

power Defining first and second radiation constants as:

C1
E ,b ( ,T ) I ,b ( ,T )
0.6 5 C2
exp( ) 1
T
Blackbody
0.5 Real body
C1 2 hc02 3.742 108W .( m)4 / m2 First radiation constant

0.4 hc0
C2 1.439 104 m.K Second radiation constant
k
E(λ)

0.3

From derived expression it could be expected that:

0.2

1) Emitted radiation varies continuously with wavelength.

0.1

2) At any wavelength, magnitude of emitted radiation increases

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
with temperature.
λ(μm)
3) Spectral region in which radiation is concentrated depends on
temperature, with more radiation in shorter wavelength

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Blackbody

Wein’s displacement law

To find wavelength containing maximum energy:

dE ,b ( ,T )
0 max T C3 Wein’s displacement law
d

C3 2898 m.K Third radiation constant

Wein’s displacement law:

Maximum emissive power is displaced to shorter wavelength at higher

temperature

Graph [Ref.2]

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Blackbody

Stefan-Boltzmann law

Integrating Plank distribution over wavelength spectrum:

2 hc 02
E ,b ( ,T )
5 hc 02
exp( ) 1
kT

2 hc02
Eb (T ) d
0 5 hc0
exp( ) 1
kT

This simple, yet important, law enables

Eb T4 calculation of Power emitted from a blackbody
with known temperature in all directions, over all
5.670 10 8 W / m 2 .K 4 Stefan-Boltzmann wavelengths.
constant

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Blackbody

Band emission

It is often required to know fraction of total emission from a blackbody over a finite wavelength
interval or band.

E ,b d E ,b d E
0 0 ,b
F0
5
d( T) F( T)
4
E T 0 T
,b d
0

Band emission is function of λT

2 1
E ,b d E ,b d
F 1 2 0 0 F0 2 F0 1
4
T

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Blackbody

Band emission

Blackbody radiation function

E ,b d E ,b d E
0 0 ,b
F0
5
d( T) F( T)
4
E T 0 T
,b d
0

Band emission is function of λT

2 1
E ,b d E ,b d
F 1 2 0 0 F0 2 F0 1
4
T

Table [Ref.2]

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Emission from real surfaces

Establishing Blackbody as reference to set maximum emissive power for any surface, emission from real surface
could be evaluated against ideal expectation.

Therefore, total emissivity, a surface characteristics, is defined is defined as ratio of real surface to blackbody
emission power:
E
Eb
Where by Stefan-Boltzmann law,

Eb T4 E T4

As per definition we may also define directional (εθ,Φ) and spectral (ελ) emissivity

Graphs [Ref.2]
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Emission from real surfaces

Generalised facts for real surface emission:

Emissivity of metallic surface is generally low:

ε=0.02 for highly polished gold and silver

Oxide layer could significantly enhance increase emissivity:

ε=0.3-0.7 for slightly to heavily oxidised steel at T=900 K

Emissivity of non-conductors is comparatively high

Commonly more than 0.6

Emissivity of conductors increases by increasing temperature; nevertheless, emissivity of

non-conductor material could either increase or decrease for a specific material

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Emission from real surfaces

Example 2

A diffuse surface at 1600K has spectral, hemispherical emissivity shown as below graph. Determine:
1) Total, hemispherical emissivity.
2) Total emissive power.
3) Wavelength at which spectral emissive power is maximum.

Known

1) Body temperature
2) Spectral emissivity in [0,5] μm bandwidth.

Assumption(s)
1) Diffuse emitter: Intensity of emitted radiation is independent of direction.
2) Zero spectral emissivity in rest of bandwidth which has not been stated.

