IRC Ammonia Sensor Overview

DISCLOSURE
This report has been published with its distribution limited to employees and
advisors of IRC for the sole purpose of evaluating the progress and future course
of the project described in the report. This report is not available for general
distribution. Until the report has been reviewed and evaluated by IRC, it should
be neither disclosed to others nor reproduced, wholly or partially, without written
consent of IRC. This report is a copyrighted publication and its contents shall not
be reproduced or distributed without permission from the IRC.
ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS REPORT – INDUSTRIAL

REFRIGERATION CONSORTIUM (IRC) AT THE UNIVERSITY OF
WISCONSIN-MADISON
Copyright © IRC 2002. All Rights Reserved. ii

Table of Contents
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................vii
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ ix
1 Overview ....................................................................................1-1
1.1 Purpose .........................................................................................................1-2
1.2 Definitions ....................................................................................................1-2
1.3 Time-Weighted Average Concentrations.....................................................1-3
1.4 Ammonia Detector Uses ..............................................................................1-5
1.4.1 Personal Exposure/Occupant safety .............................................................1-5
1.4.2 Ventilation Control.......................................................................................1-5
1.4.3 Operations & Maintenance...........................................................................1-5
1.4.4 Emergency Response ...................................................................................1-6
1.4.5 Electrical Shutdown .....................................................................................1-6
1.5 Codes, Standards and Guideline Requirements ...........................................1-6
1.5.1 ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 15 – 2001: Safety Standard for Refrigeration
Systems .........................................................................................................1-7
1.5.2 ANSI/IIAR Standard 2-1999: Equipment, Design, and Installation of
Ammonia Mechanical Refrigerating Systems ..............................................1-7
1.5.3 Uniform Mechanical Code (UMC) - 1997 ...................................................1-8
1.5.4 BOCA National Mechanical Code - 1993....................................................1-8
1.5.5 Factory Mutual DS 7-13 (January 2001)......................................................1-8
1.5.6 IIAR Bulletin 111 -1991: Guidelines for Ammonia Machinery Room
Ventilation ....................................................................................................1-9
1.5.7 International Mechanical Code (IMC) - 2000..............................................1-9
1.5.8 ISA-S92.03.01-1998: Performance Requirements for Ammonia Detection
Instruments (25 - 500 ppm)..........................................................................1-9
1.5.9 ISA-S92.03.02-1999: Installation, Operation, and Maintenance of Ammonia
Detection Instruments (25-500 ppm Full Scale) ..........................................1-9
1.6 Regulations.................................................................................................1-10
1.7 Conclusion..................................................................................................1-10
2 Sensor Description....................................................................2-1
2.1 Detector ........................................................................................................2-1
2.1.1 Electrochemical ............................................................................................2-1
2.1.2 Solid-state.....................................................................................................2-2
2.1.3 Infrared .........................................................................................................2-4
2.1.4 Other commercially available types .............................................................2-5
2.1.4.1 Charged Carrier Injection.....................................................................2-6
2.1.4.2 Polymer thin-film Capacitive ...............................................................2-6
2.1.4.3 Catalytic Bead (pellistor) .....................................................................2-7
2.2 Sampling.......................................................................................................2-8
2.2.1 Diffusion.......................................................................................................2-8
2.2.2 Extraction .....................................................................................................2-8
2.3 Electronics ....................................................................................................2-9
2.3.1 Signal Conditioning......................................................................................2-9
Copyright © IRC 2002. All Rights Reserved. iii

2.3.2 Controller .....................................................................................................2-9
2.4 Summary ......................................................................................................2-9
3 Operation requirements and considerations...........................3-1
3.1 Concentration Ranges ..................................................................................3-1
3.2 Environmental Conditions............................................................................3-1
3.3 Background Gases........................................................................................3-2
3.4 Detector Life ................................................................................................3-2
3.5 Measurement Characteristics .......................................................................3-2
3.5.1 Accuracy.......................................................................................................3-2
3.5.2 Drift ..............................................................................................................3-3
3.5.3 Time Response .............................................................................................3-3
3.6 Calibration/maintenance...............................................................................3-4
3.7 Life Cycle Cost.............................................................................................3-4
4 Application Considerations ......................................................4-1
4.1 General Considerations for Sensor Location ...............................................4-1
4.2 Machinery Rooms ........................................................................................4-2
4.2.1 Low Concentration Range Refrigerant Detectors ........................................4-3
4.2.2 High Concentration Range Refrigerant Detectors .......................................4-4
4.2.3 Sensor Placement Consideration ..................................................................4-4
4.3 Production Spaces ........................................................................................4-5
4.3.1 Environmental Conditions............................................................................4-5
4.3.2 Sensor Placement Considerations ................................................................4-5
4.3.2.1 Local.....................................................................................................4-6
4.3.2.2 Zoned....................................................................................................4-6
4.3.3 Controls ........................................................................................................4-7
4.4 Safety Relief Systems...................................................................................4-8
5 References .................................................................................5-1
6 Manufacturers List ....................................................................6-1
Copyright © IRC 2002. All Rights Reserved. iv

List of Figures
Figure 1 Dynamic trace of ammonia concentrations including limits. ...........................1-4
Figure 2 Schematic of electrochemical sensor................................................................2-1
Figure 3 Schematic of a solid-state sensor. .....................................................................2-3
Figure 4 Example of infrared detector configurations: a) based on rise in temperature
from absorption of infrared light, b) based on reduction in radiation from absorption
of infrared light.........................................................................................................2-5
Figure 5 Hypothetical time response of sensor to step-change in concentration. ...........3-3
Figure 6 Illustration of local and zoned sensor placement..............................................4-7
Figure 7 Typical installation of single gas-phase ammonia detector in safety relief vent
main........................................................................................................................4-10
List of Tables
Table 1 Summary of anhydrous ammonia exposure effects. ..........................................1-1
Table 2 Electrochemical sensor specifications................................................................2-2
Table 3 Solid-state sensor specifications. .......................................................................2-4
Table 4 Infrared sensor specification. .............................................................................2-5
Table 5 Charged carrier injection sensor specifications..................................................2-6
Table 6 Polymer thin-film capacitive sensor specifications............................................2-7
Table 7 Catalytic bead sensor specifications...................................................................2-8
Table 8: Generic specification for low concentration range detectors used in machinery
room applications. ....................................................................................................4-3
Table 9: Recommended control function setpoints for low concentration range refrigerant
detectors in machinery rooms. .................................................................................4-3
Table 10: Generic specification for high concentration range refrigerant detectors in
machinery room applications. ..................................................................................4-4
Table 11: Recommended control functions for high concentration range refrigerant
detectors in machinery rooms. .................................................................................4-4
Table 12: Recommended control functions for refrigerant detectors in production spaces.
..................................................................................................................................4-8
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Acknowledgements
Thanks to all of the ammonia sensor manufacturers that were so willing to provide
information. Without this willingness, the report would be a shadow of itself.
The authors would also like to especially thank those who reviewed and offered
comments on this report: Frank Wewers and Brian EuDaly, Manning Systems; Eleny
Fotis, Vaisala; and Rob Walden, GfG Instrumentation.
Thanks to Wendy Beckman for accumulating information and multiple runs to the
library. We would also like to acknowledge the other IRC staff that contributed to this
report including Dan Dettmers and Jim Elleson.
The authors would also like to gratefully acknowledge members of the Industrial
Refrigeration Consortium for their support to develop this report. At the time of this
printing, members of the IRC include: Alliant Energy, CF Industries, EPA, Kraft Foods,
Nor-Am Cold Storage, OSHA, Schoep’s Ice Cream, Tropicana Products, Wells’ Dairy,
and Xcel Energy.
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1 Overview
The application of refrigerant detectors in facilities with operating industrial refrigeration
systems has grown substantially over the last decade. Virtually all applicable building
and mechanical codes in force within the United States require the installation of some
form of refrigerant detection equipment in machinery rooms or other spaces where
refrigerant may accumulate. Functional refrigerant detection systems are especially
important in facilities that utilize halocarbon refrigerants. In this situation, their
importance is heightened since the presence of halocarbon refrigerants can be fatal to
occupants (through asphyxiation) and the refrigerant is neither readily detectable nor
discernable by most humans.
Anhydrous ammonia is the preferred refrigerant in industrial refrigeration systems today;

consequently, our focus in this overview will be on gas-phase ammonia detectors. One of
ammonia’s advantages is its readily detectable presence by humans at concentrations as
low as 5 ppm. Table 1 summarizes the health effects as a function of ammonia vapor
concentration in air (adapted in part from IIAR 1983).
Table 1 Summary of anhydrous ammonia exposure effects.

