Pneumatic Grippers

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Hesse
Grippers and their applications

Handling
Pneumatics
Stefan Hesse
Grippers and
their applications
including vacuum devices
Blue Digest
on Automation
Blue Digest on Automation
© 2004 by Festo AG & Co. KG

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of Festo AG & Co. KG.
It has been a long held dream by man to one day be free of the drudgery
Foreword of manual labour through the use of automatic devices. Needless to say, this
vision always depends on the technical components available at the time.
The automatic production lines of the twenties used by the English company
MORRIS MOTORS had to be mechanically controlled to a large extent, which
was not very successful. Not until the sixties did a new basic technology become
established: The NC machine and the industrial robot. Both are computer-aided
and therefore freely programmable as far as movement is concerned.
The robot is an important handling machine which roughly reproduces the

human arm. In order to be effective, it also requires mechanical hands, which
are generally referred to as grippers. These are also required on pick-and-place
devices and a wide range of other automatic systems. In principle, there are
two basic designs of grippers: Those, designed in the form of fingers and those
which do not ressemble fingers in any way. Thousands of individual patents can
be found, each of which claiming to be able to solve a gripping problem more
successfully than previously known. This demonstrates that the gripper has a
key role in automatic handling.
For the user, it is becoming increasingly difficult to take in the now wide range
of gripper technology. This is the reason why this brief introduction has been
published. Above all, it is intended to provide advice and ideas to practical
users, since the selection of the right gripper is by no means a trivial task. As
with other technologies, there is a risk of making the wrong decision. Nowadays,
however, most gripper tasks can be accomplished using standard grippers.
Therefore, special grippers are only developed for exceptional cases. A sound
basic knowledge of grippers and their use is always a good investment for the
future.
Stefan Hesse
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Table of contents
Table of contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1 Analysis of gripper functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Gripper applications for component production and assembly . . . . . . . . 16
3 Grippers and hand axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4 Construction of gripping effectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5 Forces acting on grippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6 Technical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7 Application areas and gripper types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8 Checklist for grippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9 Suction grippers – abhorred by nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
10 Suction cups for every application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
11 Suction cups in handling technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
12 List of illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
13 List of special terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Grippers further enhance the performance capability of automated handling
1 devices. These devices include not only industrial robots but also insertion
Analysis devices, manipulators and special feed devices, for example for automatic
of gripper functions machines, testing machines and batch-assembly systems. Grippers form the
link between all kinds of workpieces and the manipulating machine concerned.
Whilst man can pick up even complex workpieces easily and without hesitation,
gripping in the world of technology requires careful planning to obtain a desired
sequence – and a situation which has been defined must then be maintained
extremely accurately. This series of articles will deal with a number of aspects
which ensure that grippers produce the desired effect.
A general definition of grippers is given in the VDI Guideline 2860. According to

Grippers are the this, the distinguishing feature of a gripper is the temporary grasping, retaining
solution, but to which and subsequent releasing of objects of a particular geometrical shape. Grippers
problem? act like hands in automated machinery. The word “gripper” essentially describes
the ever-growing family of accessories used in handling systems. It is not always
easy to select the right type of gripper. However, it is not always appreciated
that a correctly-formulated problem description can, in itself, be halfway towards
solving the problem.
A gripper application can be defined in terms of technological requirements,

Determining the workpiece parameters, the machine to be used for the handling operation and
requirement profile environmental parameters.
The technological requirements may include the time available for gripping,
the gripping path, the gripper force curve and the number of workpieces to be
gripped simultaneously. The most important workpiece parameters are mass,
shape, dimensions with tolerances, the position of the centre of gravity,
stability, surface properties, material, strength and temperature. The data
required for the handling device comprise its positioning error, axial acceleration
and connection conditions. Environmental parameters consist of process forces,
the space available for gripping, set-down conditions and the dirt, humidity and
vibration present. It is difficult if a gripper is required to handle several different
workpieces in succession, since it is then necessary to satisfy several require-
ment profiles. It must also be borne in mind that it is not always possible to grip
a workpiece on all sides; for example, it may be necessary to avoid precision-
machined functional surfaces. A feed sequence may also impose limitations.
This can be seen clearly in this example: (Fig. 1-1).
1 Analysis of gripper functions 9

Fig. 1-1:
Division of a workpiece into
gripping zone (G), clamping 1
zone (C) and set-down zone 2
(S) 4
1 Workpiece
5
2 Magazine
3 Clamping device A
4 Gripper
5 Magnetic gripper
S G
A workpiece is to be picked up and brought into a clamping position. The work-

piece cannot be gripped in the area of the set-down zone S, which fits into the
magazine, since this is covered. The available gripping zone thus gives rise to
the fact that the workpiece might slip away from the desired position. We must
therefore clarify for each workpiece the question of which zones can be used for
gripping. The situation will of course change if the user selects a different axial
position in the magazine or another workpiece magazine. In our example, the
set-down and clamping zones are identical. The gripping zone must be defined
positively. The example involves external gripping. Workpieces which are hollow
or have holes or recesses can also be gripped internally, as shown in Fig. 1-2.
Fig. 1-2:
How can a workpiece
be picked up?
a) External gripping
b) Internal gripping
c) Combination of internal
and external gripping
a) b) c)
This is an important factor in the selection of a gripper, since in the case

of internal gripping the holding force acts from the inside to the outside,
requiring a double-acting gripper. External gripping, on the other hand, usually
requires more space around the gripper.
10 1 Analysis of gripper functions

Positioning accuracy is more important in assembly than in conveying.
Positioning errors may result from :
• the repetition accuracy of the handling device
• gripper positioning errors
• workpiece tolerances or
• errors in the basic workpiece to which the axis motions are matched.
An example is shown in Fig. 1-3.
Fig. 1-3:
The right choice of
gripping point can affect
the positioning error during
assembly
a) Gripping a component
by its body
b) Gripping
by connecting wires
a
b
a) b)
The connecting wires of an electronic component are to be inserted into a

printed circuit board. If the component is gripped by its body, distortions such as
slightly bent connecting wires will seriously impair the success of the assembly
operation; the effect being greater as the distance “a” increases. If, on the other
hand, the workpiece is gripped by its wires at a distance “b” from the end of
these, the situation is considerably better. Consideration must also be given to
the intervals at which the components are to be fitted. Any gripper requires a
certain minimum space to operate.
Workpiece handling does not in itself create added value. Only in assembly
Is a controlled gripper operations or when used to guide tools can an industrial robot add value to a
necessary at all? workpiece. It is therefore a welcome advantage if handling devices can be
simplified or even eliminated altogether. Example – a user wishes to feed work-
pieces to a clamping device (Fig. 1-4).

Fig. 1-4:
Feeding a clamping device
1 Clamping point
2 Simplest type of gripper
(mandrel or plug gripper)
3 Supply magazine
2
1
He envisages a controlled mechanical jaw-type gripper with internal gripping.

But why? A uncontrolled spring-loaded gripper is fully adequate. This can pick
the workpiece from the magazine and take it to the clamping point. The clam-
ping jaws then close and the plug gripper is retracted. Efforts should always be
made to find the simplest solution. There are, however, often parameters which
prevent this. The principle nonetheless remains – first simplify, then automate!
There are many workpieces which can withstand the necessary gripping force
High point loadings can without sustaining damage. But there are other workpieces which are for
damage workpieces example polished, thin-walled, soft, brittle or super-finished and which can be
damaged during gripping, especially by clamp-type grippers which impose a
point loading (See Fig. 1-5).

Fig. 1-5:
Types of point loading
resulting from gripping
a) Area/area
b) Line/area
c) Point/area
d) Double line/area
a) b)
c) d)
Point loading is the contact force per unit gripping area which results from
clamp gripping. Deformation occurs at the point of contact. Contact force should
not, however, be assumed to be the same as the closing force of the gripper.
V-shaped grippers, for example, spread forces. Gravity may also be a factor,
depending on the orientation of the gripper, as may the coefficient of friction µ.
Excessive point loadings may produce clamping marks on workpieces

and dents in hollow workpieces.
In the case of grippers with plain-bearing guides, oscillations of the overall

system may produces transient effects on the coefficients of static and sliding
friction. This means that during a motion (subject to vibration), contact force
may increase due to the fact that sliding friction becomes effective for a short
time, reducing the friction in the guides which diminishes the gripper force.
This phenomenon occurs hardly at all with roller-bearing jaw guides.
When it comes to the fine positioning of objects, the average person relies on
Problems with accuracy eye/hand coordination and manages without difficulty, for example, to thread
a needle. Mechanical gripping must be just as precise and trouble-free.
Problems can occur in 3 situations:

• When picking up a workpiece
• When aligning this in the gripper device
• When setting the workpiece down in the desired position.