Ref 2, Example 12.2

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Emission from real surfaces

Example 2

Part 1: total emissivity

2 5
E E bd 1 E bd 2 E bd
0 0 2
Eb Eb Eb

1F(0 2 m) 2[ F(0 5 m) F(0 2 m) ]

Using table of radiation functions

T
1
2 m 1600 K 3200 mK F0 2
0.318

2
T 5 m 1600 K 8000 mK F0 2
0.856

And therefore,
0.4 0.318 0.8[0.856 0.318] 0.558

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Emission from real surfaces

Example 2

Part 2: total emission power

E Eb T4
E 0.588(5.67 10 8 W / m 2 .K 4 )(1600 K ) 4 207 kW / m 2

Part 3: wavelength with maximum spectral power:

This wave length is determined by Wein’s law for

Blackbody or surface with emissivity independent of
wavelength.

To obtain λmax for blackbody:

2989 2898 m.K

b , max
1.81 m
T 1600

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Emission from real surfaces

Example 2

Part 3: wavelength with maximum spectral power:

E ( ,T ) ( max ) E b ( max , T )

(1.81) 0.4 I ,b ( max , T )

E b( max , T ) 5
T5
T

E (1.81,1600) 0.4 0.722 10 4 (1 / m.K .sr ) 5.67 10 8W .m 2 / K 4 (1600 K )5 54kW / m 2 . m

To check power increase as at higher emissivity:

E (2,1600) 0.8 0.706 10 4 (1 / m.K .sr ) 5.67 10 8W .m 2 / K 4 (1600 K )5 105.5kW / m 2 . m

E (2,1600) E (1.81,1600) max 2 m, E max

105.5W / m 2 . m

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References

[1] Tilak. T. Chandratilleke, Heat transfer lecture notes, Curtin University, 1995-2014.

[2] Incropera, DeWitt, Bergman, Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer, Sixth edition, John Wiley & Sons.

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Absorption, Reflection and Transmission by real surfaces

For a spectral component of irradiation, various portion of irradiation are absorbed, reflected and transmitted.

Reflection Irradiation
G G , abs G , ref G ,tr
G , ref G
Absorptivity: A property that determines the fraction incident radiation absorbed by a surface.

G , abs
G

Absorption

G , abs Reflectivity: A property that determines the fraction incident radiation reflected by a surface.

G , ref
G
Transmission

G ,tr
Transmissivity: A property that determines the fraction incident radiation transmitted by a surface.

G , tr 1
G

If the surface is opaque, there will be no transmission, and absorption and reflections are surface
processes for which:

1 1

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Kirchhoff’s law
Consider a large, isothermal enclosure of surface temperature Ts,
Ts

Several small bodies confined within which,

A2
G Small bodies have negligible influence on radiation field
A1
Under equilibrium condition, T1=T2=T3=Ts and net heat transfer rate for each body must be zero, hence
E1
A3
G Eb ( Ts ) Irradiation = Emission from blackbody

A1 1G E1( Ts ) A1 0 Thermal balance for body 1

E1 (Ts ) Similarly 2 2
1 1 Kirchhof’s law’s: Total hemispherical emissivity of a surface is equal to the total
Eb (Ts ) 3 3 hemispherical absorptivity of the surface.

Restrictions of Kirchhoff’s law

The most restrictive Less restriction No restriction

Emission from a blackbody Irradiation or surface is

diffuse

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Graybody surface

Definition: A surface which has an emissivity (ε) independent of wavelength (λ), in the spectral region of irradiation and emission, called a
graybody.

2
E b ( , T )d
1

Eb (T )

2
G ( , T )d
1

Note: Real surfaces are not always “graybody”. Nevertheless, analysis of real surfaces is so complicated that “graybody” assumption if often
made for practical purposes.