Vapor
Concentration Effects Exposure Period / Comments
(ppm)
5-10 odor threshold Continuous
25 noticeable odor NIOSH Recommended Exposure Limit (REL) for
an 8 hr time-weighted average
35 odorous NIOSH Short-Term Exposure Limit (STEL) for a
15 min. max. exposure
50 unpleasant odor OSHA Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL)
100 strong odor Any exposure period
150 very strong odor 50% of the IDLH concentration
300 overpowering odor Immediately Dangerous to Life & Health (IDLH)
400 major throat irritation Ordinarily, no serious results following short
exposures
1,720 convulsive coughing No exposure permissible (may be fatal < 1/2 hr)
5,000 respiratory spasms, No exposure permissible (rapidly fatal)
strangulation, asphyxia
15,000 burns & blisters skin -
Ammonia Sensor Overview © 2002 1-1

Although most humans can readily detect the presence of ammonia, ammonia detectors
have become an essential component in plants that utilize ammonia refrigeration systems
for their ability to quantify the local concentration of gas-phase ammonia. The
functionality of ammonia detectors includes both alarm and equipment control.
This document provides an overview of ammonia sensing technologies and their

application. The purpose and role of ammonia sensors in refrigeration applications will
be addressed in Chapter 1. The commercially available sensor types will be discussed in
Chapter 2, including advantages and disadvantages and a comparison of important
characteristics of sensors. Chapter 3 focuses on the operating characteristics and Chapter
4 covers application guidelines. Chapter 5 includes references and a resource list of
manufacturers of ammonia sensors.
1.1 Purpose
The purpose of ammonia detectors is simply to sense and communicate the presence of
ammonia for human or property protection and for equipment control. Uses for ammonia
sensors are rapidly evolving with the improving sensors and refrigeration controls.
1.2 Definitions
ppm: Parts Per Million, a measure of gas concentration by volume
LFL: Lower Flammability Limit, the minimum concentration (expressed

as a percent by volume) of vapor in air that will cause a flame
propagation when given an ignition source of sufficient energy, for
pure ammonia vapor the LFL is 16% by volume (160,000 ppm).
UFL: Upper Flammability Limit, the maximum concentration (expressed

as a percent by volume) of vapor in air that will cause a flame
propagation when given an ignition source of sufficient energy, for
pure ammonia vapor the UFL is 25% by volume (250,000 ppm).
TWA: Time-Weighted Average value of the instantaneous or real-time,

ammonia concentration. The time-frame of the weighted average
is important parameter in the metric.
REL: Recommended Exposure Limit, a TWA concentration for up to a

10-hour workday in a 40-hour workweek, to which nearly all
workers may be repeatedly exposed, day after day, without adverse
health effects. For anhydrous ammonia, NIOSH has established an
REL of 25 ppm.
PEL: Permissible Exposure Limit, an OSHA recommended time-

weighted average concentration that must not be exceeded during

any 8-hour work shift of a 40-hour workweek. For anhydrous
ammonia, the OSHA PEL is 50 ppm.
STEL: Short-Term Exposure Limit, a 15-minute time-weighted average

exposure that should not be exceeded at any time during a
workday, even if the 8-hour TWA is within the REL. Exposures
above the REL up to the STEL should not be longer than 15
minutes and should not occur more than four times per day. The
dwell period between successive exposures in this range should be
at least 60 minutes. An averaging period, other than 15 minutes,
may be recommended when warranted by observed biological
effects. The NIOSH-recommended STEL for anhydrous ammonia
is 35 ppm.
IDLH: Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health, the maximum

(NIOSH) concentration from which, in the event of respirator failure, one
could escape within 30 minutes without a respirator and without
experiencing any escape-impairing (e.g., severe eye irritation) or
irreversible health effects. The NIOSH-recommended IDLH for
anhydrous ammonia is 300 ppm.
IDLH: Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health, “an atmospheric

(OSHA) concentration of any toxic, corrosive, or asphyxiant substance that
poses an immediate threat to life or would cause irreversible or
delayed adverse health effects or would interfere with an
individual's ability to escape from a dangerous atmosphere.” [29
CFR1910.120]. This definition is part of OSHA’s hazardous waste
operations and emergency response regulation (HAZWOPER).
The OSHA-recommended IDLH for anhydrous ammonia is 300
ppm.
detector: The subassembly that produces a change in its electrical, chemical

or physical characteristics in the presence of ammonia.
sensor: The device that includes detector and the associated electronics
necessary to process and respond to the detector output.
1.3 Time-Weighted Average Concentrations

The assortment of exposure limits for anhydrous ammonia and other substances by
various sources (OSHA, NIOSH, etc.) can be confusing. Ammonia sensors and
associated detection equipment are crucial to assessing the environmental situations in
facilities that utilize anhydrous ammonia. In this section, we discuss instantaneous and
time-average values of concentrations to clarify issues of exposure limits.

The concentration of ammonia in the indoor (plant, machinery room, etc.) environment
can be highly dynamic. The exposure limits presented in section 1.2 require tracking
both instantaneous and time-weighted average concentrations. Keep in mind that the
time-weighted average is the average concentration of ammonia over a specified time-
period (15-minutes, 8-hours, or 10-hours).
Figure 1 illustrates a hypothetical instantaneous ammonia concentration over an 8-hour

period. The example shows the instantaneous ammonia concentration, time-weighted
average, and a 15-minute time-weighted average. Note that the curve for the time-
weighted average is a running average over all previous times shown on the plot;
therefore, the final value is the 8-hour TWA.
Notice, the first instantaneous concentration spike approaches but does not exceed the
OSHA PEL; however, the 15-minute average exceeds the NIOSH STEL of 35 ppm a
short time later.
60
1
50 OSHA PEL (TWA)
Instantaneous Concentration
2
40
Concentration, ppm
NIOSH STEL (TWA)

15-minute TWA
30
NIOSH REL (TWA)
20
TWA
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time, h
Figure 1 Dynamic trace of ammonia concentrations including limits.

The second instantaneous concentration spike, in Figure 1, that occurs approximately 5-½
hours into the day exceeds the STEL but the 15-minute time-average stays well below the
NIOSH STEL. Throughout the entire 8-hour period, the continuous or 8-hour time-
weighted average never exceeds the NIOSH REL of 25 ppm even though the STEL is
exceeded during the 8-hour period.

1.4 Ammonia Detector Uses
Detectors may be used for occupant safety purposes, equipment control, alarms,
maintenance, and emergency response. Gas-phase ammonia detectors are available in
both low concentration ranges (i.e. 0-1,000 ppm) and high concentration ranges (e.g. 0-
30,000 ppm (3%)). Typically, the low concentration range detectors are used for
environmental monitoring, exposure assessment, ventilation control, and hazardous
materials response. The high concentration range detectors are used for emergency
response including: machinery room electrical shutdown and hazardous environment
monitoring during emergency response. The application of both low concentration range
and high concentration range ammonia detectors are discussed further in the sections that
follow.
1.4.1 Personal Exposure/Occupant safety

One application of low range ammonia detectors is for personal exposure assessment. A
low concentration range, high sensitivity, and time-averaging capability are essential to
accurately determine whether or not the concentration of ammonia in an area is
approaching or exceeding the permissible exposure limit, short-term exposure limit, or
recommended exposure limit. The field application of this detector may be either a fixed
system or a portable hand-held device. Typically, these devices are equipped with an
alarm that may be audible or both audible and visual. The alarm(s) serves to notify area
personnel when local the concentration of ammonia has reached or exceeded safe limits.
The detector may be installed in machinery rooms, production areas, freezers, coolers, or
confined spaces.
1.4.2 Ventilation Control

National and international codes require that machinery rooms have ventilation systems.
Ammonia detectors are an important element of safe machinery room operation through
their ability to interact with ventilation systems for control during both emergency and
non-emergency situations.
For ammonia machinery rooms to satisfy the National Electric Code (NEC, 2002) criteria
for an “unclassified” location, machinery room mechanical ventilation systems must run
continuously with an alarm that actuates upon failure or the room must be equipped with
an ammonia detector that alarms at 1,000 ppm. In addition, ventilation systems may be
designed for emergency mode operation where their operation attempts to keep the
accumulation of gas-phase ammonia from approaching the LFL in the machinery room
because of a leak. Generally, low concentration range detectors are used for initiating
purge ventilation under emergency situations.
1.4.3 Operations & Maintenance

Another application of ammonia detectors is for monitoring the state of pressure relief
systems (pressure relief valves, rupture disks, and associated vent piping). An ammonia
detector placed within the relief vent piping can be an effective means to alert plant
personnel that one or more of the connected pressure relief devices has “lifted”.
Depending on the pressure relief vent piping arrangement, the offending pressure relief
valve can be found more quickly with this approach. Several plants have incorporated

this concept as a means of documenting releases, estimating released quantity, identifying
overpressure situations (near-misses), and guiding replacement of the relief devices that
“lifted”. Generally, high range concentration ammonia detectors (1,000-30,000 ppm) are
used for this application.
1.4.4 Emergency Response

Both low concentration range and high concentration range detectors are essential tools
for situation assessment during emergency scenarios. A low concentration range (0-500
ppm) detector is useful to determine whether the ammonia concentration in a designated
area is at or above the IDLH (300 ppm). Since the area around a release is highly
dynamic, a portable detector can be particularly useful for surveillance monitoring of
ammonia concentrations in assigned hazard zones during emergency response.
A high concentration range detector (i.e. 1,000-30,000 ppm) can provide “hot zone”
guidance to incident commanders during emergency response. The detector can quantify
the ammonia concentration and any trends toward impending danger for extremely high
concentration environments as they approach the LFL (160,000 ppm). A limitation that
should be identified is that, currently, most commercially available ammonia detectors
have an upper limit of detection at 20,000-30,000 ppm. A commonly used metric for
responding to hazardous environments or initiating emergency ventilation system
operation is 25% of the LFL (for ammonia, this would be 40,000 ppm) – which is beyond
the span of currently available commercial ammonia detectors. This requires emergency
response plans and decisions to be based on the concentration ranges measurable with
existing detector technologies.
1.4.5 Electrical Shutdown

High concentration range detectors are increasingly being used for initiating machinery
room electrical shutdown. For example, a high concentration range detector (1,000-
30,000 ppm) could be used to disconnect all electrical power equipment in a machinery
room that has not been designed and constructed in accordance with the National Electric
Code Class 1, Group D, Division 2 (NEC 2002) requirements (non-hazardous location).
A common instantaneous ammonia concentration to initiate machinery room electrical
shutdown is 15,000 ppm. Eliminating electrical power from the machinery room in the
presence of high ammonia concentrations minimizes the likelihood of a deflagration
event that can be triggered by electrical equipment near concentrations of ammonia
within its flammable range.
1.5 Codes, Standards and Guideline Requirements

Increasingly, ammonia sensors (or refrigerant detectors from a broader perspective) are
being required by building codes, mechanical codes, safety mechanical codes for
refrigeration equipment, fire codes, and/or insurance underwriters. These codes establish
specific requirements for control and alarm actions based on varying levels of refrigerant
concentrations measured in spaces (occupied spaces, machinery rooms, etc.).