Gripping devices have only a limited working range. Workpieces outside or at
the limit of this range will not be picked up reliably. The answer is either to use
a wide-range gripper (which requires a longer gripping time) or to reduce the
workpiece placing error. This can often be achieved by simple means. Fig. 1-6
shows an example. In the old arrangement, the workpiece is positioned very
inaccurately at the pick-up point. An improvement is produced by using a tem-
plate with a centring effect.
Fig. 1-6:
Unambiguous pick-up points
ensure reliable gripping
a) Inaccurate workpiece
position
b) V-shaped template
centres workpiece
a) b)
Workpieces are not aligned to the gripping centre, since the gripper closes in an
arc and operates with workpieces of different diameters. The gripping centre,
also known as the tool centre point (TCP), is however the value entered in the
programming of the handling machine. Deviations of this kind may causes
problems with close-tolerance assembly operations. This type of problem is
shown in Fig. 1-7 [1]. This effect is not encountered with parallel-jaw grippers.
Fig. 1-7:
Gripper devices which close in
an arc may cause a shift of the
gripping centre 1
1
2
a) Scissors-type gripper
with 2 different work-
2
pieces 1 and 2
b) Parallel-jaw gripper
δx
a) b)
Problems may also be encountered in obtaining set-down at precise points.

This is subject to a total error comprising the handling machine positioning error,
the gripper error and the workpiece error [2]. Shape errors in particular may be
problematic with long workpieces and narrow gripper jaws, as shown in Fig. 1-8.
The remedy is to use wider gripper devices with a compliant covering on their
gripping surface.

The accuracy situation must therefore be studied thoroughly. A gripper with
V-shaped jaws will compensate for preceding placing errors and will align the
workpiece to the TCP. A magnetic gripper or suction cup cannot do this.
These types of grippers will retain the placing error and add errors of their own.
The process technology also has an effect – a clamping collet opens only a short
distance and is more difficult to feed than a wide-opening jaw-type chuck.
Fig. 1-8:
Centre deviation resulting
from workpiece form errors
δx
δy
δx
A gripping operation can be influenced by a number of parameters which

Summary may (but need not necessarily) cause the gripper to “miss” the workpiece
in the worst-case scenario. We have discussed a number of reasons for this.
A thorough study of the gripper application will help to recognise problems in
good time [3].
[1] Volmer, J. (Hrsg.): Industrieroboter – Funktion und Gestaltung

Publications (“Industrial Robots: Function and Design”),
published by Verlag Technik, Berlin and Munich 1992
[2] Hesse, S.: Montagemaschinen (“Mounting machines”),
published by Vogel-Buchverlag, Würzburg 1993
[3] Hesse, S.: Greifer-Praxis (“Praxis of grippers”),
published by Vogel-Buchverlag, Würzburg 1991

The choice of gripper type is always determined by the properties of the object
2 to be gripped and the purpose of the handling operation concerned. Classic
Gripper applications applications include production of components (feed) and assembly (handling
for component pro- of components for assembly). New applications have, however, also emerged,
duction and assembly with different parameters from those in production. These applications include
packaging (requiring high speeds) and commissioning (with an undefined initial
object position). It is thus necessary to adapt grippers constantly for new and
important applications.
Standard grippers have reached a high level of development and can be used
for many applications, not just the classic applications. There are also gripper
systems for special applications. Rails and adapter plates can be used, for
example, to create double grippers, multi-position grippers and multi-workpiece
grippers. We will illustrate this with a few selected examples.
3-point grippers are the preferred type for handling cylindrical workpieces.
Workpiece handling These grippers give both good centring and a high degree of reliability [1]. Care-
with standard grippers ful design of the gripper fingers can provide a certain measure of adaptability
to different workpiece dimensions. Fig. 2-1 shows an example, using hardened
gripper pins for the internal gripping of small workpieces. These pins can if
desired be repositioned in other bores provided in the gripper fingers. The result
is an enhanced gripper range, albeit with the need for manual resetting. The
gripper pins need not be used concentrically – it may be better to arrange them
at gripping points in accordance with the internal contours of the workpiece,
for example in order to grip a housing with a rectangular aperture (Fig. 2-1c).
It is also possible to grip into hole patterns extremely effectively using gripper
pins.
Fig. 2-1:
Using a 3-point gripper
a) Adjustable gripper pins

b) Concentric internal
gripping of a flange ring
c) Non-concentric internal
gripping of a housing
a) b) c)
The minimum effective length of the pins should be 5 mm. This also applies to
mechanical gripper fingers.
16 2 Gripper applications for component production and assembly

For workpieces with a length of 200 mm and more, it is better to use multi-point
grippers. The best way to produce grippers of this kind is by combining two
standard grippers. This is shown in Fig. 2-2, taking the example of the gripping
of a sheet-metal profile. For this purpose, the grippers are mounted on an
adapter rail. The required gripping force per gripper is of course halved and the
problematic torque forces which may result from high-speed manipulation can
be absorbed more easily.
Fig. 2-2:
Multi-point gripper
for long workpieces
The centre of gravity of the workpiece should be placed at the exact midpoint
between the grippers. When single grippers are used, the centre of gravity
should be as close as possible to the gripping point.
Frequent use is made of modified gripper systems based on standard grippers.

One example of this is in-line arrays of grippers used to pick up workpieces
from pallets row by row or to set down rows of workpieces on pallets, in crates,
etc. In this case, too, the grippers are mounted on a rail and then act as multi-
workpiece grippers. This is illustrated in Fig. 2-3. Since the grippers act at a large
number of points simultaneously, the workpiece positions must be maintained
to close tolerances. If workpieces need to be picked up, for example from
a conveyor belt, it may be necessary to align these on the belt beforehand.
2 Gripper applications for component production and assembly2 17

Fig. 2-3:
Multi-workpiece gripper for
transfer of complete rows
of workpieces
The following problem may be encountered when feeding workpieces

to clamping points: at the moment of clamping, the flow of forces is a closed
kinematic chain, due to the fact that the gripper must also hold the workpiece.
This means that the clamping point forces the gripper and thus the handling
machine to adopt its position. In the long term, this may cause damage to robots
and grippers. Ways must therefore be found of compensating for this effect.
There are robots which in these circumstances switch to a “soft” action and
do not therefore attempt at all costs to maintain their position but rather yield.
Grippers can also be provided with compliant mountings (“floating” grippers),
and there are also grippers with an integrated or attached pressure device.
In this case, the gripper opens in the clamping device, at which time the work-
piece must be held against the clamping device by the pressure device, for
example a pneumatic ram. The clamping device then closes and the gripper
can withdraw.

There are many details which require consideration in the planning of an auto-
Gripping in assembly mated assembly line. The most important of these, however, are time and
operations accuracy. Time can be gained, for example, by using turret grippers.
It is perfectly possible to use standard grippers for this purpose. Fig. 2-4 shows
a mounting plate equipped with the necessary number of grippers. Assembly
tools can also be fitted in certain cases. The advantage for the user is that a
number of idle robot motions within the assembly sequence can be avoided,
thus shortening the sequence. The large diameter of the interference circle, on
the other hand, is a disadvantage. It must be determined as a first step whether
sufficient working space is available.
Fig. 2-4:
Multi-workpiece gripper
for assembly operations
New technology, such as video recognition systems, has led to new demands
being placed on gripper systems. One example of this is the insertion of chocola-
tes into a blister pack. This also falls under the broad heading of “assembly”
work. Fig. 2-5 shows a solution in which several suction cups are used to pick-up
the rectangular chocolates from a conveyor belt.
The suction cups are fitted to single-acting standard cylinders which are
protected against torsion. Each suction cup is able to move forward indepen-
dently at high speed. Once the recognition system system has detected a work-
piece and determined the coordinates and the orientation of the workpiece
(longitudinal axis), the gripper adjusts its angle accordingly. The suction cup now
advances, picks up a workpiece from the moving belt and returns to its initial
position. Once all the suction cups have picked up workpieces, the robot swivels
to the packing conveyor belt and sets down all the workpieces simultaneously in
the nests of the blister packs. Since all workpieces are already correctly aligned
relative to the grippers, their alignment with the packaging is also correct.
2 Gripper applications for component production and assembly 19

Fig. 2-5:
Multiple suction-cup grippers
for assembly operations
1
1 NC rotary axis
(robot hand axis) 2
2 Angle mounting plate
3 Standard cylinder with
non-rotating piston rod
4 Suction cup
5 Conveyor belt 3
6 Workpiece (confectionery)
6 5

Workpieces can be held within gripper fingers by (frictional) force. They can,
Positive-locking or however, also be held simply by physical systems such as the shape of the
force-locking grippers? gripper or even by adhesion, e.g. adhesives. The theoretical possibilities are
shown in Fig. 2-6.
Fig. 2-6:
Methods of holding a work-
piece (example: ball bearing)
1 Enclosure
only without clamping
2 Partial enclosure
combined with clamping
force
3 Clamping force only
(force-locking connection)
4 Holding with suction
(force field) 1 2 3
5 Holding
with magnetic field
6 Holding with adhesive
layer, such as grease
4 5 6
Clamping force is very frequently used to hold workpieces. We must, however,

consider the following: in order to hold the workpiece, the fingers must act on
the workpiece with a force FG of at least FG = m · g/µ (disregarding safety
margins and the effects of other forces for the moment). In the above, m is
the coefficient of friction and m the mass of the workpiece. In an assembly
operation, however, this force is not sufficient, since a joining force FS is also
required. The required gripping force is thus FG = (m · g + FS)/m.
If we assume a coefficient of friction of 0.1, the gripping force FG would be

10 times the total weight of the workpiece to be assembled and the joining
force. This may lead to deformation of or damage to the workpiece, particularly
if this is delicate. It is therefore desirable to use a positive-locking connection.
Fig. 2-7b shows how, with this type of gripping, the workpiece is now able to
rest on the gripper finger, allowing the clamping force to be kept relatively low.