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Graybody
Example 1

A diffuse fire brick wall of temperature Ts=500K has spectral emissivity shown and is exposed to a bed of coals at
2000 K. Determine:
Total, hemispherical emissivity of the fire brick wall
Total emissive power of the brick wall
Absorptivity of the wall to irradiation from the coal bed

Known

1) Body temperatures,
Ref 2, Example 12.9 2) Spectral diffusivity of brick wall

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Graybody
Example 1

Part 1:

Eb ( , Ts )d
(Ts ) 0

Eb (Ts )

Emissivity is shown as a piecewise function; therefore, the integration is to be broken into three intervals as:
1 2

E ,b d E ,b d E ,b d
(Ts ) ,1
0
,2
1
,3
3

Eb (Ts ) Eb (Ts ) Eb (Ts )

Using blackbody function the expression forms as:

(Ts ) ,1
F( 0 1) ,2
[ F( 0 2)
F( 0 1)
] ,2
[1 F( 0 2)
]

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Graybody
Example 1

Part 1:

Using radiation function values:

T
1 s 1.5 m 500K 750 m.K F( 0 1)
0.000

T
1 s 10 m 500K 5000 m.K F( 0 2)
0.634

(Ts ) 0.1(0.000) 0.5[0.634 0] 0.8[1 0.634] 0.610

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Graybody
Example 1

Part 2:

Total emissive power will be:

E(Ts ) (Ts ) Eb (Ts ) (Ts ) Ts4 0.61 5.67 10 8W / m2 K 4 5004 K 4 W / m2

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Graybody
Example 1

Part 3:

Total absorptivity

G ( )d
0

G ( )d
0

For a diffuse surface, spectral emissivity is equal with spectral absorptivity at certain wavelength

Spectral distribution of irradiation is approximated by emission at blackbody at 2000 K G E ,b ( ,T )

E ,b ( , T )d
0
Therefore
E ,b ( , T )d
0

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Graybody
Example 1

Part 3:

By breaking integrals into parts and substituting radiation function terms:

,1
F( 0 1) ,2
[ F( 0 2)
F( 0 1)
] ,2
[1 F( 0 2)
]

Unlike part 1, radiation function values are derived with reference of coals temperature (T c), therefore:

T
1 s 1.5 m 2000K 3000 m.K F( 0 1)
0.273

T
1 s 10 m 2000K 20000 m.K F( 0 2)
0.986

0.1(0.273) 0.5[0.986 0.273] 0.8[1 0.986] 0.395

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Radiation exchange

How much of radiation leaving a surface is incident to another surface?

Radiative energy exchange between two surfaces depends on:

1) Radiation properties,

2) Geometry of bodies

3) Configuration (i.e. location and orientation)

To simplify, first, radiation energy exchange between two blackbodies is considered:

E1 A1 Eb1 A1T14 Radiative energy emitted by A1,in all directions

Nevertheless, only a fraction of E1 is incident to A2

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Shape factor (view factor)

Assuming F12 represents the fraction of radiant energy that reaches to

A2 from the total energy emitted by A1:

Q12 F12 E1 F12 A1 Eb1

Similarly, fraction of energy E2 which reaches to A1 is given by:

Q21 F21 E2 F21 A2 Eb 2

As it will be shown later:

1) Shape factor (F12, F21) is purely a geometrical condition and depends on shape, dimensions and orientation

2) For two given surfaces the “reciprocity condition” is always satisfied as: A1F12=A2F21

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Shape factor (view factor)

Shape factor (also known as view factor) for a diffuse radiation exchange:

Radiative energy leaving dA1 and falls on dA2

dQ12 dA1 .I 1Cos 1 .d 12

dA1.dA2 .I1Cos 1.Cos

dQ12 2

r2
dA2Cos
d 12
2

r2

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Shape factor (view factor)

For Hemispherical radiation from a differential element, it was earlier

proved that radiative power emitted from dA1:

Q1 IdA1Cos d 12

where

d sin .d .d

Thus
2
Q1 IdA1 0
Cos .Sin .d .d I .dA1

By definition, elemental shape factor is formulated as: To obtain shape factor, elemental shape
factor is integrated over A1 and A2

dQ12 dA2Cos 1Cos 1 Cos 1Cos

dF12 2
F12 2
dA1.dA2
Q1 r2 A1 A A r2
1 2

With similar analysis dA1.dF12 dA2 .dF21

And
Reciprocity relation
dQ21 dA1Cos 1Cos 1 Cos 1Cos
dF21 2
F21 2
dA1 .dA2
Q2 r2 A2 A A
1 2
r2