In addition to codes and standards relevant to the application of ammonia detectors, there
are standards related to the instruments themselves. This section discusses the pertinent
codes and standards that drive the need for ammonia detectors. In addition, we highlight
the relevant standards governing the instrumentation.
1.5.1 ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 15 – 2001: Safety Standard for Refrigeration

Systems
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 15 is probably the most recognized and codified safety code
for mechanical refrigeration in the United States. The following paragraphs highlight the
sections in the standard that pertain to the application of detectors in systems using
ammonia as the refrigerant.
§7.2.2 Industrial Occupancies and Refrigerated Rooms: Rule 4 “Refrigerant

detectors are installed with the sensing location and alarm level as required in
refrigerating machinery rooms in accordance with 8.11.2.1.” Exception (a) of
paragraph §8.11.2.1 refers to the requirements outlined in §8.12(h) below for
systems using ammonia as a refrigerant.
§8.11 Refrigerating Machinery Room, General Requirements Subsection 6 (b)

allows the use of refrigerant vapor detectors in order to be able to install combustion
equipment in the machinery room. The vapor detector is used ”to automatically shut
down the combustion process in the event of refrigerant leakage.” In addition, this
paragraph has an exception (2) to 8.11.6(b) that states: machinery rooms where only
ammonia is the refrigerant and internal combustion engines are used as the prime
mover for the compressors.
§8.12 Machinery Room, Special Requirements (h) requires that “(1) the mechanical
ventilation system in the machinery room is run continuously and failure of the
mechanical ventilation system actuates an alarm or (2) the machinery room is
equipped with a detector, conforming to 8.11.2.1, except the detector shall alarm at
1,000 ppm.” This requirement is only necessary if the machinery room using
ammonia does not conform to Class 1, Division 2, of the National Electrical Code.
1.5.2 ANSI/IIAR Standard 2-1999: Equipment, Design, and Installation of

Ammonia Mechanical Refrigerating Systems
ANSI/IIAR Standard 2 specifies equipment and machinery room design and installation
for ammonia refrigeration systems.
§6.2.1.3 Ventilation, Safety states that “a supervised alarm system shall be activated
when the ammonia leak detector is activated or when the mechanical ventilation
system fails so that corrective action can be taken.”
§6.2.3.1.1 Equipment, requires machinery room ventilation systems to be acutated

automatically by vapor detectors. “The typical recommended actuation level of the
detection device is a setting less than 400 ppm; however, activation levels shall be
set as required by the jurisdictional authority.”

§6.2.3.1.2 Equipment, states further that “where one or more alarm levels are used,
the level actuating the ventilation system shall not exceed 1,000 ppm.”
1.5.3 Uniform Mechanical Code (UMC) - 1997

The UMC requires refrigerant-vapor alarms in all refrigeration machinery rooms.
§1106.4 Refrigerant-vapor Alarms, states that “machinery rooms shall have

approved refrigerant-vapor detectors, located in an area where refrigerant from a
leak is likely to concentrate, and shall activate visual and audible alarms. Alarms
shall be activated at a value not greater than one half the IDLH, or measurement
consistent therewith; the PEL, or measurement consistent therewith; or 25 percent of
the LFL, whichever is less.” The concentration that satisfies these criteria for
ammonia is 50 ppm.
§1107.5 Emergency Control of the Ventilation Systems, requires that the purge
capability of a ventilation system responds automatically to the detection of
refrigerant concentrations at levels no higher than 25% of the LFL or 50% of the
IDLH, whichever is lower. For ammonia systems, the level of actuation would be
set at 150 ppm (50% of the IDHL).
1.5.4 BOCA National Mechanical Code - 1993

BOCA code requires that the machinery room be constructed in accordance to
ANSI/ASHRAE 15. No other specific requirements for ammonia detectors are included.
1.5.5 Factory Mutual DS 7-13 (January 2001)

Factory Mutual is an insurance carrier for industry. While this data sheet is not a
standard or code per se, within the industry it is an important document. The following
paragraphs highlight the sections in the standard that apply to the use of ammonia
detectors:
§2.8.3 states that non-Class I, Division 2 electrical equipment in existing ammonia

machine rooms is allowed if an ammonia detector system is installed to control
emergency ventilation. The detection system should be set to alarm to a
continuously supervised location and initiate the emergency ventilation system a
25% of the LFL (4% by volume or 40,000 ppm) and shut down all electrical
equipment at 50% of the LFL. The recommended location of the detectors is above
potential release sites like compressors or large receivers. The detectors should be
calibrated at least monthly by qualified personnel.
§2.4.6 states that ammonia detectors can be substituted for visits every 8 hours by
responsible personnel to refrigerated areas served by ammonia. The detectors must
alarm to a continuously supervised location and be applied according to
manufacturer’s recommended spacing and location guidelines, or within 10 ft of any
evaporator. The detector should alarm at levels less than 1,000 ppm.

1.5.6 IIAR Bulletin 111 -1991: Guidelines for Ammonia Machinery Room
Ventilation
IIAR Bulletin 111 provides guidelines for machinery room ventilation systems (design
and operation) and the recommended use of ammonia detectors for control of the
emergency ventilation system. (Note, at the time of printing this report, an updated and
revised version of Bulletin 111 was in draft but not final form. Refer to the updated
version of Bulletin 111 for guidance on recommendations for ammonia detection and
machinery room ventilation.)
§4.2(b) Independent emergency ventilation system, states that the emergency

ventilation mode must be activated at or below 25% of the LFL “regardless of the
position or action of any other types of manual or thermostatic controls.” The
detector must also initiate a supervised alarm. Levels for alarming are suggested at
400 ppm.
§6.0 Operation and Maintenance, states that the proper operation of the ammonia
detectors and control circuitry (including initiation of ventilation system and alarms)
should be confirmed at least every three (3) months.
1.5.7 International Mechanical Code (IMC) - 2000

The requirements for refrigerant detectors documented in the IMC are similar to those
outlined in ANSI/ASHRAE 15. The requirements include:
§1105.3 Refrigerant Detector, states, “refrigerant detectors in machinery rooms shall

be provided as required by the International Fire Code.”
§1105.5 Fuel-burning appliances, states that fuel-burning appliances are allowable if

a refrigerant vapor detector is employed to automatically shut-down the combustion
process in the event of a leak.
§1106.3 Ammonia room ventilation, allows initiation of ventilation system operation

and alarm annunciation at a refrigerant detection level not to exceed 1,000 ppm.
1.5.8 ISA-S92.03.01-1998: Performance Requirements for Ammonia Detection

Instruments (25 - 500 ppm)
The scope of this Instrument Society of America (ISA) standard is to provide “minimum
performance requirements of electrical instruments for the detection of ammonia gas, in
order to enhance the safety of personnel.” The limitations of the standard are that it only
applies to sensors suitable for toxic concentration detection (25 –500 ppm) and in a
temperature range of 14-122°F.
1.5.9 ISA-S92.03.02-1999: Installation, Operation, and Maintenance of

Ammonia Detection Instruments (25-500 ppm Full Scale)
This standard “establishes user criteria for the installation, operation, and maintenance of
ammonia gas-detection instruments.”

1.6 Regulations
OSHA Process Safety Management (PSM) standard (29 CFR 1910.119 (e)(3)(ii))
discusses the use of detector technology in the process hazard analysis. Since PSM is a
performance-based standard, there is no explicit requirement for ammonia sensors;
however, sensors may be part of the PSM program for emergency response or for safety-
related controls as an outcome from a process hazard analysis. Detectors and their
associated human factors should be included as part of the hazard analysis.
1.7 Conclusion
Ammonia detectors play an important role in the safe operation of facilities that utilize
ammonia refrigeration systems. Detectors are used for insuring occupant safety (limiting
personal exposure), system controls (emergency ventilation and alarms), supporting
operations and maintenance (pressure relief monitoring), support of emergency response,
and shutdown of electrical equipment during release scenarios. The use of ammonia
detectors is also a requirement in nearly every code, standard, and guideline related to
ammonia refrigeration systems. Care is required to specify the correct detector for the
target application.

