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Alkanes: Bonding and formulae: Melting points & boiling points:

 CnH2n+2 The type of bonding is called covalent; the  M.pt. – temp. at which substance changes
 Saturated hydrocarbons (each C atom atoms share pairs of electrons to achieve full from s  l; B.pt.is temp. at which substance
bonded to 4 other atoms; all C to C bonds valence shells. changes l  g.
are single covalent bonds). Structural  To melt / boil, particles must vibrate or
H H H H H H H H formula move fast enough become free of the solid,
H C H H C C H H C C C H
H H H H H H
H C H H C H or liquid.
H H  At room temperature (25oC):
CH4 methane C2H6 ethane C3H8 propane CH4 o Alkanes C1-4 are gases, C5-8 are liquids.
The next members are butane C4H10,
Each – between atoms is a pair of electrons /
o Alkenes C2 and C3 are gases.
pentane C5H12, hexane C6H14, heptane C7H16 o Alcohols C1 and C2 are liquids.
and octane C8H18. a covalent bond.
 As the number of C atoms , the mass of
 CNG (compressed natural gas): mostly CH4. CH4 is the molecular formula (tells you number
the molecule increases AND melting and
 LPG (liquid petroleum gas): mostly propane and type of each atom).
boiling points . More energy is need to
and butane separate particles (melting) and/or for
 Petrol: mixture of hexane, heptane & octane particles to escape the liquid state (boiling).
Alkenes: Survival sheet
 CnH2n AS 90932 CARBON CHEMISTRY For experts:
 Unsaturated hydrocarbons (NOT every C
atom is bonded to 4 other atoms; they As the size of the molecule increases so does
contain a C=C double bond). the strength of the attractive forces between
H
the molecules.
H H H
C
C C H H More energy is required to overcome these
C C
H H
H H
weak attractive forces between molecules to
allow a change in state.
C2H4 ethene C3H6 propene Part 1 of 2
Alcohols: Fermentation: Solubility in water:
 NOT hydrocarbons as they contain oxygen. Conditions: Yeast acts as a catalyst, needs a  Alkanes and alkenes are all
 Have an alcohol group –O-H, sometimes warm temperature (25-35oC), and anaerobic insoluble in water; Immiscible
simply written as –OH. conditions / lack of oxygen. liquids do not mix, but
Glucose molecules are converted by the separate into two distinct
H H H enzymes in yeast, into ethanol and carbon layers when placed in the
H C O H H C C O H dioxide molecules in anaerobic conditions / same container.
H H H without O2.  Methanol and ethanol are both completely
CH3OH methanol C2H5OH ethanol Equation: C6H12O6  2C2H5OH + 2CO2 soluble in water.
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Part 2 of 2 Polymers: made from alkenes, ethene and propene

Poly(ethene): Many small ethene molecules (monomers) Poly(ethene) uses: plastic bags,
Crude Oil: Fractional distillation cling wrap, squeeze bottles.
are joined together to form long-chain molecules.
 Crude oil - mixture of hydrocarbon molecules of
different sizes. H H H H The chemical reaction H
H
H

 Hydrocarbons of different molecular masses n C C H C C H requires heat, pressure & H

C
H
H C H
H

have different B.pts. and are separated by H H

H H n catalyst to speed it up n H
C C
H
H C C H

fractional distillation; The molecular mass H H

determines where on the tower the particular
fraction is collected.
 Heated crude oil vapour enters the tower.
 Larger, heavier hydrocarbons – more C atoms
(with higher B.pts.) condense into liquids lower
down the tower.
 Smaller, lighter hydrocarbons - less C atoms
(with lower B.Pts.) rise up the tower and
condense into a liquid at the lower
temperatures near the top of the tower.
 The smallest hydrocarbons (C1 – C4) remain as
gases.
Small ,
Low light
temperature molecules
n
 The (covalent) double bond between each carbon atom in
Poly(propene): made from
ethene is broken and single bonds formed between the carbon
propene monomers. Uses: food
atoms, forming long carbon chains.
containers, fibres, ropes, pipes.
 Poly(ethene) is tough as it consists of many strong, long chain, Good for ropes used in water, as
molecules which overlap each other, to form sheets. low density and floats (physical
 Suitable for food containers as it has low chemical reactivity (chemical property) and has low reactivity
property) and can be heated & moulded into shapes (physical property). with air/water (chemical property).
Combustion: (burning; an oxidation reaction). Effects of combustion products human health
The alkanes, alkenes and alcohols will all burn (are & the environment:
flammable), and alkanes & alcohols are useful as  Carbon particles cause air pollution - coat
fuels. The alkenes are too valuable to waste as buildings, affect plants, and human health,
fuels as they can be made into plastics. (respiratory problems including asthma and
Complete combustion: in plentiful O2 supply, lung cancer), can scatter solar radiation &
producing CO2 and H2O products; clean almost reduce the efficiency of photosynthesis
invisible flame. Sufficient oxygen present for all the  CO (carbon monoxide) is a colourless, odourless
carbon
H
atoms to react with O2 to form CO2. and highly toxic gas. CO forms a stable
H C H
HH
Incomplete combustion: in limited O2; not enough compound with haemoglobin – prevents O2
H
H C
oxygenH
C H
present
H
in the air for all of the carbon atoms from being carried to the parts of the body that
H H C C
to turn Hinto carbon dioxide. need it; person dies by suffocation.
H

Shown by a yellow flame, producing C (soot), CO  CO2 contributes to the greenhouse effect which
and H2O as products has been linked to global warming / climate
change. It causes heat energy to be reradiated
Energy released: Complete combustion back to earth and subsequently global warming
H
is a more efficient producer of energy occurs.
C H
than incomplete combustion.
H
Methanol Synthesis:
(1) CH4 + H2O → CO + 3H2 ; this is steam reforming. Methane is reacted with steam to produce CO and H2.
High Large , (2) CO2 + H2 ↔ CO + H2O; this is the water-gas shift reaction; it adjusts the amount of H2 in the reactor.
temperature heavy (3) CO + 2H2 → CH3OH; CO & H2 make up the “synthesis gas” which reacts over a copper catalyst to make
methanol.
molecules
Conversion reactions are never 100 percent efficient and leftover unreacted gases are recovered and re-
processed. Methanol has many uses including being used in recyclable plastic bottles, pharmaceuticals,
polyester, paint, glues, foams and solvents, as well as being about 10% of methylated spirits.
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