Fig. 2-7:
Gripping principle: Force locking Positive locking
A positive-locking connecion
places much less stress on
workpieces during gripping
and holding
a) Gripping an egg
with the human hand [2]
b) Gripping a workpiece and
holding it during assembly
c) Attitude of gripper hand
during feed motion
m.g m.g
a)
b)
c)
A positive-locking connection may also be desirable for feed motions. When a

workpiece is lifted rapidly, it is subject not only to a weight force m · g but also
to an inertia force FT which is a function of vertical accelera-tion. If, however, the
gripper hand is turned through 90° before the workpiece is lifted, the previous
force-locking connection temporarily becomes a positive-locking connection for
this motion sequence. These examples show that the gripper is a component
where different influences come to bear and should therefore never be used
without taking into considera-tion all the various factors involved.

Grippers are well-proven components and can also be used as workpiece
Grippers feeders to release a certain number of workpieces from a magazine. Generally,
as separators workpieces are released one at a time – we therefore refer to this process as
“separation”. Fig. 2-8 shows an example of an application using a gate-type
feeder.
Fig. 2-8:
Gate feeder using
a parallel-jaw gripper
1 Parallel-jaw gripper
2 Sliding gate
1 2
Sliding gates have been fitted in place of the gripper fingers. These should
be as short as possible, as is usually the case in gripping applications, to avoid
overload of the linear guides of the gripper jaws and reducing their service life.
This solution is worth considering only for the feed of small workpieces, since
other solutions are available for large heavy workpieces [3]. In order to reduce
the load acting on the feed slide, a stepped track has also been developed
which enables a proportion of the load due to workpiece build-up to be
supported by the step.
[1] Seegräber, L.: Greifsysteme für Montage, Handhabung und Industrieroboter

Publications (“Gripper Systems for Assembly, Handling and Industrial Robots”),
published by expert Verlag, Renningen, 1993
[2] Bohmann, J.; Nönnig, R.: Ein Greifer für empfindliche Teile
(“Grippers for Sensitive Workpieces”),
article in magazine “Konstruktion” No. 45 (1993) pp. 95-97
[3] Hesse, S.: Atlas der modernen Handhabungstechnik
(“Handbook of Modern Handling Technology”),
published by Vieweg Verlag, Wiesbaden, 1995

Grippers are holding devices; this is their main function. In order to obtain
3 a given effect, we must provide grippers with the ability to move in three
Grippers dimensions. This is achieved by using motion axes. A robot application for
and hand axes example with 6 axes is not particularly complicated, since the robot provides
the necessary motion capability. In applications where costs are critical but
ultra-high speed is not required, it is worth considering hand axes, which are
often available as flexible modules and can take the place of a robot.
This produces solutions which can be installed quickly at reasonable cost.
Depending on the application in question, a hand axis may be of interest for the
following motions. Rotation > 360°, swivelling < 360°, thrust motions (generally
with short strokes) and screwdriving motions, particularly for the insertion of
screws. The most typical motion is, however, swivelling, which is why gripper
manufacturers almost always offer compatible swivelling units. Fig. 3-1 shows
a two-axis module which can swivel between 0 and 270° and provide a linear
thrust stroke of up to 100 mm. The positions are finely adjustable, with a
cushioned approach. But what exactly can we do with this motion capability?
Fig. 3-1:
Three-point gripper combined
with a swivel/linear unit
Let us first consider the term “degrees of freedom”. A workpiece can have
Degrees of freedom a maximum of 6 degrees of freedom, expressed as 3 linear motions on the
of the hand 3-dimensional axes x, y and z and 3 rotary motions α1, α2 and α3 about the
axes x, y and z. Handling machines, by the way, can have more than 6 degrees
of freedom. We then speak of degrees of mechanical freedom or travel freedom.
Thrust motions (Fig. 3-2) are described as follows:
1 Vertical up-down
2 Forward/backward
3 Lateral left/right
24 3 Grippers and hand axes

while rotary motions, following aviation practice [1], are designated as follows:
α1 Pitch, tilt
α2 Roll, twist
α3 Yaw, turn.
As you will know, the closing motion of the gripper jaws is not considered as a
degree of freedom, since this motion has no influence on the motion path of the
gripper.
Fig. 3-2:
The human hand can execute
motions with 6 degrees
of freedom
(according to Bejczy)
1
a) Biological
b) Technical
2
α1
α2
3 G
α3
a) b)
Particularly in applications involving the feeding of machine tools, it is desirable

Double grippers for the machine to resume work as quickly as possible after the workpiece has
save process time been changed. After this, the handling machine will generally have ample time to
set down workpieces and pick up new workpieces from a magazine. The double
gripper was developed for this type of application. Fig. 3-3 shows a common
design of double gripper.
Fig. 3-3:
Double gripper designed
as a crown turret
a) Radial gripper
b) Axial gripper
a) b)
3 Grippers and hand axes 25

The crown turret is driven by a rotary cylinder with adjustable endposition
cushioning at both ends and fine adjustment of its end positions. An important
feature is the backlash compensation in the rack-and-pinion unit, since other-
wise considerable positioning errors could result at the gripping point. Double
grippers of this kind are often used with gantry robots. Whether gripping is
carried out radially or axially depends on the workpiece axis position in the
magazine. Long and thin workpieces are generally fed horizontally, with radial
gripping, while axial gripping is the more common method for short and thick
workpieces and also castings with or without flanges. The crown turret is
designed to accept standard grippers.
Gripper systems are also sometimes modified for a given application.

The shaft gripper in Fig. 3-4 is an example of this. In this case, standard grippers
are mounted on a swivel plate, and the motion is executed by a suspension-
mounted pneumatic cylinder. A fast but cushioned approach is provided to the
cylinder end positions. Set-screws are used to adjust the angle. This solution is
used, for example, in conjunction with line gantry robots to feed material to
machine tools and test machines.
Fig. 3-4:
Shaft gripper
1
1 Connecting flange
2
2 Cushioned stop
3 Set screw
4 Parallel-jaw gripper 3
5 Pneumatic cylinder
5

In series production applications, pneumatic components have proved ideal as
Hand axes used providers of motion. For example, a swivel/linear drive can be used to create a
to assemble small complete handling module, as shown in Fig. 3-5. In this case, the gripping point
workpieces is not placed coaxially with the piston rod of the swivel/linear unit but deviates
from this. This creates an arc-shaped working area within which the positions to
be approached must lie. This is an extremely simple solution for normal inserti-
on tasks. The workpieces are fed stepwise on a cross-table to a fixed pick-up
point. If ultra-high speed was required, the answer would be to provide a second
gripper opposite the first one. This would allow pick-up from the magazine and
insertion of workpieces to be carried out in parallel.
Fig. 3-5:
Handling module
for assembly of small
workpieces
1
1 Swivel cylinder
2 Lifting cylinder 2
3 Adapter plate
4 Standard gripper
5 Transfer system
6 Workpiece for insertion
7 Receiver workpiece
3
8 Gripper finger
9 Magazine 4
5
7 8
9
Simple handling modules can also be quickly and easily assembled using
standard suction cups and semi-rotary actuators (Fig. 3-6). An additional short-
stroke axis would turn this combination into a pick-and-place device. A hollow
flange shaft can be used as a throughfeed for the vacuum line. The actuator can
operate at switching frequencies of up to 3 Hz.

Fig. 3-6:
Handling unit with suction
cup and semi-rotary actuator
It is often necessary to rotate or turn over workpieces between workstations,

for example, inverting parts such as receiver workpieces in an assembly process.
A simple in-line solution for inverting a workpiece is shown in Fig. 3-7.
A standard gripper executes a swivel motion of 180°. The gripper fingers in this
case are arranged like a mouth. The workpiece runs against the stops in the
open “mouth”; the gripper then closes and transfers the workpiece overhead
to the next conveyor belt.
Fig. 3-7:
Inverting workpieces
1 Gripper jaw
2 Standard gripper
3 Semi-rotary actuator
4 Workpiece
5 Conveyor belt

In the interests of fast processing time, machines with rotary indexing tables are
Feeding double often equipped with double clamping devices. Machines of this kind are also
stations referred to as duplex machines, producing two finished workpieces during each
working cycle. It would be an attractive idea to construct a quadruple gripper,
able to remove two finished workpieces and at the same time bring two fresh
blanks. A gripper of this kind would, however, be bulky and difficult to use, parti-
cularly with large irregularly-shaped workpieces. This problem can be solved by
using a triple turret gripper. This is shown in Fig. 3-8. The free gripper G1 first
picks up a finished workpiece from the clamping point S1. A new blank is then
inserted into the vacant clamping point, while the vacated gripper G2 can pick-
up the second finished workpiece from the clamping point S2. The second blank
is then positioned by the gripper G3 [2]. If a single gripper were used, it would
be necessary for the robot to execute a number of idle strokes, making the
operating cycle longer.
Fig. 3-8:
Triple gripper installed on a
special machine with double
stations
G Grippers
S Clamping points