2 Sensor Description
The purpose of this section is to present a range of sensor technologies used for gas-phase
ammonia detection. This section includes a discussion of the sensor’s theory of operation
as well as advantages and disadvantages of each sensor technology. Although there are
emerging technologies in the area of sensors, our focus here is on current commercially
available sensors and those expected to appear in the marketplace near-term. Emerging
gas-phase ammonia sensing technologies will be briefly discussed at the end of this
section.
2.1 Detector
A detector is a device that senses the presence of a target gas and produces a signal that
is, typically, proportional to the magnitude of the gas concentration.
2.1.1 Electrochemical
Electrochemical sensors use an electrolyte solution that reacts to ammonia and produces
an electrical signal proportional to the concentration. Figure 2 shows the key elements of
an electrochemical sensor.
Capillary Diffusion Barrier

Filter (optional)
Membrane
Sensing Electrode
Reference Electrode
Counter Electrode
Electrolyte
Figure 2 Schematic of electrochemical sensor.
The capillary diffusion barrier, filter and permeable membrane (also called a hydrophobic
barrier, because it keeps the electrolyte solution from dehydrating) together control the
amount of gas that is allowed to react with the electrolyte and keeps the electrolyte from
leaking out of the sensor. The filter may be necessary to reduce cross-sensitivity in
certain situations and is typically activated charcoal.
The electrode is made of a material with which the target gas undergoes an oxidization or
reduction reaction. The reference electrode is used to maintain a constant voltage on the
sensing electrode to compensate for the degradation of the electrolyte due to the reaction
on the electrode surface; thereby, extending the life of the sensor.

The electrolyte facilitates the reaction between the electrode and gas and carries charge
between the electrodes.
The more sensitive electrochemical sensors require the passage of more gas molecules
through the membrane in order to obtain a measurable signal. This accelerates the
evaporation of water from the electrolyte solution and shortens the operating life of the
sensor.
Electrochemical sensors are sensitive to temperature and often have internal temperature
compensation. Higher temperatures typically shorten the life of the sensor. Humidity is
also important; a high humidity environment can pass water vapor through the membrane
and dilute the electrolyte solution, a low humidity environment accelerates water loss and
shortens the sensor life.
Electrochemical sensors are usually designed for low (<200 ppm) concentrations and are
primarily used as toxic gas monitors (Chou, 2000); however, commercially available
electrochemical sensors can be specified to 1,000 ppm.
The life of the sensor depends on the amount of ammonia that it is exposed to, and
environmental conditions; however, a one- to three-year life is common.
A significant drawback is that electrochemical sensors fail ‘silent.’
Table 2 Electrochemical sensor specifications.

Electrochemical Sensor
0-50 ppm
Concentration Ranges: 0-200 ppm
0-1,000 ppm
Temperature: -40 to 150°F
Humidity: 5 - 95% (non-condensing1)
Accuracy: +/-5% of full scale
Response time: <30 seconds
H2S, SO2, NO, NO2, Cl2,
Cross-sensitivity2:
HCN (hydrogen cyanide)
Calibration frequency: 1-3 months
Sensor life: 1-3 years
2.1.2 Solid-state
During the development of semiconductors, it was found that the presence of background
gases affected the characteristics of the device. For most applications of semiconductors,
1
One manufacturer claims humidity to 100% and condensing with appropriate enclosure.
2
Cross-sensitivity will depend on sensor manufacturer.

this sensitivity to gases is a problem; however, this problem was the impetus behind the
creation of solid-state gas sensors.
Typically, solid-state sensors are made from one or more metal oxides (e.g. tin or
aluminum oxides) and can be formed either in a spherical bead or in a thin film
configuration. The conductivity change in the presence of the target gas is temperature
dependent; therefore, an internal heater is used to regulate and maintain the temperature
of the device (typically >550°F). Figure 3 shows as schematic of a solid-state sensor. In
general, interference from other gases is a problem; however, the use of filters can
minimize the problem.
Sensor Element
Sensor Load
Voltage Resistor
Heater
Voltage
Figure 3 Schematic of a solid-state sensor.
The biggest advantage of the solid-state sensor is that it is not “consumed” during the
sensing; when the gas is present, it is absorbed on the surface of the sensor. Once the
ambient ammonia concentration decreases, the ammonia desorbs from the sensor’s
surface and the sensor returns to its original condition. The expected life of a solid-state
sensor is very long. In addition, the sensors become more sensitive as they age.
The biggest disadvantage of the solid-state sensor is cross-sensitivity with other gases.
Therefore, to avoid nuisance alarms, solid-state sensors should not be set for toxic level
alarm setpoints (TLV/TWA or STEL). One manufacturer recommends alarm levels no
lower than 150 to 300 ppm.

Table 3 Solid-state sensor specifications.
Solid-
Solid-state Sensor
0-500 ppm
Concentration Ranges: 0-1,000 ppm
0-10,000 ppm (0-1%)
Humidity: 0 - 95% (non-condensing)
Cross-sensitivity: Solvents, other reducing gases
2.1.3 Infrared
Historically, infrared sensors were developed for sensing of hydrocarbon gases near their
LFL. However, several companies have evolved infrared sensors for sensing gas-phase
ammonia concentration. The operating principle is that the absorption of infrared light
through an ammonia/air environment is different than for air only. Detectors can
measure either the reduction of electromagnetic radiation through the sample, or the
temperature rise of the sample due to the absorption of the radiation. The most common
infrared detector senses the temperature rise through the environmental sample.
Regardless of the detector principle (i.e. radiation reduction or temperature rise) the
wavelength of the light-source is chosen specifically for ammonia and results in no
appreciable cross-sensitivity.
The complexity of these instruments can range from simple to complex based on the
sensitivity, selectivity, and stability required. The isolation of the detector from the
sample insures that the output of the device is independent of the amount of reference gas
that is sensed. Figure 4 shows both an infrared sensor that measures temperature rise and
a sensor that uses a single radiation detector and a rotating “chopper” to alternately direct
the light source between the reference and sample cell.
The gas sampling method for infrared detectors can be either diffusion or extraction (see
Section 2.2).
Infrared detectors are used for high concentrations of ammonia (1-2%). One
manufacturer recommends that alarm setpoints should not be below 5,000 ppm.
The infrared detectors are more expensive than their solid-state counterparts.

Table 4 Infrared sensor specification.
Infrared Sensor
Concentration Ranges: 0-20,000 ppm (0-2%)
Cross-sensitivity: -
Calibration frequency: 6 months
Infrared Source Detector

(temperature)
(a)
Mirror
Sample Cell
Detector
Infrared Source
(radiation)
Mirror
Reference Cell
Rotating "Chopper"
(b)
Figure 4 Example of infrared detector configurations: a) based on rise in

temperature from absorption of infrared light, b) based on reduction in
radiation from absorption of infrared light.
2.1.4 Other commercially available types

In addition to the more common electrochemical, metal-oxide solid-state sensors and
infrared sensors, several other technologies exist for measuring ammonia concentration.
Some of these technologies are relatively new and offered by only one company. Their
coverage does not imply endorsement of the product.

2.1.4.1 Charged Carrier Injection
GfG Instrumentation has developed a sensor that operates on the principle called “charge
carrier injection” and markets this technology as CI 21. The measurement technique uses
a special gas sensitive material, which can selectively bind ammonia. By absorbing
molecules, the ammonia carriers (Charge Carrier) are brought into the new sensor
material (Injection). With special micro structured electrodes, the ammonia
concentration can be determined. It has significantly reduced cross-sensitivity compared
to typical solid-state sensors and, since the sensor is not consumed, significantly
increased sensor life compared to electrochemical sensors.
The response time of the sensor is lower than all other sensors considered in this
document.
Table 5 Charged carrier injection sensor specifications.

Charged Carrier Injection Sensor
20-200 ppm
30-1,000 ppm
Concentration Ranges:
30-10,000 ppm (0-1%)
30-30,000 ppm (0-3%)
Accuracy: +/-10% of reading
Cross-sensitivity: Propanole, Benzole, SO2
Sensor life: 5 years
Despite the reduced cross-sensitivity compared to solid-state sensors, alarm setpoints for
personal exposure (15-35 ppm) are at the lower limit of detection. Therefore, care must
be taken in specification of this sensor for personal exposure alarms because of the
increased probability of nuisance alarms.
According to the manufacturer, the life of the sensor is still uncertain due to the newness
of the product; however, testing by the manufacturer indicates that the estimated sensor
life is conservative.
2.1.4.2 Polymer thin-film Capacitive

The polymer thin-film capacitance sensor type is trademarked AMMONICAP® by
Vaisala. It measures the change in capacitance of an ammonia sensitive polymer film
between capacitor plates. The capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the
permittivity of the capacitor material. Absorption of ammonia changes the relative
permittivity and, hence, the capacitance value changed. In addition to ammonia, the

polymer is also sensitive to humidity changes; therefore, the effect of humidity
absorption must be separated from the effect of ammonia absorption prior to the reporting
of an ammonia concentration.
The ammonia concentration measurement is done as a cycle that includes both a heating
(desorption) and cooling (absorption) period to determine and separate the effect of
humidity from the response to ammonia concentration. The absorption/desorption cycle
requires time (currently 18 seconds). The sensor averages multiple readings (currently 5)
and gives a readout; therefore, the absorption/desorption cycle time limits the response
time. The sensor continuously calculates and averages the readings.
Calibration of the sensor is recommended yearly and can be done in one of two ways:
either by the owner with a known gas sample or by removal and mailing of the probe to
the manufacturer for calibration. Calibration by the manufacturer includes checking at
multiple points including both ammonia and humidity. Since calibration by the
manufacturer requires that the sensor be removed, it is recommended that a spare sensor
be purchased and available during calibration so that the sensing location does not go
unmonitored.
Table 6 Polymer thin-film capacitive sensor specifications.

