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© ABB Group
July 20, 2014 | Slide 1
Purpose of this Presentation
Describe how power systems are controlled
Current I
I1 à I1 I2 I3
V1~
I1+I2+I3 = 0
N
V2~ V3~
I2 à
I3
Phasor representation
I1
120°
© ABB Switzerland Ltd, Corporate Research
July 20, 2014 | Slide 5 I2
Review of Phasor Calculation
Time-domain Phasor-domain
y (t ) = A sin(wt + d ) y (t ) = A ewt + jd
Use coordinate
ß system rotating with
speed w rad/s
§ Reactive power
0 Preactive(t) = Q* sin(2wt) where
Q = Veff*Ieff*sin(f)
p_reactive(t) è Oscillates around zero
§ Three phases H
§ The sum of active power is time
independent (doesn’t oscillate)
§ The sum of reactive power is zero, but the
redistribution of the magnetic field is the
consequence of the oscillating reactive
power in each phase
è Reactive power flow can not be neglected!
§ Sign convention: inductors (lines,
transformers, induction motors) consume
reactive power, capacitors generate reactive
power
Magnetic field around the six conductors of two 380 kV overhead circuits
Source: P. Leuchtmann, ETH Zurich, 2014.
© ABB Switzerland Ltd, Corporate Research
July 20, 2014 | Slide 10
Poynting vectors of active and reactive power flux
show their physical character
Poynting vector
Poynting vector
envelopes of
envelopes of active
reactive power flux
power flux in a
in a balanced
balanced three-
three-phase
phase overhead
overhead line
line
Source: Wikipedia
§ Three phase stator connected to the power grid, stator field rotates with
grid frequency
§ Rotor of a synchronous generator and its DC field rotates with the same
frequency
§ The more torque the turbine provides to the generator shaft, the larger will
be the angle between rotor and stator field
VG VL
I I VG
X=iwL DV
ZL VL
d
VG*VL
P(d) = VG*VL * sin(d)
X
© ABB Switzerland Ltd, Corporate Research
July 20, 2014 | Slide 16
In the interconnected power system thousands of
generators operate synchronously
Map of the Swiss transmission grid The bicycle equivalent- but think
with major power plants (1.5% of rubberbands instead of rigid
European ENTSO-E grid) chains
Tertiary
Secondary
Primary
hours Time
§ The power plants contracted for primary frequency
Primary frequency control
control act as a proportional controler
§ The power plants contracted for secondary
reserve act as an integral controler
§ If the tertiary reserve is insufficient, the final option
is load shedding L
-300
50
-500
Frequency [Hz]
49.98
Power [W]
-700
49.96
15:02 KKW Krümmel is
taken off the grid. -900
Pnom = 1376MW i.e. almost
49.94 Frequency [Hz]
half of the reserve power is -1100
Power flow [W]
needed
49.92 -1300
49.9 -1500
14.46 Uhr 14.51 Uhr 14.56 Uhr 15.01 Uhr 15.06 Uhr 15.11 Uhr 15.16 Uhr
© ABB Switzerland Ltd, Corporate Research
July 20, 2014 | Slide 19
Overhead lines and cables have an impedance, hence
the receiving end voltage depends on the load.
P / Pmax
I ZGrid VL
I / Ishort
VG ZLoad VL / VG
ZGrid / ZLoad
§ In this (unrealistic) example Z(Grid) and Z(Load) are both pure resistances
and the voltage at maximum power transfer is 50% of the sending voltage.
VG VL
I VL VG
X=iwL
I
ZL DV
VL
Q(DV) = * DV (for d=0)
X
© ABB Switzerland Ltd, Corporate Research
July 20, 2014 | Slide 21
The maximum real power transfer capability is strongly
dependent on the power factor of the load
Power factor
VL / VG 0.90 lag 0.95 lag 1.0 0.95 lead 0.90 lead
P / Pmax
Capacitive current
d
d
Inductive current
d
Underexcitation
© ABB Switzerland Ltd, Corporate Research
July 20, 2014 | Slide 23
A variety of equipment types contributes to the local
voltage control by injecting or absorbing reactive power
Shunt reactor
Shunt capacitor Series compensation
Static Var
Control
On-load tap changers
(in Transformers)
clearance
§ Elongation causes sag
Minimum
clearance § Sag reduces clearance
Thermal limit
Unused
Thermal capacity
Line Loadability
voltage
drop limit
angle
stability limit
0 80 320 1000
Line Length (kms)
Summary 2 – Stable frequency indicates global
equilibrium of active power, stable voltage needs local
control of reacive power
Renewables Integration