Fig. 3-9 shows a particularly simple solution for feeding ferromagnetic sheet
Feeding sheet metal metal. A suction cup is mounted directly on the hollow piston rod of a standard
cylinder. The suction cups reach through the gaps between the top rollers of a
roller conveyor and contact and pick up a sheet metal workpiece. The work-
pieces are secured by the permanently-magnetised upper rollers and are then
moved on to a normal roller conveyor. The stack of workpieces is progressively
raised by a lifting device. If the roller conveyor is inclined by a few degrees, the
sheet metal workpieces will move along the conveyor by gravity alone. Further
suggestions for the handling of sheet metal can be found in [3,4].
Fig. 3-9:
Picking up ferromagnetic
sheets from a stack using
a suction-cup/lifting module
1 Suction cup
2
2 Standard cylinder
with hollow piston rod
3 Frame 3
1
4 Magnetic rollers
5 Roller conveyor
4
6 Sheet metal stack
7 Lifting table
6 5

The excellent quality of pneumatic components has made them popular far
Specimen shaker beyond the field of mechanical engineering alone. Pneumatic modules are
being used for manipulative movements in all kinds of new areas. The specimen
shaker shown in Fig. 3-10 is an example from the field of laboratory automation.
Fig. 3-10:
Simple specimen shaker
made from standard
components
This shaker has been created using a standard cylinder, a swivel unit with a
hollow flange shaft and a standard gripper and adapter. It would also be
possible to create an array of shakers or provide other motion combinations.
The critical factor is to create a quick, inexpensive assembly, without the need
for a great deal of preparatory work.
[1] Siegert, H.-J.; Bocionek, S.: Robotik: Programmierung intelligenter Roboter

Publications (“Robotics: Programming Intelligent Robots”),
published by Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg et alia. 1996
[2] Breuer, H.J.: Bestehende Fertigungsanlage
für Schwenklager mit zehn Industrierobotern automatisiert
(“Automating An Existing Production Line For Swivel Bearings Using
Ten Industrial Robots”), in the magazine “Werkstatt und Betrieb”
123(1990)12, pp. 929-932
[3] Hesse, S.: Blechteile automatisch handhaben
(“Automatic Handling Of Sheet-Metal Workpieces”),
in the magazine Bänder, Bleche, Rohre 37(1996)4, pp. 21-23
[4] Hesse, S.: Umformmaschinen (“Shaping Machines”),
published by Vogel Buchverlag, Würzburg 1995

It requires many technical components and procedures, such as an industrial
4 robot, a controller, a program, a workpiece magazine, sensors and grippers to
Construction enable a handling device actually to pick up an object automatically. At the end
of gripping effectors of the chain, it is the gripper jaws or similar which provide the contact with the
workpiece. This contact is often only a minute point, and it is here that major
differences are encountered – a lump of iron is easy to pick up, a pickled herring
is not. We can see from this that gripper jaws must be matched to the work-
piece. So, how many different designs of gripper jaws are there?
“Gripper jaws” are separate components, generally shaped and interchangeable,

which provide a positive- or force-locking contact with a workpiece and hold
this in place. “Gripper fingers” are elastic or articulated force transmission
components which are positioned around a workpiece. Non-articulated compo-
nents are also in practice referred to as gripper fingers. The gripper jaws are
fitted to these, using either a fixed or movable connection.
Gripper jaws are generally produced by the user or machine manufacturer.
Certain companies help in this process by providing “neutral” universal jaws
which require machining to the negative contour of the workpiece but have
ready-made connection surfaces. There are also moulded jaws, in which the
workpiece contour is produced by being pressed into synthetic resin, vulcanised
rubber or molten metal.
A “securing” function comprises the temporary holding of an object in a defined

Main purpose of position and orientation, followed by release as an inversion of holding or a
grippers is to provide cancellation of the securing function. In relation to mechanical grippers, we
a holding system speak of “clamping” and “unclamping”. The holding function is normally
provided by gripper jaws, which are thus described as a holding system, as
shown in Fig. 4-1. The function of a holding system is an essential feature
of all grippers. Holding can be achieved through mechanical clamping and also
through fluidic or magnetic force fields or the enmeshment of surfaces [1].
32 4 Construction of gripping effectors

Fig. 4-1:
Some of the sub-systems
of a mechanical gripper 1 2 3 4 5
1 Adapter
2 Force generator
3 Force conversion
4 Force transmission, Holding
with finger as transmission Interface
system
components
5 Gripper jaw
as gripping component
Actuation Kinematics
It is essential when designing gripper jaws to know the points at which the
workpiece is to be gripped. Technical parameters naturally also have an certain
influence. Fig. 4-2 illustrates this with the example of a two-finger gripper. Area
contacts are generally preferable to line or point contacts.
Fig. 4-2:
The contour at the gripping
point of the workpiece
determines the jaw shape
used, 1, 2 or 3.
1 2 3
Conditions are not always ideal. If we consider the case of “parallel flat sur-
faces”, we see that some workpieces are not in fact parallel at all; for example,
plastic mouldings may have slight moulding bevels. If the deviations from
parallel are small, it may be sufficient to fit the gripper jaws with a compliant
rubber covering. It is, however, sometimes better to provide pendulum jaws,
of which three types are shown in Fig. 4-3.
4 Construction of gripping effectors 33

Ball-jointed pressure plates can compensate for angular errors on two planes.
Rubber coverings or specially-produced gripper cushions are often sufficiently
compliant for this purpose and have the further advantage that they increase
the coefficient of friction (µ approx. 0.5), meaning that a lower gripping force can
be used.
Fig. 4-3:
Gripper jaws
with compliant surfaces
1 Rubber or plastic covering

2 Pendulum jaw
3 Ball-jointed pressure plate
1 2 3

With some grippers, the tool centre point changes when workpieces with
Dealing with differen- different dimensions are gripped. Designs include vice-type grippers (one fixed
ces in workpiece and one mobile finger) and scissor-tong grippers. In the former case, the
dimensions position changes must be allowed for in programming, while in the case
of scissor-tong grippers, compensation can be provided by specially-shaped
grippers. The gripping surfaces are arched, as shown in Fig. 4-4, and do not
have the usual simple V shape.
Fig. 4-4:
Jaw shape with centring effect
for scissor-tong grippers
TCP = Tool centre point

D = Workpiece diameter
α
TCP
D
R2
α
R R1
A A
C1
Dimensioning should be carried out in accordance with the following:

• The ratio between diameter D1 (largest workpiece) and D2
(smallest workpiece) should not be more than 2.5.
• The contact point angle α should be roughly 20 to 25°.
The following equations are used:
D1 + D2
D=
2
0.5 · R
A=
tan(α · 3.14/180)
B = 0.5 · R
0.5 · R
R1 = – 0.5 · D
sin(α · 3.14/180)
0.5 · R
R2 = + 0.5 · D
sin(α · 3.14/180)

This calculation also applies to angle grippers (gripper fingers with separate
pivot points C1 and C2). Radius R1 then becomes larger, while R2 becomes
smaller. The angle β between the lines TCP-C1 and TCP-C2 should lie in the range
0 < β < (2α – 40°).
The case is different when several workpieces need to be gripped simulta-

neously. Here, too, it is essential to achieve a certain degree of equilibrium.
The best solution, of course, is to divide up the degree of mobility using the
multiple clamp principle, i.e. with individual pressure points as shown in
Fig. 4-5.
Fig. 4-5:
Gripping several workpieces
simultaneously, using
a pressure distributor to F F
compensate for tolerances
To enable a larger range of dimensions to be handled, it is also possible to use

a stepped V-shaped jaw. Thus, using a jaw stroke of 50 mm in each case, it is
possible to grip workpieces with diameters ranging from 1 to 110 mm.
The grippers jaws used for this are shown in Fig. 4-6 [2]. We must, however,
accept displacements dx of the tool centre point. A typical application of this
kind of gripper would be gearbox assembly in an assembly cell, in which shafts,
bearings and gearwheels, all with different diameters, must be gripped in
succession.

Fig. 4-6:
Jaws of a parallel gripper
for 3 diameter ranges
y
δx
φ1
...
φ3 30 x
0. mm
.. 7
φ7 0 mm
0.
.. 1
00m
m
50 mm 50 mm
Sequence grippers are used to grip a defined number of different objects

Jaws for sequence in an unvarying sequence. The gripper jaws must accordingly have a number
grippers of gripping points which match the gripping points of the workpieces in each
case. The easiest way to explain this is by using an example, such as the one
in Fig. 4-7, with 4 workpieces. The orientations and gripping points required
for the process concerned are defined. The gripper jaws must be provided with
a negative contour for each gripping point, which makes the jaws extremely
complex in shape. This is of course, not always possible, but gripper jaws have
been designed which allow 9 different workpieces for a gearbox assembly line
to be gripped without changing the gripper jaws. This case, by the way, would
be encountered only in assembly cells, in which one robot is required to assem-
ble as many different components as possible. On assembly lines for mass
production, robots and thus grippers are generally set up for one specific task.