Polymer-
Polymer-film Capacitive Sensor
0-100 ppm
Concentration Ranges:
0-1,000 ppm
Accuracy: +/-10 ppm + 20% of reading
Cross-sensitivity: -
Sensor life: 3-5 Years
2.1.4.3 Catalytic Bead (pellistor)

Catalytic bead, or pellistor, sensors are an established technology for measurement of
concentrations of hydrocarbon gases near their LFL. However, they can be used for
measurement of any vapor that will burn, and at least one sensor manufacturer offers a
catalytic bead sensor for measurement of ammonia at high concentrations.
The principle of operation is that combustible gas mixtures will burn at lower
temperatures in the presence of a catalyst. This behavior is called catalytic combustion.
A platinum wire is embedded in a catalyst-coated metal oxide bead. When catalytic
combustion occurs, the temperature of the bead increases and changes the resistivity of
the wire.

Catalytic bead sensors will not sense ammonia above the upper flammability limit (UFL)
because combustion on the bead surface can no longer occur. Therefore, care must be
taken prior to space entry during or after a release to insure that the concentration in the
space is not above the UFL.
An advantage of the catalytic bead sensor is that it is measures flammability, not

ammonia. This is advantageous because it is known both anecdotally and scientifically
(Fenton et.al., 1995) that oil-ammonia mixtures have a lower LFL than pure ammonia.
Catalytic bead sensors are sensitive to poisoning by certain chemicals that will reduce the
sensitivity and, under prolonged exposure, completely ruin the sensor. Halogen
compounds (such as halogenated refrigerants and fire extinguisher compounds) will
temporarily inhibit the sensor.
Table 7 Catalytic bead sensor specifications.

Catalytic Bead Sensor
Concentration Ranges: 0-50% LFL
Accuracy: +/-5% of full-scale
Cross-sensitivity: Combustible gases
Sensor life: 5 Years
2.2 Sampling
In order for the sensor to measure the concentration of ammonia in the surrounding air, a
sample must be introduced to the detector. There are two methods for sampling:
diffusion and extraction.
2.2.1 Diffusion
Diffusion sampling is by far the most common and simplest method. The sensor is open
(but possibly shielded) to the surrounding environment. A combination of convection
(by room air movement) and gas diffusion brings the ammonia “in contact” with the
sensor. This method has no moving parts.
2.2.2 Extraction
Another method is extraction sampling. The sensor is exposed to a sample of air that is
deliberately pumped from the desired point. A sampling pump and tubing are required; a
sampling system may have multiple sampled points per sensor and the points may be up
to 500 ft from the sensor.
Some drawbacks of the system are that the time lag from the sampled point to the sensor
may be long depending on the distance from the point to the sensor, and maintenance of

the sampling pump and tubing must be done because failure of the sampling system
constitutes failure even if the sensor is operational. Another concern with ammonia is
moisture in the sampling tubing. Because ammonia is hygroscopic, the presence of water
will remove ammonia from the sampled air resulting in a lower concentration reading at
the sensor.
2.3 Electronics
In addition to the detector, a sensor contains electronics to correct or compensate the
detector output and a controller to initiate the proper response.
2.3.1 Signal Conditioning

The signal conditioning section takes the detector output and compensates for operating
conditions (temperature, humidity, etc.). The conditioner may amplify the signal.
2.3.2 Controller
The output of the signal conditioner is used by the controller to determine and initiate the
required action. The level of electronics in the controller section is largely dependent on
the purpose. For example, a controller that is charged with the electric shutdown of an
engine room will be more complicated than one that merely initiates an audible and
visual alarm.
2.4 Summary
A broad range of detector types is commercially available. In general, electrochemical
sensors are best suited for low-concentration sensing only. Solid-state, infrared and
catalytic bead sensors are for sensing high-concentrations. There are also a couple of
new sensor types that are relatively recently available. The polymer thin-film capacitive
sensor is a completely different type of technology. The charged carrier injection sensor
operates on a principle similar to a typical solid-state sensor, but with reduced cross-
sensitivity.

3 Operation requirements and
considerations
The purpose of this section is to discuss the key factors designers should consider in
establishing the requirements for ammonia detectors. The section includes discussion of
characteristics that include applicable concentration range, expected ambient
temperature/humidity, presence of other gas constituents, detector life, transient
characteristics, stability/maintainability, and cost.
3.1 Concentration Ranges

Probably the most obvious criterion to consider in selecting an ammonia detector for a
specific application is the required ammonia concentration range. Broadly speaking,
concentration ranges for gas-phase ammonia detectors can be grouped into two
categories: low range and high range.
For example, toxic gas monitoring applications necessitate ammonia sensors that are
capable of accurately measuring low concentrations of ammonia in air (i.e. 0-200 ppm or
lower). If the sensor is expected to react to higher concentrations (i.e. approaching
percentages of the LFL), it is unlikely that concentrations of ammonia at toxic gas levels
will be safely discerned.
Since the uncertainty of most detectors is based on a percentage of full scale, a detector
range should be selected such that any alarm or critical control settings ranges are
triggered at concentrations near the maximum reading for the detector. According to
Chou (2000), the sensor maximum concentration should be 3 to 5 times the expected
monitoring concentrations.
3.2 Environmental Conditions

The environment in which the detector is located is extremely important for proper
operation. The environmental conditions considered in this section are temperature,
humidity and air velocity.
Both high and low temperatures effect the operation and life of sensors. The highest
temperatures encountered in industrial refrigeration applications rarely effect the
operation; however, they may shorten the sensor life. In freezer or cooler application,
sensors may require an enclosure and auxiliary heating and response times may be longer
at the lower temperatures. In some sensors, the output is compensated based on the
actual temperature.
Most sensors also require a “non-condensing” environment. This means that liquid water
must not infiltrate to the sensor. In normal environments, the risk of condensation is low
as long as there is some minimal air circulation in the area (Chou, 2000). In detectors

where a heater is used for temperature control and the sensor’s microenvironment is
maintained above the surrounding ambient temperature, the likelihood of condensation
from occurring within the sensor’s microenvironment is greatly reduced. Most sensors
are not compensated for actual humidity unless humidity affects the reading (e.g. polymer
thin-film capacitive).
Air velocity is also important, both its magnitude and direction relative to the sensor.
With sensors that rely on diffusion to sample the surrounding environment, high
velocities affect the ability for diffusion forces to deliver ammonia to the detector.
3.3 Background Gases

Since some sensors are sensitive to background gases, any knowledge of the existing
gases should be used when choosing a detector. Cleaning solutions, other refrigerants,
water treatment chemicals, etc. may affect the sensor choice.
Some examples of gases are methane, carbon monoxide, propane, butane, hydrogen,
chlorine, propanole, benzole, sulfur dioxide, ethylene, hydrogen sulfide, paint vapors,
solvents, etc. Solid-state sensors are the most susceptible to background gases.
However, electrochemical sensors may have cross-sensitivity with hydrogen sulfide and
sulfur dioxide. The charged carrier injection sensor still showed significant cross-
sensitivity with propanole and hydrogen sulfide.
3.4 Detector Life

Depending on the sensor, the detector life may be a function of the amount of sensed
ammonia and the environment in which it is placed. The detector life should be
considered when evaluating the cost-effectiveness of the detection system.
Electrochemical sensors have the shortest life of all of the technologies surveyed. Sensor
life is typically 1-3 years, with higher temperature applications, low humidity
applications, and continuous ammonia exposure applications resulting in shorter sensors
life.
Solid-state, catalytic bead, polymer thin-film capacitive, charged carrier injection and
infrared all have life expectancies in the range of 5-10 years.
3.5 Measurement Characteristics
3.5.1 Accuracy
The accuracy of a sensor is typically given as a percentage of full-scale. For example, if
the sensor is for the range of 0-100 ppm with a 5% of full-scale, a reading of 30 ppm will
be ±5 ppm.
Typical sensor accuracy is between ±3 and 10% of full-scale.

3.5.2 Drift
The accuracy of sensors tends to degrade over time. Sensors tend to 'drift' as they
experience continuous use. Initially, a sensor will consistently give a reading that is
within its accuracy limits of the actual concentration to a given concentration of target
gas. However, as time passes, the accuracy of the sensor will 'drift.' When exposed to a
constant concentration, the sensor will produce consistent but an inaccurate reading. For
example, the actual concentration may be 10 ppm but the sensor will consistently give
readings of 20±5 ppm when exposed to this concentration. Sensors will tend to drift over
time towards the average concentration of the space.
A typical drift is <±1 to 2% of full-scale per month.
3.5.3 Time Response

The time response is the elapsed time for the sensor to read a given percentage of the
actual value for a step-change in target gas concentration. Figure 5 shows a hypothetical
response time of a sensor to a step-change in concentration. For the example, the sensor
reaches 90% (t90) of the actual concentration in 90 seconds.
0.9
Fraction of Concentration Change
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time, s
Figure 5 Hypothetical time response of sensor to step-change in concentration.
Most manufacturers give a 90% response time. It can range from 10 seconds up to 90
seconds. A typical value for electrochemical and solid-state is < 30 seconds to 90%. The
high concentration infrared sensor’s t90 is 90 seconds. The charged carrier injection
sensor’s response is less than 10 seconds. The polymer thin-film capacitive sensor’s
response time is effected by the length of the absorption/desorption cycle and currently is
90 seconds to 50% of the reading.