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Network analogy (blackbody radiation exchange)

Consider radiation heat exchange (with known shape factor) :

Q1 2
Q1 2 A1 F12 ( Eb1 Eb 2 ) Eb1 Eb 2
A1 F12

The term (AF)-1 is identified as resistance to radiative heat exchange between E1 and . Hence, the network could be
drawn as:

Note: for heat conduction and convection, the nodes represents temperatures in heat transfer geometry, whereas in
radiation network:

Eb1 T14

Eb 2 T24

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Example 1
Two parallel plates are placed facing each other in a large room. The plates exchange heat with each other and with the
room. Considering all surfaces are blackbody, draw a radiation thermal network and identify nodes and resistance
values.

Known Room

1) Three bodies exchange radiative energy

A1
Body A
A2

Assumption(s)
A3
1) Each plate has two exposed faces Body B
A4
2) Room has one exposed face

A5

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Example 1

A1

A2

A3
A4
A5 (A2F23)-1=(A3F32) -1

Eb1=Eb2 Eb3=Eb4

Exchange elements:

1) Energy exchange between body A and B through A2-A3

2) Energy exchange between body A and room through A1-A5

Eb5
3) Energy exchange between Body A and room through A2-A5
4) Energy exchange between Body B and room through A3-A5

5) Energy exchange between Body B and room through A4-A5

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Properties of shape factor

a) Reciprocity property

Integrating elemental shape factors:

1 Cos 1Cos
F12 2
dA1.dA2
A1 A A
1 2
r2 Cos 1Cos
F12 A1 F21 A2 2
dA1 .dA2
A A r2
Cos 1Cos
1 2
1
F21 2
dA1 .dA2
A2 A A
1 2
r2

A1 F12 A2 F21 Note: F12 F21

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Properties of shape factor

b) Additive property

A1 Ai A2 Aj
i j

With similar analysis:

A1 F12 Ai Fi 2 A2 F21 A2 F2i

i i

Using reciprocity property

terms on both sides of F21 F2 i F12 F1 j
equation will be replaced i j
as:

n m
If A1 and A2 are subdivided into n and m sections respectively: A1 F12 A1i Fij
i 0 j 0

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Properties of shape factor

c) Enclosure property

The enclosed space, consists of “n” faces having a finite area of A1, A2 …
An. Then:

n
Fij 1
j 1

Which also represents conservation of energy.

Shape factor of F11, F22 ... Fn may have “non-zero” values if the surface can “see” itself

(2)
(1)

F11≠0 since a fraction of energy leaving surface F22=0

(1) falls on itself

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Calculation of shape factor

a) Direct method

By definition of shape factor as:

1 Cos 1Cos
F12 2
dA1 .dA2
A1 A A
1 2
R2

dA2 (rd )dr

R2 r2 L2

1 2

L L
Cos 1
R ( L r 2 )1/ 2
2

1 a 2 L2 a2
F12 rdr .d
0 0
( L2 r 2 ) 2 a2 L2

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Calculation of shape factor

B) Standard analytical solutions

Table [Ref.2]

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Calculation of shape factor

C) Charts

Graphs [Ref.2]

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Using shape factor properties

The shape factor properties can be used to obtain unknown shape factors from known shape factors:

Case 1: two infinite plates

F11 F21 1
F12 F21 1
F11 F22 0

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Using shape factor properties

Case 2: two finite plates

F11 F22 0

F12 F21 F Symmetry F13 1 F

Imaginary surface (3) represents the ambient to which Symmetry

radiation leaves from plates.