Fig. 4-7:
Gripper jaws with specisally-
shaped multiple gripping
surfaces
D
A
B
B
C
C
D
Grippers can be designed for many special applications [3]. There are, for
Jaws for special example, grippers with rotary jaws, which can turn a workpiece through 90°.
applications One jaw is passive, while the other is equipped with a rotary actuator. Attempts
are, however, always made to use a normal basic gripper before developing a
special gripper. Fig. 4-8 shows some examples of special grippers.
Fig. 4-8:
Variants of jaws
for parallel grippers
1 Moulding jaw
with lamellar assembly
2 Width-adjustable jaw
3 Jaw of combination gripper
1 2 3
The moulding jaw incorporates thin movable metal plates. When the gripper
closes, the plates are pressed against the workpiece, forming an impression
of it’s contour. The entire lamellar assembly is then clamped into place.
The impression is reversible, i.e the lamellae can be reset. Gripper jaws can
also be provided with serrated adjusters, allowing the gripping width, but not
the stroke, to be matched to the workpiece dimensions. The jaws can also be
used turned through 180°. In order to grip several workpieces simultaniously

(combination grippers), jaws must be provided with an appropriate number of
identical indentations. Here, too, we need to consider the tolerance problem [4].
It is even possible to equip gripper fingers with mobile jaws. Fig. 4-9 shows an
example. As the gripper fingers close, they contact the workpiece and lift this
out of the V-shaped recess. There is no need to provide the handling device with
a lifting motion. This does, however, require jaws and workpieces with a suitably
smooth surface. The contact point must be below the centre of the workpiece.
The purpose of this design is thus to save the need for a motion axis.
Fig. 4-9:
Mobile gripper jaws lift the
workpiece out of the V-shaped
recess in the magazine
1 Gripper housing
2 Finger
3 Mobile jaw
4 Rotary axis
5 Support surface
6 Torsion spring
7 Workpiece

In selecting the shape of the gripper jaws, allowance must be made for the
Taking the jaw stroke type of approach of the gripper to the workpiece, since this may influence the
into account required stroke. The approach may be axial or radial – technical conditions will
generally dictate which. Fig. 4-10 shows 2 cases, taking the example of V-shaped
jaws for which different gripping strokes “c” are required for the same work-
piece. An opening safety margin “a” and clamping safety margin “b” are always
required; these compensate for tolerances and provide the necessary latitude.
Fig. 4-10:
The type of approach affects
the required opening Radial approach Axial approach
a Opening safety margin

b Clamping safety margin
c Required jaw stroke
b b
a a
c c
[1] Cardaun, U.: Systematische Auswahl von Greifkonzepten

Publications (“Systematic Selection of Gripper Concepts”).
Doctoral thesis, University of Hanover 1981
[2] Volmer, J. (Hrsg.): Industrieroboter – Funktion und Gestaltung
(“Industrial Robots: Function and Design”),
published by Verlag Technik, Berlin and Munich 1992
[3] Hesse, S. (Hrsg.): Industrieroboterperipherie
(“Industrial Robotics Peripherals”),
published by Hüthig Verlag, Heidelberg 1990
[4] Hesse, S.: Lexikon Handhabungseinrichtungen und Industrierobotik
(“Lexicon of Handling Devices and Industrial Robotics”),
published by expert Verlag, Renningen 1995

The main purpose of a gripper is to hold objects securely for a certain period.
5 Grippers using the force-locking principle, on which we will concentrate in this
Forces acting article, are required to generate holding forces to balance out all the steady-
on grippers state and dynamic forces and torque values which occur during a motion
sequence. The required gripping force is thus a major criterion for the selection
of the right type and size of gripper.
The required gripping force can be calculated approximately. This calculation

should not be neglected, but may not provide a final answer. In doubtful cases,
you should also carry out tests or recommend users to do so, since some of
the calculation variables are subjected to fluctuations or are only estimates.
If you go too far over to the “safe side”, this may be disadvantageous for the
user – a heavy gripper may necessitate a handling device which is one size
larger in terms of handling capacity or may reduce the working load of such a
device.
This law, formulated by Isaac Newton in 1687, states the following:

Newton's Third Law
of Motion The actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal and directly
opposite, i.e. reaction is always equal and opposite to action.
This means that force and counter-force are in equilibrium. A simple experiment
to demonstrate this is shown in Fig. 5-1a. A rod is subjected to a tensile load. In
the first case, one end of the rod is clamped, while in the second case a person
pulls on each end. The tensile force in the rod in each case is not 400 N as
you might think but only 200 N. If we apply this to the parallel gripper shown in
Fig. 5-1b, this is subject to the same prin-ciple. It makes no difference whether
only one finger moves and applies a gripping force of 200 N or whether two
opposed fingers each generate 200 N. The two grippers shown are equivalent
in terms of force.
5 Forces acting on grippers 41

Fig. 5-1:
The law of interacting forces
200 N 200 N 200 N
a) The tensile force in the rod
is 200 N in both cases
b) Due to the principle
of action = reaction,
it makes no difference
with parallel grippers a)
whether the gripping
force FG is applied
by one finger or two
FG FG FG
b) 200 N 200 N 200 N
Newton’s Third Law of Motion also applies to three-point grippers in somewhat

modified form, as we shall see. In this case, forces act in three directions.
If we confine our study of holding principles to the balance of forces with

Friction forces create mechanical grippers, we see that the gripping force is only a means to an end.
a holding effect From the point of view of friction, the gripping force acts like a normal force.
The actual holding function is produced by friction forces FR which are created
in accordance with Coulomb's Law of Friction in the direction opposite to the
direction of motion and oppose the weight force G of the gripped object.
The simplest case is shown in Fig. 5-2.
Fig. 5-2:
Forces acting on gripped
object (state of rest)
FR FR
1
1 Finger
2 Gripper jaw
3 Workpiece
FG FG
µ Coefficient of friction
2
µ µ
G
3
This situation applies when the handling device is in a state of rest

(or moving very slowly). The following equation is obtained:
G = FG · µ · n
42 5 Forces acting on grippers

or expressed another way:
m·G
FG =
µ·n
Variables in formula:
FG = Minimum required gripping force in N
G = Weight force of gripped object in N
g = Gravitational acceleration in m/s2
m = Workpiece mass in kg
n = Number of fingers or gripper jaws
µ = Coefficient of friction between gripper jaw and object.
As we can see, allowance is made in the formula for the number of fingers, since
of course a friction force FR is created at each gripper jaw. With 3 contact points,
n = 3. There are several possible variants for the 3-point solution. Fig. 5-3 shows
a “true” three-finger gripper and a solution based on a two-finger gripper. In this
latter case, the gripping force is split at the V-jaw into the contact forces FKi.
Fig. 5-3:
Plan view
of 2 gripper situations FG
a) Two-finger gripper
with V-jaw FK2
b) Three-finger gripper
FG
α
FG β FG = FK1
α
FG
FK3
G = Σ FKi . µ G = FG . µ . 3
If, in the case of the two-finger gripper, a V-jaw angle of 120° is selected, the
same as the finger positioning of a three-finger gripper, the two grip-pers will
be the same from the point of view of holding forces. There will be differences
with other V-jaw angles. In these cases, we must refer to the contact angles,
which can be determined by the following formula if random V-jaw angles are
permissible:
G · sinα1
FKi =
µ · (sinα1 + sinα2 + sinα3)
in which
i = 1, 2, 3
and
α1 = 180° – α23
α2 = 180° – α13
α3 = 180° – α12

The total of the 3 friction forces FR1 to FR3 (Fig. 5-4) must be at least large
enough to compensate for the weight force G produced by gravity. Knowledge of
contact forces is also required if we wish to check the gripping pressure per unit
area in the case of sensitive workpieces.
Fig. 5-4:
Calculation of contact forces
for a gripper with a V-jaw on
one side
FR1 α13
FG = FK1
FR3
FR2
FK3
α12 α23
FK2
Fig. 5-5 shows the mathematical relationships governing gripping force during
an upward motion in the case of the commonly-used V-jaw grippers with
3- or 4-point object contact. A distinction can be made between 3 variants
of gripping:
• Pure positive-locking gripping

• Positive locking in combination with friction locking
• Pure friction-locking gripping.