If extraction sampling is used, the time lag for the sample to get from the desired point to
the sensor must be added on to the sensor time response.
3.6 Calibration/maintenance
Calibration is important to the proper functioning of the ammonia sensing system. It is
imperative that calibration is done as per the manufacturer’s recommendations. Not all
maintenance of the sensor will be formal calibration, often a ‘bump’ test is performed at a
higher frequency and the formal calibration frequency is reduced. For example, it is
recommended by one manufacturer that electrochemical sensors be ‘bump’ tested every
30-90 days and formally calibrated annually.
When considering a sensor, determine costs for calibration equipment (if in-house
calibration is done) as well as the time to perform the calibration.
3.7 Life Cycle Cost

The cost of the sensing system should include capital, installation, calibration, and
maintenance costs over the life of the system. The capital costs include the cost of the
entire detection system and associated controls. Installation costs include the deployment
of sensors, electrical wiring, controls integration, and system commissioning. To
estimate maintenance costs over the system’s life, use the manufacturer’s-recommended
service intervals for sensor replacement and recalibration. Maintenance costs should
include the initial purchase of equipment required for recalibration as well as
consumables (sample gas) and the labor required to recalibrate or service the sensors
throughout their expected life. Factoring in all of these costs is essential to provide an
accurate life cycle cost comparison of alternative ammonia detection systems and
technologies.

4 Application Considerations
The application of gas-phase ammonia sensors has grown significantly over the past
decade. The primary driver for this growth is attributable to the pursuit of enhanced plant
personnel safety. Section 1.4 presented an array of specific uses for ammonia detectors.
In this section, we focus on providing more detailed information on the application of
ammonia sensors in machinery rooms, production spaces, safety relief systems, and
controlled environments.
In all application cases, it is important to insure the refrigerant detector’s capabilities are
consistent with the application requirements. All detectors have operating,
environmental, and span-of-life limitations that can compromise the functionality of an
ammonia detection system.
4.1 General Considerations for Sensor Location

A question that naturally arises for all ammonia detector applications is: Where should
the sensor be located? The answer to that question requires considering a number of
factors to increase the probability of successfully achieving the objectives set for the
ammonia detection system. The following are general considerations that arise for
determining sensor locations (ISA, 1999):
• Potential sources of ammonia

• Air movement
• Vibration
• Potential mechanical damage from equipment (e.g. fork trucks) or procedures
(e.g. water washdown)
• Electromagnetic or radio frequency interference
Of course, the sensor should be positioned in a location where gas-phase ammonia is

likely to accumulate. Theoretically, ammonia vapor is lighter than air. As a result,
buoyancy forces tend to carry ammonia vapors upward. From a practical perspective,
ammonia is hygroscopic and larger scale vapor releases will readily absorb moisture from
the surrounding air and form ammonium hydroxide. Ammonium hydroxide appears as a
white cloud (due to formation of water droplets from cooling humid air, much like a
cloud) with neutral buoyancy to air.
The buoyancy effects of ammonia are easily overridden by forced air movement in
spaces. Forced air convection currents are created by ventilation systems, evaporator
fans, and exhaust fans. Designers should take into account the air movement within a
space in selecting a sensor location. Avoid placing sensors in locations where they may
be biased by dilution of ammonia vapor generated within the space by supply air (e.g.
placement of sensors between ventilation intakes). In addition, the performance of some
sensing technologies is adversely impacted by placement within higher velocity air
streams. While no definition was found for “higher velocity” in literature, the ISA

standard (1998) for performance requirements of ammonia sensors (25-500 ppm) requires
testing at velocities less than 180 ft/min and at approximately 1,000 ft/min.
Ammonia sensors should be positioned such that they will be free from direct mechanical
damage (due to impact of moving equipment or personnel) as well as indirect damage
(from exposure to moisture or chemicals from wash down or clean-up).
Finally, some sensors (capacitive type) may be susceptible to bias from electromagnetic
interference. If possible, avoid locating sensors in regions where electromagnetic
interference may be high. Alternatively, sensors can be guarded from the effects of
electromagnetic interference by proper shielding. Sensor manufacturers can be contacted
for specific equipment to accomplish the necessary shielding.
In addition to the above-mentioned considerations, it is important to consider installation

details that facilitate maintenance of the detection system throughout its life. One of the
most fundamental maintenance requirements for a refrigeration detection system is the
testing and recalibration of sensors on an appropriate interval. Sensor manufacturer’s
guidelines on testing/calibration intervals should be used as a starting point. Shortening
the interval may be needed depending on the sensor’s performance between
testing/calibration. As a result, sensors should be located with accessibility for service in
mind.
4.2 Machinery Rooms

In most plants, the area with the single largest inventory of refrigerant is the machinery
room itself. Machinery rooms are spaces with heightened risk since they contain a high
density of refrigerant due to the presence of vessels, interconnecting piping, compressors,
heat exchangers, and electrical equipment. The concentration of machinery and
refrigerant creates an environment with elevated risk of personal exposure and collateral
damage to equipment should the concentration of refrigerant in the machinery room reach
the lower flammability limit with an ignition source present. A properly designed and
functioning refrigerant detection system in a machinery room(s) play a crucial role in
protecting staff (plant refrigeration and emergency responders) as well as plant capital
(equipment and structures).
Refrigerant detectors in machinery rooms can serve a multiplicity of functions.
• Environmental monitoring for personal safety

• Initiation of alarms for emergency response
• Control of machinery room emergency ventilation systems
• Electrical shutdown of all equipment not compliant with NEC Class 1 Division 2
(also known as “explosion-proof”)
Monitoring the concentration of ammonia in the machinery room concentration for

personal safety can be accomplished by portable hand-held detectors and/or permanent
mounted detectors. However, the other functions can only be accomplished by an

integrated safety system that consists of appropriate fixed ammonia sensors, detection
systems, alarms (visual indicators, high decibel audible horns, and operator terminal
notification), and associated controls.
With currently available refrigerant detection technologies, separate detectors are

typically required to achieve the desired function in machinery room applications. The
two detection ranges required are discussed in further detail below. In addition to the
requirement of multiple detectors to cover the range of functions required, the size of the
machinery room may require multiple detectors to enhance time response and reliability
of ammonia detection; thereby, improving machinery room safety and reducing the
probability of false alarms.
4.2.1 Low Concentration Range Refrigerant Detectors

Low concentration range detectors function to trigger alarms, continuously quantify the
presence and concentration of refrigerant in a machinery room environment for personnel
safety, and initiate operation of emergency ventilation systems to purge refrigerant vapors
from the machinery room. In general, the low concentration range detector will have the
specifications as listed in Table 8.
Table 8: Generic specification for low concentration range detectors used in

machinery room applications.
Description Characteristic
Span 0-200 ppm
Limit of detection (LOD) 25 ppm
Potentially interferent gases
Expected temperature range 50-95°F
Located in exhaust air-stream? If yes,
estimated air velocity.
Table 9 includes recommended minimum control functions setpoints for the low
concentration range refrigerant detectors.
Table 9: Recommended control function setpoints for low concentration range

refrigerant detectors in machinery rooms.
Function Setpoint
Personnel safety (STEL) 35 ppm1
Alarm (supervisory) 35 ppm
Initiate emergency ventilation 150 ppm
Emergency alarm (audible and visual) 150 ppm
1
15-minute time-weighted average

4.2.2 High Concentration Range Refrigerant Detectors
High concentration range refrigerant detectors have become an important element of safe
machinery room operation. High range detectors will trigger alarms and initiate an
electrical shutdown of machinery room electrical equipment that does not meet Class 1
Division 2 specifications to minimize the potential of a deflagration. Generally speaking,
high range refrigerant detectors should have the minimum specifications as listed in
Table 10 below.
Table 10: Generic specification for high concentration range refrigerant detectors in
machinery room applications.
Description Characteristic
Minimum span 1,000-20,000 ppm
Response time <30 s
Potentially interferent gases
Expected temperature range 50-95°F
Located in exhaust air-stream? If yes,
estimated air velocity.
Table 11 outlines recommended minimum control functions for the high concentration
range refrigerant detectors.
Table 11: Recommended control functions for high concentration range refrigerant
detectors in machinery rooms.
Function Setpoint
High concentration emergency alarm (supervisory, 10,000 ppm (1.0%)
audible, and visual)
Initiate machinery room electrical shutdown 15,000 ppm (1.5%)
4.2.3 Sensor Placement Consideration

Sensor placement is important to the performance of an ammonia sensing system;
therefore, detectors should be located:
1. near sources of potential leaks where vapors tend to accumulate, that is,
near the ceiling, or
2. near exhausts, but not directly in the air stream (Perez-Blanco and
Stoecker, 1994). Note that if there are multiple exhaust locations, a sensor
should be placed at each exhaust.
Do not locate sensors near ventilation intakes because the incoming air (free of ammonia
vapor) will dilute the concentration to which the sensor is exposed and reduce the sensors
ability to assess the concentration in the area for which it is responsible.