Using enclosure property

F23 F13 1 F
F11 F12 F13 1

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Using shape factor properties

Case 3: two concentric cylinders

F21 F22 1

F22 0

F21 1

Using reciprocity properties

A1 F12 A2 F21

A2 A2
F12 F21 Could it be extended for eccentric
A1 A1 spheres?
For cylinder

A1 D1 L, A2 D2 L,

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Using shape factor properties

Case 4: parallel misaligned rectangle

= + + -

To find F12,
using additive property of shape factors,

F12 F13 F14 F15 F16

The shape factors (F13, F14, F15, F16) can be obtained from common geometry-arrangement charts.

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Using shape factor properties

Case 5: Perpendicular rectangles without common edge

To find F14,
using additive property of shape factors,

A(1, 2) F(1, 2)( 3, 4) A1 F1( 3, 4) A2 F2(3, 4)

A1 F1( 3, 4) A1 F13 A1 F14

A(1, 2) F(1, 2) 3 A1 F13 A2 F23

From (2) and (3), eliminating A1 F13

A(1, 2) F(1, 2)( 3, 4) A(1, 2) F(1, 2)3 A2 F23 A1 F14 A2 F2(3, 4)

All shape factors in the last expression could be obtained from common
geometry-arrangement of perpendicular rectangles with common edge chart.

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Using shape factor properties

Case 6: Triangle
using enclosure property of shape factors for edge 1,

F11 F12 F13 1

F12 F13 1 F12 F13 0.5

F12 F13 Symmetry

using enclosure property of shape factors for edge 2,

F21 F22 F23 1

F21 F23 1 F21 F23 0.5

F21 F23 Symmetry

Similarly for edge 3,

F31 F32 0.5 F12 F23 F31 0.5

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Example 2

Two parallel plates of (0.5×1.0 m) are spaced 0.5 m apart. The plate are maintained at 1000° C and 500° C where they are placed in a
large room with wall at constant temperature of 27° C. The plates exchange heat with each other and room, but only the plate surfaces
facing each other are to be considered. Assume all the surfaces are black and find the net heat transfer to each plate and to the room.

Known Assumption(s)
1) Dimensions, shapes and distances 1) Surfaces are considered as blackbody
2) Shape and arrangements 2) Shape factors are based on two facing rectangles

Setting an imaginary surface to represent room, we could right enclosure property as:

F11 F12 F13 1 F11 F22 0 F12 F13 1

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Example 2

F12 F21 0.285

F13 1 F12 1 0.285 0.715

Net heat transfer from plate (1), Q1

Q1 A1 F12 ( Eb1 Eb 2 ) A1 F13 ( Eb1 Eb3 )

Q1 A1 F12 (T 41 T 4 2 ) A1 F13 (T 41 T 4 3 )

Q1 (0.5 1)0.285 5.669 10 11 (12734 7734 )

(0.5 1)0.715 5.669 10 11 (12734 300 4 )

Q1 71.39 kW

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Example 2

And net heat transfer from plate (2) Q2

Q2 A2 F21 ( Eb 2 Eb1 ) A2 F23 ( Eb 2 Eb3 )

Q2 11.26 kW

Net radiation energy from room, Q3

Q3 A3 F31 ( Eb3 Eb1 ) A3 F32 ( Eb3 Eb 2 )

Using reciprocity property

Q3 A1 F13 ( Eb3 Eb1 ) A2 F23 ( Eb3 Eb 2 )

Q3 60.13 kW
Note: Energy conservation has to be satisfied:

Q1 Q2 Q3 0

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Example 3

Two rectangle (50×50 cm) plates are placed perpendicular with a common edge. One plate has constant temperature of 1000 K, while the other
one is insulated and in radiant balance with a large surrounding room at 300 K. Determine the temperature of the insulated surface and heat loss
by surface at 1000 K.