Fig. 5-5:
Forces at the parallel-jaw Sketch Contact forces Gripper force upward
gripper with V-jaw for
workpieces
Pure positive-
a Linear acceleration locking gripping
g Gravitational acceleration
FG
m Mass a
S Safety factor m(g + a)sinα2
µ Coefficient of friction FK1 =
sin(α1 + α2)
m .g FG = m(g + a) · S
m(g + a)sinα1
FK2 =
FK1 sin(α1 + α2)
α1 α2 FK2
FG
Positive locking
with friction locking
FR1 a FR2
m(g + a)
FK1 =
2cosα1
m(g + a)
FG FG FG = tanα · S
2
m(g + a)
FK1 FK2 FK2 =
2cosα2
α1 α2
m .g
FR
a FR
FK1 = m(g + a)tanα2
FG=
FK1 FG FG = FK1 · S
m(g + a)
FK2 =
FK2 2cosα2
90° α
m .g
Pure friction locking
a
FG
m(g + a) m(g + a)
FR FK FK = FG = sinα · S
4µ 2µ
2α
FG
m .g

Effective gripping depends strongly on the coefficient of friction. The following
can be taken as guide values:
• Workpieces with smooth surfaces, lightly oiled µ = 0.1

• Metal-to-metal contact µ = 0.5 to 0.2
• Gripper jaws with pointed-tooth surface µ = 0.3 to 0.4
• Jaws with non-slip covering or metal/rubber contact µ = 0.5 to 0.7.
The equations given in Fig. 5-5 incorporate allowances for certain factors which
we have not yet mentioned:
• The coefficient of friction m fluctuates quite widely, like a person’s blood

pressure. A safety factor S must therefore be included. In practice, the factor
used is between 1.5 and 4.
• The weight force G represents only part of the load. Allowance must also be
made for other forces, particularly the inertia forces resulting from the accele-
ration “a” of the robot arm. Process forces may also be involved, for example
during assembly, by inserting components.
It may be, in the case of a multi-axis handling machine, that the force situation
Check the motion cycle changes from time to time during a motion cycle. It may be possible to counter-
act certain forces which occur by using positive-locking gripping (lateral
motions), while other forces may call for a higher coefficient of friction. It is
therefore a question of identifying the motion phase requiring the highest
holding force and selecting a gripper on this basis. Fig. 5-6 shows a number
of typical motions and the forces operative during these.
Fig. 5-6:
Force situations
during gripper motion
v v
FR FR FR FR FR FR
a) Rest state
b) Upward motion v=0
c) Downward motion
d) Lateral motion FB
e) Inclined upward motion
FB
FG FG FG FG FG FG
a) G b) G c) G
v v
FR FR FR FR
FB FB
FG FG FG FG
d) G e) G

In the case of an upward motion, the weight force G and the inertia force FB can
be compensated by the friction forces FR. During the downward motion, the iner-
tia force acts in opposition to the weight force and makes the object effectively
“lighter”. During the braking phase, however, a deceleration force then becomes
operative. In the case of lateral motions, inertia force is absorbed by positive-
locking gripping, requiring no additional friction forces. The inertia force,
attempts, however, to force open the gripper jaw. With inclined motions, consi-
deration must be given to the horizontally- and vertically-acting components of
the inertia force. The position is of course somewhat different with V-jaws and
other types of handling devices. It is necessary to study the complete handling
operation.
The inertia forces can be calculated as a general principle as follows:
FB = m · a
or in the case of a rotary motion:
FB = m · r · ε
or in the case of a rotary motion:
a = Linear acceleration in m/s2

m = Mass of gripped object in kg
r = Distance from pivot point in m
ε = Angular acceleration in rad/s–1.
It would be possible to use the acceleration values specified by brochures as

being achieved by robots under normal operating conditions. This would not,
however, be quite correct. The critical values are not those of normal conditions
but of exceptional situations, particularly those following an EMERGENCY STOP
of the robot. We can, for example, take the following standard values for accele-
ration:
Acceleration in normal operation, linear: a = 5 m/s2,

EMERGENCY STOP acceleration, linear: aN = 10 m/s2,
Acceleration in normal operation, rotary: ε = 10 rad/s–2 and
EMERGENCY STOP acceleration, rotary: εN = 17 rad/s–2.
If more precise data is available from technical documentation, this should be

used.

Example: An industrial robot is to pick up an object at P1, transport this via P2
to P3 and set it down at P4 (Fig. 5-7). What gripping forces must the two-jaw
gripper provide?
(Let us assume: µ = 0.2; Safety factor S = 2).
Fig. 5-7:
Example of handling task P2
P3
P1
P4
Mass = 1 kg
Gripping force during lifting:

m(g + a) · S 1 · (9.81 + 5) · 2
FG = = = 74N
µ·n 0.2 · 2
Gripping force during lateral stroke:

m·g·S 1 · 9.81 · 2
FG = +m·a= + 1 · 5 = 54N
µ·n 0.2 · 2
Gripping force during EMERGENCY STOP downwards

(after acceleration phase):
m · (g + aN) · S 1 · (9.81 + 10) · 2

FG = = = 99N
µ·n 0.2 · 2
Grippers should in general be selected on the basis of EMERGENCY STOP

situations, since the requirement in these situations is that the workpiece
should continue to be held by the gripper and not ejected. The highest accelera-
tion values (in fact deceleration values) occur during an EMERGENCY STOP.

In the cases discussed up to now, it has been assumed that the centre of gravity
Problems with torque of the workpiece is positioned precisely between the gripper jaws. It can of
course also lie elsewhere, but this should be avoided, since this may result in
workpieces twisting under heavy acceleration.
Fig. 5-8:
Examples of torque created
as a result of gripped work-
pieces 1 2 3
a b l l
c c
FK1 FK2 FK2
G
FK2 FK1 FK1
G G
The following applies in case 1:

G·b G·a
FK1 = and FK2 =
a+b a+b
For cases 2 and 3 the following applies:
G(l + c) –G · c
FK1 = and FK2 =
l l
An associated problem is the ability of grippers to handle off-centre loads.

Gripper manufacturers generally state in graphs of load capacity, the forces due
to finger length resulting in a torque which tends to open the gripper jaws, or to
rotate the workpiece in cases where the gripper does not have V-jaws. The wider
the gripper jaws, the better the distribution of forces and the lower the gripping
forces required when the workpiece centre of gravity lies outside the gripper
jaws.

Why is it necessary to observe these limits?
Fig. 5-9 shows the forces which occur. In accordance with the law of levers
(force times force arm equals load times load arm), the gripping force FG pro-
duces tilting forces in the finger guide. These in turn produce increased friction.
Part of the generated gripping force is thus counteracted by friction forces in the
guide. Moreover, wherever friction occurs, wear will soon follow. The higher the
tilting moments in the guide, the higher the load. If the permissible limits are
exceeded, the gripper will not achieve either its specified service life or the
desired gripping force.
Fig. 5-9:
Eccentric forces acting
on a gripper finger
v
FN Normal forces FNy

FNx
acting on guide
x Finger length
up to point of action
y Distance from point of x FR
FG
actIon to centre of gripper
FNy
y
FNx
FG

Users need to know whether or not their grippers develop a constant gripping
Characteristic curve force throughout the stroke. This information is provided by a characteristic
for gripping force curve of gripping force. Fig. 5-10 shows 2 transmission mechanisms as exaples.
As the angle lever (angle gripper) swivels, the gripping force varies throughout
the gripper stroke as a function of the cosine of the angle of rotation a. In the
second example, on the other hand, FG = constant. If the angle of rotation α of
an angle gripper is small, this effect can be ignored. Some lever mechanisms,
however, have a characteristic gripping force curve with very pronounced
variations. A typical case is a lever operated gripper, whose curve has a very
steep gradient, with high gripping force available only within a short range of
travel. These two examples demonstrate that not every gripper offers a constant
force throughout its travel.
Fig. 5-10:
Gripping force FG as a
function of gripper stroke h
a) Angle gripper
b) Parallel gripper
Q Tensile force
h Gripper stroke

The technical properties of grippers and their price form the basis for an
6 assessment of their suitability for a given application and a comparison with
Technical properties other makers’ products. The more suitably a gripper range is matched to the
users’ average requirements, the easier it will be for users to select the “right”
gripper. There will of course always be special applications requiring special
grippers. But what in fact are the characteristics of a gripper?
Any use of grippers must start with a study of the planned application. This will
reveal what grippers are required to do, and what loads they must withstand. If
studies of this kind are carried out inadequately, over-hastily and incompletely,
the result is likely to be annoyance – if grippers are the wrong choice, they may
fail quickly and thus not provide the expected performance. Never try to talk
someone into using a particular gripper – the choice must be taken on the basis
of the degree to which the requirement profile and the gripper performance
coincide.
The properties of a gripper can be illustrated by some characteristic data.

A few words about The table of Fig. 6-1 gives a list of this data. The data can be sub-divided into
characteristic data primary and secondary characteristic data. In examining the suitability of a
gripper, we will proceed step by step, first checking the primary characteristics
data and then using the secondary data to make a final selection. Of course,
not everything is always important in all cases. It is advisable to weight the
characteristic data as appropriate to a given application. For example, the
opening and closing times of a gripper are not important if the process
concerned is not time-critical, which is the case if the handling time of the
gripper is not in series with the main process time but runs parallel to this.
As regards the gripping force, only a low value will be required in order to fit
components with up to 3 connecting wires to printed circuit boards. Reliable
handling can be obtained even with grippers which close only by spring force.
If, however, the application also involves gripping heavier components (such as
elays), the gripping force will be important and must be checked.
In specific cases, it can also be advisable to consider further characteristic

values, for example the jaw changing time in applications where the gripper
jaws need to be changed frequently, perhaps even several times a day, due to
wear or the need to handle different products. A secondary characteristic value
may become a primary value, for example if a gripper is required to be suitable
for use in clean rooms. Even a consideration of primary data will eliminate a
number of possible candidates.
52 6 Technical properties
Fig. 6-1:
Characteristic data Characteristic data for grippers
for grippers
• Type designation
• Design
• Size
Primary characteristic data Secondary characteristic data
• Operating principle • Performance/mass ratio