4.3 Production Spaces
In the production areas of many plants, space conditioning, process cooling, and freezing
equipment are often cooled directly by ammonia. Because there is a potential for
refrigerant leakage in these areas with production personnel present, refrigerant detectors
are being increasingly applied as a means of monitoring the spaces to insure compliance
with occupational exposure limits as established by OSHA, NIOSH, ACGIH, or others as
well as providing information to guide whether or not an evacuation is warranted.
Low concentration range refrigerant detectors are typically used for production spaces. A
number of other factors play key roles in underwriting the success of a refrigerant
detection system in production spaces including: environmental conditions, sensor
placement, and controls.
Often sensing for personnel protection is often done with a hand-held sensor if occupants
consistently smell ammonia. While this is an invaluable diagnostic tool, if offers no
warning of a leak to area personnel. Therefore, a fixed ammonia sensor is recommended
for “first warning” and should be installed near potential leak sources. The following
sections focus on the application of fixed ammonia sensors.
4.3.1 Environmental Conditions

Successfully applying refrigerant detectors in production spaces requires surveying the
prevailing environmental conditions and selecting a detector compatible with the range of
conditions likely to be encountered during its service. Compatibility should be sought
with environmental parameters that include dry bulb temperature, humidity, and presence
of other gas-phase species. Most sensors applied in production spaces can easily function
within the temperature range normally encountered in production spaces (e.g. 40 – 80°F
[4 – 27°C]).
Humidity may present a greater challenge. In particular, production spaces that undergo
wash-down or cleanup often create humidity conditions that exceed the allowable relative
humidity ranges of most sensors.
Some sensors can be biased or damaged by the presence of other gas-phase constituents
that may be present in production spaces.
4.3.2 Sensor Placement Considerations

Sensor placement in production spaces should take into consideration locations of both
equipment and people.
Production space refrigeration equipment (e.g. evaporators, surge drums, piping)

provides the potential leak source and, therefore, should have an effect on the location of
sensors. Placement of sensors near the ammonia containing equipment can provide first
warning of a release. This equipment may or may not be in an occupied space. For
example, consider typically unoccupied spaces such as an evaporator penthouse or blast
freezer cell, or occupied spaces such as a ceiling hung evaporator in a cooler or a surge
drum in a production space.

In penthouses, mount sensors out of the fog zone that exists during defrost (Perez-Blanco,
1994).
In blast freezers, sensors should be in an area with relatively still air. Both Perez-Blanco
and Stoecker (1994) and Manning Systems (2001) recommend that the sensors be
mounted above the spray area.
In addition, evaporator defrosting may cause humidity problems. Perez-Blanco and

Stoecker (1994) recommend placement 3-4 ft from evaporator clusters and 2-3 ft from
the ceiling.
Since production spaces typically have more occupied hours than machinery rooms,
sensor locations should also include areas where people are located. Sensors should be
placed in an area within the production space that is representative of the production
employee’s “breathing zone”. Locating sensors near people is important to insure that
fair warning is given; however, it is also important that concentrations are logged to
insure that OSHA and NIOSH values of allowable time-weighted exposures are not
exceeded. Logging concentration values protects both the employee and the employer.
In addition to location, another consideration in applying refrigerant detectors in

production spaces is sensor frequency. This is especially true if equipment and people
are distributed throughout a large space. Sensor placement considerations can be split
into two categories: local and zoned.
4.3.2.1 Local
Local placement refers to the proper positioning of refrigerant sensor(s) in areas where
production personnel operate or near a leak source. Care should be exercised to avoid
situations that may bias the sensor’s reading, for example, locating sensors in close
proximity to ventilation system inlets providing fresh supply air to the production area.
Figure 6 shows a hypothetical example of a production space that includes both

equipment and personnel. In this example, a sensor is located in close proximity both to
equipment and to a consistently occupied area.
4.3.2.2 Zoned
In addition to a sensor that is responsible for a small area or equipment (i.e. local).
Figure 6 also shows a “zoned” sensor near the exhaust fan that is more representative of
the entire space due to the fact that exhaust fan brings air from throughout the space in
closer contact with the sensor. While this effectively increases the area that the sensor
can monitor, it does increase the effective time response of the sensor.
The frequency of sensor spacing within a production area depends, in part, on the layout
of the spaces that comprise the production area. At least one sensor should be positioned
within each zone of the plant’s production areas – keeping in mind that a “zone” can be
either physical or virtual. Physical zones are defined by physical boundaries that include

walls and doors that separate production spaces. Virtual zones are characterized by
spaces that may or may not be completely isolated, physically, from one another but
share key equipment. For example, two adjacent spaces that share a common air-
handling unit can often be lumped together as a single virtual zone. In this case, an
engineer may elect to locate a sensor in the return air stream; thereby, providing a
measure of average refrigerant concentration for the spaces that comprise the zone.
Exhaust Fan
Z oned sensor
L ocal sensor
Surge Drum
L
HX
Figure 6 Illustration of local and zoned sensor placement.
4.3.3 Controls
The placement of refrigerant detectors in production areas offers the potential for
integration into various plant systems to significantly enhance plant safety and mitigate
consequences of an incident. Of course, refrigerant detectors provide the capability for
notifying plant personnel of the presence and concentration of refrigerant; however, the
output of the detector can also be used as an input to refrigerant-side systems, ventilation
systems, and other systems within the plant. For example, the presence of refrigerant
above a threshold concentration in a zone (e.g. 35 ppm) can be configured to initiate the
shutdown of refrigerant supply to that zone by closing a main supply solenoid for the
zone or by individual supply solenoids for all equipment within the zone. This strategy
can mitigate the loss of refrigerant by stopping the supply of refrigerant to the effected
zone. Use of multiple sensors to initiate this control may be advisable to minimize the
possibility of “nuisance” trips.
Another mitigation strategy that can be triggered by refrigerant detectors in production

spaces is the operation of zoned ventilation exhausts. For example, when the presence of

refrigerant in a zone reaches a threshold concentration e.g. 50 ppm, all exhaust fans in the
zone are put into operation at their highest rate. This serves to purge the refrigerant from
the contaminated space as well as to maintain a negative pressure relationship between
adjacent zones; thereby, minimizing the potential for cross-contaminating adjacent zones
with refrigerant.
It is not possible to specify all possible strategies for the integration of a refrigerant
detection system in this document since each plant’s production equipment, layouts, and
operation is unique. The table below lists an example of control responses for refrigerant
detectors in production spaces.
Table 12: Recommended control functions for refrigerant detectors in production

spaces.
Function Setpoint
Personnel safety (REL) 25 ppm1
Alarm (supervisory) 25 ppm
Zone evacuation of production personnel (STEL) 35 ppm
Zoned isolation of refrigerant supply (½ IDLH) 150 ppm2
1
15-minute time-weighted average
2
Assumes detectors control isolation process through automation
Table 12 is by no means all-inclusive. Designers are encouraged to be creative and

thoughtful in developing and evaluating strategies that can mitigate refrigerant releases
and maximize the protection of personnel.
4.4 Safety Relief Systems

All industrial refrigeration systems utilize safety relief systems. A safety relief system
functions to protect individual system components from catastrophic failure due to
overpressurization that may occur under abnormal or upset operational conditions.
Component protection is afforded by an engineered system that is designed to relieve or
discharge refrigerant from the component at a sufficiently high rate to compensate or
limit the effects of the overpressure condition.
At a minimum, a safety relief system will comprise the following two components: a
calibrated pressure relief device and interconnecting piping. There are a number of
alternative pressure relief devices available to designers including direct-acting relief
valves, rupture disks, pilot-operated relief valves, and balanced-port relief valves. By far,
the most widely used pressure relief device used in industrial refrigeration systems is the
direct-acting pressure relief valve. The interconnecting piping includes all necessary
piping to connect the component being protected with the relief device and route the
discharged refrigerant to a safe location. Minimum requirements for safety relief system
design are established by various code authorities including:
• ANSI/ASHRAE 15-2001: Safety Standard for Refrigeration Systems

• ANSI/IIAR 2-1999: Equipment, Design, and Installation of Ammonia Mechanical
Refrigerating Systems
Both of the above standards provide prescriptive approaches for complying with the
ASME boiler and pressure vessel code (ASME Section VIII Division 1).
Virtually all manufacturers of pressure relief devices used in industrial refrigeration

systems recommend that a relief valve be replaced whenever it “lifts” due to an
overpressure condition. The rationale for replacement under this situation is because a
relief valve may not reliably re-seat tightly due to dirt and other debris that tends to
collect in the vent piping above the relief valve. From an operational perspective, several
questions naturally arise. How do I know when my system has relieved refrigerant to
prevent an overpressure situation? Which relief device actually lifted? How much
refrigerant did I lose from my system?
Refrigerant detectors can play a role in monitoring and alerting operators that a relief
valve has lifted as well as facilitating operators in pin-pointing which relief device
actually lifted so it can be replaced.
Figure 7 below illustrates the application of an ammonia sensor in a safety relief vent
main. In this configuration, the refrigerant detector will be capable of alarming/notifying
operators that the relief device protecting one (or more) of the components connected on
the vent main has lifted. In large relief vent systems where a considerable number of
components are interconnected to a common header, the use of a vent line refrigerant
detector placed near the header outlet offers little information on which safety relief valve
lifted. Therefore, it is then the responsibility of the operations staff to conduct a closer
inspection to determine which component(s) and safety relief valve(s) actually lifted. If
combination3 relief devices are used, operators can quickly pinpoint the component that
relieved. In the absence of combination relief devices, other techniques have to be
pursued. These may include conducting visual inspections (external and internal) and
applying ultrasonic detectors (to test for a valve that may be weeping).
Typically, the refrigerant detector in this application is a high range type detector (for
example, 1,000 – 30,000 ppm). If the sensor is not specifically designed for application
to safety relief vent lines, an adaptor may be necessary and available from the sensor
manufacturer. If possible, locate the sensor(s) indoors for protection from the outdoor
elements (temperature, moisture, and solar radiation/ultraviolet radiation). Keep in mind
that a diffusion type sensor needs some air movement to properly monitor the line.
Application should not be done without contacting the manufacturer with details of the
installation.
3
The combination relief is a series assembly of a rupture disk followed by a pressure-actuated relief valve.
An overpressure condition will break the internal member of the rupture disk and the pressure relief valve
opens to vent refrigerant from the system. After the overpressure condition subsides, the pressure relief
valve will close; however, the rupture member does not re-seal. By connecting a pressure gauge or
pressure switch between the rupture disk and the pressure relief valve, an operator can quickly determine
which component experienced and over pressure condition.