Known Assumption(s)
1) Dimensions, shapes and distances 1) Surfaces are considered as blackbody
2) Shape and arrangements 2) Shape factors are based on two perpendicular
rectangles with common edge

F11 F12 F13 1

F11 F22 0

F12 F13 1

F12 F21 0.2 Chart & symmetry

F13 F23 0.8

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Example 3

Thermal network:

Q1 Q2=0
(A1F12)-1
Eb1 Eb2

E3

Q3

F12 F21 0.2 Chart & symmetry

F13 F23 0.8

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Example 3

A1 A2 0.5 0.5 0.25m2

Thermal network:

As the surface 2 is thermally insulated and

in radiant balance with other surfaces:
Q1 Q2=0
(A1F12)-1
Q2 net
0 Q12 Q23
Eb1 Eb2

( Eb1 Eb 2 ) ( Eb 2 Eb 3 )
( A1 F12 ) 1 ( A2 F23 ) 1

Eb1 5.669 10 8 (1000) 4 5.669 104 W / m2

E3 Eb 3 5.669 10 8 (300) 4 459W / m2

Q3
Eb 2 1.1705 104 W / m2 T2 674.1K

( Eb1 Eb 2 ) ( Eb1 Eb 3 )
Q1 13.5kW
( A1 F12 ) 1 ( A1 F13 ) 1

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References

[1] Tilak. T. Chandratilleke, Heat transfer lecture notes, Curtin University, 1995-2014.

[2] Incropera, DeWitt, Bergman, Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer, Sixth edition, John Wiley & Sons.

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Solar radiation
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Solar Radiation

Review 1: Radiation properties

Thermal radiation
Spherical/hemispherical radiation pattern
Solid angle
Spectral radiation intensity
Spectral radiation emissive power Radiative
Spectral irradiation power heat Radiation
Properties
Total emissive and irradiation power transfer
Blackbody
Spectral blackbody emission power
First and second radiation constants
Wein’s displacement law and third radiation constant
Total emissive power for a blackbody/Stefan-Boltzmann constant
Band emission and radiation function
Emissivity
Absorptivity / Reflectivity / Transmissivity
Kirchhof’s law
Graybody

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Review 2: Shape factor

Shape factor definition

Radiation
Properties

Direct method

Analytical expression Radiative

heat
Charts and graphs transfer

Shape factor properties Space

resistance
1) Reciprocity & Shape
factor
2) Additive
3) Enclosure

Radiation thermal network

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Review 3: Real surface resistance

Radiation
Properties

Eb Q R
Radiative
heat
Space
transfer
(1-ε)/εA resistance / Surface
Shape resistance
factor

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Radiation heat exchange between Non-blackbody surfaces

The calculation of radiation heat transfer between “black” surfaces is relatively easy since:

1) Energy leaving the surface is emissive power Eb due to temperature

2) All the radiant energy which strikes a surface is absorbed,

When Nonblack bodies are involved:

1) Energy striking with the surface is not completely absorbed, and partly will be reflected back to the
surrounding,
2) Total radiation leaving the surface comprises, reflection of incident energy and emission due to surface
temperature

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Radiation heat exchange between non-blackbody surfaces

R Eb (1 )G

Q
R G Eb (1 )G G Thermal network
A
Eliminating G by solving from one equation and
replacing to another one: Eb Q R

Q ( Eb R) Or
Q ( Eb R) (1-ε)/εA
A (1 ) / A A / A

(1 )/ A “surface resistance” of radiation

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Space resistance

Consider radiation energy exchange between surfaces A1 and A2

A1 F12 A2 F21

Q12 A1 F12 ( R1 R2 )

Q12

R1 R2

1/F12A1

Thermal network
R1 A1 F12 Energy received by A2 from A1

1
“space resistance” of radiation
R2 A2 F21 Energy received by A1 from A2 F12 A

Q12 R1 A1 F12 R2 A2 F21 The net energy exchange

between A1 and A2

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Part 2 / Exchange between surfaces

Application of network analogy for non-blackbodies

Case1 : Two infinite parallel plates

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Application of network analogy for non-blackbodies

Case2 : Two concentric cylinders (long)

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Part 2 / Exchange between surfaces