- mechanical in N/grams
- fluidic • Mass moment of inertia in kgcm2
- magnetic • Operating pressure range in bar
- adhesive • Maintenance cycles
• Gripping force in N • Design of bearings and guides
• Gripping force pattern • Range of sizes
(Gripping force diagram) • Repetition accuracy in mm
• Gripper stroke per jaw in mm • Operating temperature range
or opening angle in degrees in degrees
• Gripping width adjustment • Mode of operation
• Load capacity max. in N - Single acting
• Closing (gripping time) in s - Double acting
• Opening (release time) in s • Working frequency max. in Hz
• Load limit values • Mounting position
- Forces • Energy type and consumption
- Torques • Retention of gripping force in case
- Finger length of power supply failure
• Number of gripper components • Monitoring of gripping stroke
• Main dimensions in mm • Material specifications
• Dead weight in kg • Service life
• Interface data
- mechanical
- fluidic
- electrical
• Environmental characteristics
- Clean-room class
- Exhaust air
- Abraided particles
6 Technical properties 53
Only idealised handling operations run perfectly smoothly. If we take a closer
Accuracy of gripping look, we will see that it is always necessary to accommodate tolerances on all
axes. Theoretically this is true, the only question is the order of magnitude of
the resulting errors. Fig. 6-2 shows an exaggerated form of the general situation.
The workpiece feed is subject to errors, the robot motions are imprecise and the
target position, for example a basic workpiece to which others are to be fitted, is
also subject to tolerances.
Only an analysis of the tolerances will show whether the situation is critical
or not. Roughly one-third of all assembly applications are a question of inser-
ting pins into holes. Some of these operations can be regarded as precision
assembly, with clearances of only a few hundredths of a millimetre. In cases of
this kind, it may occur that the repetition accuracy of the gripper and industrial
robot used exceeds the permissible limit. The repetition accuracy of a gripper is
defined as the variation in the jaw end position during 100 successive gripping
operations (closing motions). This figure may, for example, be ± 0.02 mm in the
case of a parallel gripper.
Fig. 6-2:
General model of a 1 2
handling operation
1 Workpiece store
on suspended conveyor
2 Industrial robot
on a mobile unit
3 Assembly carriers
on a transfer line
In order to carry out close-tolerance assembly, all the following measures must
be adopted:
• Improvement of repetition accuracy, particularly that of the handling device

• Design of components to be assembled in such a way as to facilitate
assembly, particularly by providing guide chamfers
• Combination of grippers using joining mechanisms.
Joining mechanisms are devices placed ahead of the gripper which are designed
to compensate for angular and positioning errors between the connecting part
held by the gripper and the connecting axis defined by the basic assembly part.
A distinction is made between active (IRCC = instrumented remote centre com-
pliance) and passive joining mechanisms (RCC = remote centre compliance).
In the interests of simplicity, most are are of the RCC type. These can easily
compensate for position deviations of 2 mm with an orientation error of 2°, and
a permissible clearance between the two joining parts of as little as 0.01 mm.
In order for these devices to operate, guide chamfers are required on the basic
assembly part (bore) and/or the joining part to be added (pin), a factor which
should not be forgotten. Fig. 6-3 shows the principle of an RCC unit. Compliance
can be provided by using a special configuration of elastomer components or
leaf springs. The inner pair of joints correct angular errors, while the outer pair
of joints compensate for positioning errors. The apparent (remote) pivot point of
the joining part to be inserted lies at the tip of this. It is not necessary for users
to make their own joining mechanisms; these are commercially available in a
range of sizes.
Fig. 6-3:
Joining mechanism
with combined lateral and
angular compensation
1 Lateral (position)
compensation
2 Angular compensation
4
3 Apparent pivot point 1 2
for angular compensation 5
4 Gripper support plate
5 Parallel gripper
6 Gripper jaws 6
7 Joining part 7
8 Basic assembly part 3
8
The problem of fitting a pin into a hole is similar to the problem encountered
in feed motions of inserting a workpiece into a clamping device. There is little
fundamental difference between these two operations. We shall consider this
type of operation next.
A gripper and clamped workpiece represent a rigid structure. If this is used to

Compensating for axial feed a clamping device, this may cause overload of the gripper if the clamping
alignment error device is required to close before the gripper is allowed to open. This is shown
in Fig. 6-4, which is based on the assumption that the axes are not perfectly
aligned. This is theoretically always the case.
The gripper and handling device are pressed in the direction of the clamping
axis, which is in effect an overload. There is a brief force-locking connection
between the handling device and the machine to which the workpiece is being
fed. A flexible flange plate on the gripper can help prevent damage
Fig. 6-4:
Situation in which an overload
of the gripper and handling
device can occur if no com-
pensation is provided.
a)
a) Feed to a clamping device
b) Axial correction during
closing of clamping device
b)
Force closure
This problem theoretically also occurs when a gripper picks-up a workpiece

from a pallet under conditions of axial misalignment. As the gripper tightens
on the workpiece, the robot arm is once again pushed out of position and conse-
quently uses the power of its actuators to attempt to regain its programmed
position. This may even lead to damage to the robot drive system. In this case,
too, a slightly flexible flange connection provides a remedy (Fig. 6-5). Moreover,
the value chosen for the clearance of the workpieces in the workpiece carriers
should not be too small in order to allow the workpieces to adapt to the gripper
position.
Fig. 6-5:
Picking-up a workpiece
from a magazine pallet
a) Axial misalignment x
during approach
to position
b) Compensation
during gripping operation
a) b)
The situations here are more than the grippers can cope with. Attention must be
paid to axial misalignment.
What is the answer? There are various possibilities:
• Depending on the type of clamping device (clamping collet, vertical insertion),

it may be possible to work in the sequence “Set down/open jaws/clamp in
machine/retract gripper” or it may be essential to work in the sequence
“Insert workpiece/clamp in machine/open jaws/retract gripper”. The former
case does not present difficulties, since there is no force-locking connection
between the clamping device and gripper.
• There are industrial robots which allow a “soft” switching action within certain
limits. The arm behaves compliantly and the robot does not attempt to
reestablish its old position. This is achieved by means of a larger area of
coincidence for the evaluation of the signals from the positional transducers
of the respective robot axes.
• It is possible to use hand-joint sensors to detect misalignment. The sensor
data is used to derive corrective motions for the robot arm.
• The simplest method is to use compliant intermediate plates (rubber, springs),
which provide adequate compensation at least for minor errors. Even gripper
jaws with compliant faces are often enough.
• It is also possible to arrange for the gripper to open in stages.
In the transitional phase, the gripping force is slightly reduced. Commercially-
available grippers with this type of function operate with spring fingers
(leaf springs) driven by a three-position cylinder.
• Grippers have also been produced with a definite floating mounting for use in
cases where large deviations can be expected between the actual position
and programmed setpoint position, for example when picking cartons from
shelves. Once the workpiece has been gripped and raised, the gripper travels
to the centre of the axis and is locked in this position. This requires a locking
device, which is integrated into the gripper.
• The sequence “Insert workpiece/open jaws/clamp in machine/retract
gripper” can, at least with small workpieces, be achieved by using a pressing
element as shown in Fig. 6-6. This is an additional facility complementing
the gripper function whereby the pressing element is clamped when the work-
piece is picked up. Once the clamping position is reached, the gripper opens.
The pressing element now acts on the workpiece and presses it against
the contact area of the clamping device, into which it is then clamped.
The gripper, having completed its task, is retracted without being subjected
to overload.
It can be seen from the number of remedies available that this is a problem
which needs to be taken seriously.
Fig. 6-6:
Gripper combined
with a pressing element
1 Pressure spring
2 Gripper
1
3 Pressure plate
4 Workpiece 2
5 Gripper jaws
4 5
Fig. 6-7 shows a very simple device which can be used to assist assembly
operations. The gripper is mounted on a cone able to tilt by about 15°. This
makes the gripper flexible in the x, y and z directions in cases where the joining
part misses its destination and rests on the basic assembly part. In these cases,
the cone lifts slightly, creating some “breathing space” in the x-y plane.
The gripper is now able to deflect in the appropri-ate direction. It is, however,
necessary for the mating parts to have guide chamfers.
Fig. 6-7:
Simple joining mechanism
for vertical assembly
1
1 Centring cone
2 Connector plate for gripper 2
3 Gripper
4 Gripper jaw
5 joining part 7
6 Basic assembly part 3
7 Arm of handling device
4
z
5 y
6 x
Grippers are final effectors, which is to say that they are positioned at the end
Protection of a kinematic chain (free-arm robots) and thus have the greatest radius of
against collision action of all the robot components. This in turn means that grippers are subject
to the greatest risk of collision. The more complex and delicate a gripper is,
the greater the chance of damage in the case of a collision. Collision-protection
devices (or shut-off devices) have thus been developed to prevent this. These
devices are fitted between the gripper and robot arm and complement the
gripper control system. The protective devices are triggered when an adjustable
load threshold is exceeded and generate a shut-off signal. In the case of the
device shown in Fig. 6-8, a pneumatically-pressurised chamber is used to keep
the device stiff. In the case of a collision, the cushion of compressed air is
depressurised and the mechanism becomes “soft”, i.e. slightly flexible.
Fig. 6-8:
Collision protection
with adjustable parameters
for a gripper, showing α
reaction capability z
a) Rotational
b) Vertical
c) Horizontal β
F Triggering force
F
z Vertical impact path
α Angle of deflection F
resulting from collision
β Angle of tilt F
a) b) c)
There are also spring-loaded mechanisms in which the gripper disengages under
overload and recoils from an obstacle. These, however, offer little convenience
in the form of adjustment but are very simple in design. The deciding factor is
of course the application in question and the probability that unexpected ob-
stacles will be encountered. This will indicate whether it is necessary to protect
a gripper against collisions. If there are no obstacles anywhere near the gripper,
collision protection will certainly not be required.
Every gripper requires space to operate. The route to the gripping point requires
Gripper working area a gripper working area or feed channel which must be free of obstructions.
The minimum size of this area is governed by the contour of the gripper with
open jaws or with a workpiece if this projects beyond the edges of the gripper.
As the result of this, it may prove better to use a parallel-jaw gripper instead
of an angle gripper. This is illustrated in Fig. 6-9. It has been assumed that the
workpiece to be press-fitted into a basic assembly part needs to be picked up
by a gripper making a positive-locking connection in the insertion direction.
This can, however, also be achieved by using a parallel gripper, with the ad-
vantage that this will permit the storage locations on the magazine pallet to
be positioned more closely together. This increases storage capacity, which is
generally desirable.
Fig. 6-9:
When working with three-
dimensional object configu-
1
rations, consideration must be
given to the clearance contour
of the gripper
a) Radial gripper
b) Parallel gripper
1 Clearance edge
2 Pitch circle of gripper jaws
3 Workpiece
4 Flat pallet 2
5 Open gripper jaws 3 5
x Distance between
storage locations
x x
a) b)
If the gripper is kept as light as possible, this means a higher payload for the
Load-bearing capacity handling device and minimum impairment of dynamic machine characteristics.
and dead weight Fig. 6-10 shows the relationship between the nominal load of the handling
device and the tool load, with grippers often being regarded as tools. The nomi-
nal load specification refers to the interface between the robot arm and the
connector flange of the gripper.
If a handling device is operated with the maximum possible load, speed and
acceleration must be reduced. This may affect one motion axis or several.
The handling cycle will thus become slower. This is not a problem if the process
times are significantly longer than the cycle time for a handling operation.
It is therefore worth considering in appropriate cases whether an increased
handling-device load can be used.
Fig. 6-10:
Specifications of load capacity Nominal load
for industrial robots
Tool load Working load
Additional load
Maximum working load
Maximum load
The performance of a gripper can be expressed by the ratio of gripping force