Relief Vent Main
Roof line
Sensor
Relief Vent
Runouts
NH3
Sensor
000 ppm
Figure 7 Typical installation of single gas-phase ammonia detector in safety relief

vent main.
In situation where the relief vent line terminates in a water diffusion tank, consider the
impact of high moisture concentrations inside the vent line/header. The migration of
moisture into the vent header can be held in check by either trapping the outlet portion of
the header with a fluid (such as oil) or by bleeding instrument air into the header for
dehumidification.

5 References
ANSI/ASHRAE Std 15-2000, 2001, Safety Standard for Refrigeration Systems.
ANSI/IIAR Std 2-1999, 1999, Equipment, Design, and Installation of Ammonia
Mechanical Refrigerating Systems.
BOCA, 1993, National Mechanical Code.
Chou, J., 2000, Hazardous Gas Monitors: A Practical Guide to Selection, Operation and
Applications, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-135876-5.
Factory Mutual, 2000, Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets, 7-13 Mechanical
Refrigeration, January 2001.
ICBO, 1997, Uniform Mechanical Code.
IIAR, 1983, A Guide to Good Practices for the Operation of an Ammonia Refrigeration
System.
IIAR, 1991, Bulletin No. 111 Guidelines for Ammonia Machinery Room Ventilation.
IMC, 2000, International Mechanical Code.
ISA, 1998, ISA-S92.03.01-1999 Performance Requirements of Ammonia Detection
Instruments (25-500 ppm Full Scale).
ISA, 1999, ISA-RP92.03.02-1999 Installation, Operation, and Maintenance of Ammonia
Detection Instruments (25-500 ppm Full Scale).
ISO, 1993, 5149 Mechanical Refrigerating Systems used for Cooling and Heating –
Safety Requirements.
Fenton, D.L., K.S. Chapman, R.D. Kelley, A.S. Khan, 1995, “Operating Characteristics
of a Flare/oxidizer for the Disposal of Ammonia from an Industrial Refrigeration
Facility,” ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 101, Pt. 2, pp. 463-475, San Diego, CA.
NEC, 2002, National Electric Code, Published by NFPA, Quincy, MA.
Perez-Blanco, H., 1993, “Ammonia Sensors”, TRRF Project #127.
Perez-Blanco, H., 1994, “Ammonia Sensors – Phase I, Stage-2 Ammonia Sensor
Specification and Laboratory Data,” TRRF Project #127.
Perez-Blanco, H., W.F. Stoecker, 1994, “Ammonia Sensors for Refrigeration
Applications,” IIAR 16th Annual Meeting, March 6-9, St. Louis, MO.

6 Manufacturers List
Manufacturer Address Website Model Type Range Application
ppm (if specific)
Analygas Systems 450 Midwest Road www.analygas.com 28 Solid-State 0-300
Scarborough, Ontario 42-NH3 /B Electrochemical 0-60
Canada, M1P 3A9 72 /D Electrochemical 0-60
(416) 759-224
Dräger P.O. Box 120 www.draeger.com Polytron NH3 Electrochemical 0-100
Pittsburgh, PA 15230 0-300
(412) 787-8383 0-1,000
GfG Instrumentation 1194 Oak Valley Drive, Suite 20 www.gfg-inc.com CI 21 Charged Carrier Injection 20-200
Ann Arbor, MI 48108 30-1,000
800-959-0329 30-1%
30-3%
EC 24 Electrochemical 0-200
EC 35 & EC 36 Electrochemical 0-40
0-200
0-1,000
CS 21 & CS 24 EX Solid-State 20-300
20-1,000
20-3,000
20-10,000
CC 24 EX Catalytic Bead 0-50% LFL
Manning Systems 1511 West 83rd Terrance www.manningsystems.com EC-NH3 Electrochemical 0-100
Lenexa, KS 66214 0-200
(913) 894-1185 0-250
0-500
0-1,000
VL Solid-State Vent Line
IR-NH3 Infrared 0-2%
Vaisala 100 Commerce Way www.vaisala.com AMT100 Capacitive 0-100
Woburn, MA 01801 0-1,000
888-VAISALA (824-7252)
Ammonia Sensor Overview 6-1

About the IRC
The Industrial Refrigeration Consortium (IRC) is a non-profit university-industry

partnership in the College of Engineering at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Formally established in January of 2001, the IRC provides technical assistance
and education services to industrial refrigeration end-users such as food &
beverage processors, warehouse operators, etc. The IRC also carries out
applied research to help advance the state-of-knowledge in the industrial
refrigeration industry.
Industrial Refrigeration Consortium

University of Wisconsin-Madison
949 East Washington Avenue, Suite #2
Madison, WI 53703-2937
www.irc.wisc.edu
866-635-4721 (toll free)

608-262-8220 (direct)
608-262-6209 (fax)
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DISCLOSURE

ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS REPORT – INDUSTRIAL

Copyright © IRC 2002. All Rights Reserved. ii

Copyright © IRC 2002. All Rights Reserved. iii

Copyright © IRC 2002. All Rights Reserved. iv

Copyright © IRC 2002. All Rights Reserved. v

Copyright © IRC 2002. All Rights Reserved. vi

Copyright © IRC 2002. All Rights Reserved. vii

Copyright © IRC 2002. All Rights Reserved. viii

Anhydrous ammonia is the preferred refrigerant in industrial refrigeration systems today;

Table 1 Summary of anhydrous ammonia exposure effects.

15,000 burns & blisters skin -

Ammonia Sensor Overview © 2002 1-1

This document provides an overview of ammonia sensing technologies and their

LFL: Lower Flammability Limit, the minimum concentration (expressed

UFL: Upper Flammability Limit, the maximum concentration (expressed

TWA: Time-Weighted Average value of the instantaneous or real-time,

REL: Recommended Exposure Limit, a TWA concentration for up to a

PEL: Permissible Exposure Limit, an OSHA recommended time-

Ammonia Sensor Overview © 2002 1-2

STEL: Short-Term Exposure Limit, a 15-minute time-weighted average

IDLH: Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health, the maximum

IDLH: Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health, “an atmospheric

detector: The subassembly that produces a change in its electrical, chemical

1.3 Time-Weighted Average Concentrations

Ammonia Sensor Overview © 2002 1-3

Figure 1 illustrates a hypothetical instantaneous ammonia concentration over an 8-hour

NIOSH STEL (TWA)

NIOSH REL (TWA)

Figure 1 Dynamic trace of ammonia concentrations including limits.

Ammonia Sensor Overview © 2002 1-4

1.4.1 Personal Exposure/Occupant safety

1.4.2 Ventilation Control

1.4.3 Operations & Maintenance

Ammonia Sensor Overview © 2002 1-5

1.4.4 Emergency Response

1.4.5 Electrical Shutdown

1.5 Codes, Standards and Guideline Requirements

Ammonia Sensor Overview © 2002 1-6

1.5.1 ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 15 – 2001: Safety Standard for Refrigeration

§7.2.2 Industrial Occupancies and Refrigerated Rooms: Rule 4 “Refrigerant

§8.11 Refrigerating Machinery Room, General Requirements Subsection 6 (b)

1.5.2 ANSI/IIAR Standard 2-1999: Equipment, Design, and Installation of

§6.2.3.1.1 Equipment, requires machinery room ventilation systems to be acutated

Ammonia Sensor Overview © 2002 1-7

1.5.3 Uniform Mechanical Code (UMC) - 1997

§1106.4 Refrigerant-vapor Alarms, states that “machinery rooms shall have

1.5.4 BOCA National Mechanical Code - 1993

1.5.5 Factory Mutual DS 7-13 (January 2001)

§2.8.3 states that non-Class I, Division 2 electrical equipment in existing ammonia

Ammonia Sensor Overview © 2002 1-8

§4.2(b) Independent emergency ventilation system, states that the emergency

1.5.7 International Mechanical Code (IMC) - 2000

§1105.3 Refrigerant Detector, states, “refrigerant detectors in machinery rooms shall

§1105.5 Fuel-burning appliances, states that fuel-burning appliances are allowable if

§1106.3 Ammonia room ventilation, allows initiation of ventilation system operation

1.5.8 ISA-S92.03.01-1998: Performance Requirements for Ammonia Detection

1.5.9 ISA-S92.03.02-1999: Installation, Operation, and Maintenance of

Ammonia Sensor Overview © 2002 1-9

Ammonia Sensor Overview © 2002 1-10

Capillary Diffusion Barrier

Figure 2 Schematic of electrochemical sensor.

Ammonia Sensor Overview © 2002 2-1

A significant drawback is that electrochemical sensors fail ‘silent.’