Application of network analogy for non-blackbodies

Case3 : 3-sided enclosure

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Solar Radiation

Radiation function

Absorptivity, transmissivity and reflectivity of real surfaces

Total values of absorptivity , transmissivity and reflectivity of real surfaces can be estimated from their
spectral values, using the same technique described for evaluation of total emissivity:

i i
[F0 i
F0 i 1
]

i i
[F0 i
F0 i 1
]

i i
[F0 i
F0 i 1
]

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Example 1: In manufacturing, the special coating on a curved solar absorber surface of area A2=15 m2 is cured
by exposing it an infrared heater of width W=1m. The absorber and heater are each of length 10 m and are
spaced by a distance of H=1 m. The upper surface of the absorber and the lower surface of the heater are
insulated.
The heater is T1= 1000 K and has a total emissivity of ε1=0.9, while the absorber is at T2=600K and has an
emissivity of ε2=0.5. The system is in a large room whose walls are at 300 K. What is the net rate of heat
transfer to the absorber surface?

Room wall
T3=300 K, ε3=1 Absorber
A’2 T2=600 K, A2=10 m2, ε 2=0.5

A’3
H=1 m

A1
Heater
T1=1000 K, A1=10 m2, ε1=0.9

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Example 1: Thermal network

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Example 1: Heat balance equations

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Example 1: Shape factors

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Example 1: Heat flux

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Solar absorptivity

Solar radiation

• Solar thermal energy is a major engineering interest

• For practical purposes sun is considered as black body emitter
• Solar radiation intensity, normal to surface just outside the atmosphere has yearly averaged value of
Gsn=1396.9 W/m2 , which is equivalent to a blackbody emitter at 5800 K approximately

Consider incidence of solar radiation with angle of θs, at

equilibrium condition:

s
[GsnCos s ] QR QC QO

Where
QR = heat loss by radiation

QC = heat loss by convection

QO = heat extraction from surface

T = surface temperature

s = solar absorptivity of surface

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Solar absorptivity

Case A: Adiabatic surface

For this case, heat extraction is zero and convection is assumed to be negligible

s
[GsnCos s ] QR T *4

Surface emissivity

T* Adiabatic surface temperature

1/ 4
s [GsnCos s ]
T*

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Solar absorptivity

Case B: Isothermal surface

Using expression,
s
[GsnCos s ] T *4

4
T0
Qo [1 ] sGsnCos s
T*

Solar collector where solar energy is collected in fluid flowing

through the collector at temperature T0. Neglecting convection:

Qo s
[GsnCos s ] QR s
[GsnCos s ] T04 For specified collection temperature T0, the net absorbed heat flux
will be positive only when a surface is chosen with αs/ε large enough
to give T* larger than T0

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Solar absorptivity

Evaluation of αs and ε for solar radiation cases

i i
[F0 i
F0 i 1
] The radiation function is computed at solar temperature Ts=5800K

i i
[F0 i
F0 i 1
] The radiation function is computed at surface temperature
(T* for Case-A and T0 for case-B)

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Example 2

Find the equilibrium temperature of a thermally isolated surface placed normal to sun’s radiation, if spectral emissivity of the
surface is following step function.

0.8
ε
0.4

4
λ(nm)

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Example 2

0.8
ε
0.4

4
λ(nm)

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Example 2

Initial guess=300 K

Variation
Iteration T (K) λ1T(μm.K) F0-λ1 ε T*(K) (%)
0 300 1200 0.0022 0.7991 334.070 10.20%
1 334.07 1336.28 1.08E-03 0.7995 334.023 -0.01%

Initial guess=400 K

Variation
Iteration T (K) λ1T (μm.K) F0-λ1 ε T*(K) (%)
0 400 1600 0.00687 0.79725 334.265 -19.67%
1 334.26 1337.06 0.00553 0.79778 334.209 -0.02%

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Solar absorptivity

General case

GsnCos Qo (T 4 T 4 ) h(T T )

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References

[1] Tilak. T. Chandratilleke, Heat transfer lecture notes, Curtin University, 1995-2014.

[2] Incropera, DeWitt, Bergman, Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer, Sixth edition, John Wiley & Sons.

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