in newtons to dead weight in grams. The performance index for a gripper with
a mass of 420 g and a gripping force of 300 N would thus be 0.71 newtons
per gram of dead weight. Values of over 1 indicate very good grippers. Most
commercially-available grippers, however, have in-dexes well below 1.
The service life of a gripper is an important selection criterion. Modern grippers

Service life are expected to last for at least 10 million gripping cycles. This is achieved by
using high-quality materials and providing appropriate treatment of the contact
surfaces of active components and precise wear-resistant guides. It must be
ensured that the type and level of load specified for the gripper in question are
not exceeded. Grippers with additional seals must be used if coolant, casting
dust or grinding dust are present.
The excellent flexibility of an industrial robot from both the mechanical and
7 control technology points of view and the speed of a pick-and-place device can
Application areas provide a practical benefit only if the selected gripper meets the requirements of
and gripper types the application in question. The applications of a given gripper are not, however,
subject to any rigid definition – with a little imagination, modifications can
always be found to provide the optimum solution to a gripper application.
The aim of this article is to provide some suggestions for this.
One of the main uses of industrial robots and insertion devices is without doubt
machine-feed and assembly applications. Both these areas may involve require-
ments and customer wishes which go well beyond the “aver-age case”. It may
also be the case that a single gripper module is required to deal with objects of
widely-varying geometry. Each individual gripping task must be thought through
thoroughly before a recommendation is made.
It is almost impossible to specify particular types of grippers for particular

Application areas applications, since virtually every type of gripper can be made suitable for a
of grippers given application by selecting an appropriate size, jaws, peripheral devices,
magazining technique and gripping strategy. Fig. 7-1 nonetheless shows a
rough correlation between object features and gripper types. This correlation
relates to average situations and covers parallel grippers, radial grippers
(jaws opening 90°), angle grippers (opening angle per jaw 18°), 3-point grippers
and suction grippers. There are always wide variations within each gripper
type and special cases, such as combination suction grippers which can lift
sheet-metal workpieces weighing several tonnes. The angle-gripper principle
is used for large forging manipulators with load-bearing capacities of as much
as 250 tonnes.
62 7 Application areas and gripper types

Fig. 7-1:
Approximate correlation Gripper types
between gripped objects
Gripped objects
and gripper types
Mass 0,2 ... 1 kg
Ideal
Suitable
1 ... 10 kg
Suitable in certain cases 10 ... 50 kg —
— Not applicable
> 50 kg —
Dimension 20 ... 50 mm
50 ... 300 mm
300 ... 1000 mm —
> 1000 mm — —
Internal gripping — —
Surface Smooth
Rough —
Porous
Sensitive — —
Round parts Disc —
Short cylinder
Shaft/Rod — — —
Prisms Block —
Flat/short —
Flat/long — — —
Plastics —
Textiles — — — —
Foil — — — —
Glass
Pottery
The process of selecting grippers is often dominated by operating parameters

and special properties. Fig. 7-2, for example, shows a radial gripper whose large
swivel angle allows it to grip flanged sheet-metal workpieces when equipped
with gripper jaws shaped like spot-welding tongs. This is almost impossible to
achieve with other types of grippers.
7 Application areas and gripper types 63

Fig. 7-2:
Radial gripper holding
a sheet-metal workpiece
The size of the workpiece to be handled need not necessarily dictate the size of
the gripper. If, for example, a gripper is required for large integrated circuits (ICs)
with 40 pins, this gripper will almost always need to be capable of executing
a powerful closing motion, since with large IC’s considerable force is required
to bend the numerous “legs”. As Fig. 7-3 shows, the reason for this is that the
gripper must adjust the legs to a precise spacing during its closing motion.
The IC legs are prebent to an angle of approximately 15°, allowing them
to conform to the correct spacing in the gripper.
Fig. 7-3:
ICs have splayed pins which
are aligned to the desired
spacing during the gripper
motion
a) IC with straight legs

b) Pins splayed
out at an angle
c) Gripper jaws
Applications such as the feed of automatic machine tools and the removal of
processed workpieces may require 2 workpieces to be picked up simultaneously.
Special multiple grippers can be designed for this purpose, but it is sometimes
possible to use a slightly modified simple parallel gripper for this purpose. This
is shown in Fig. 7-4. It is, however, then necessary to use suitable gripper jaws
to suit the distance between the workpieces.

Fig. 7-4:
Example of twin-workpiece
gripper as a special use
of a parallel jaw gripper
These examples demonstrate again that it is not possible to achieve a strict

correlation between gripper types and workpiece properties.
There are cases where the clamping point of a machine is not freely accessible
Feed gripper to the gripper due to the fact that passage is obstructed by tools, safety or test
as special solution equipment, etc., leaving only a certain “feed channel”. In cases of this kind, the
clearance contour of the gripper when holding a workpiece is a critical factor in
the selection process. Fig. 7-5 shows a solution in which a workpiece is gripped
parallel to the main axis of a 3-point gripper. The gripper has been fitted for this
purpose with specially adapted gripper jaws. The workpiece should be gripped
close to its centre of gravity to prevent unnecessary moments which would have
the effect of rotating the workpiece out of the jaws.
Fig. 7-5:
Handling lengths of bar
material with a 3-point
gripper
1 open
1 Arm of a handling device
2 Three-finger gripper
3 Gripper jaw
clamped
2

A further gripper application is shown in Fig. 7-6. A rectangular workpiece is to
be placed precisely in a clamping device. This requires the workpiece to be
aligned on two axes. The 2-point gripper is, however, able only to align the work-
piece on the x-axis. The accuracy on the y-axis depends on how accurately the
workpiece is positioned at the pick-up point. If the workpiece has suitable geo-
metrical properties, these can be exploited (Fig. 7-6b) to produce an alignment
effect on the y-axis as well. It is also possible to provide the workpiece with a
suitable geometrical feature just for this purpose. This is a form of automation-
compatible design.
Fig. 7-6:
Gripping a rectangular
workpiece
a) 2-point gripper
b) Exploitation
of geometrical features
c) Corner-to-corner a) b)
clamping y
d) 4-point gripper
x
c) d)
An alignment effect can also be obtained by clamping the workpiece on the

diagonal (Fig. 7-6c). If, however, the design of the clamping device means that
the corners must be left free, a 4-point gripper can be used. A suction gripper
would not be suitable due to the interrupted surface of the workpiece and the
gripper’s less accurate positioning (displacement of soft sealing lips, floating
during pick-up). 4-point grippers are commercially available. It is, however, also
possible to combine 2 parallel-jaw grippers to form a gripper system as shown
in Fig. 7-7. This type of arrangement is also known as a combination gripper.

Fig. 7-7:
A 4-point gripper created by
combining 2-point grippers
Great progress has been achieved in recent years in the automation of assembly
Grippers for assembly work at all technological levels. For example, automatic machines have been
applications developed for the assembly of electronic components which allow cycle times
well below 1 second. This cannot be achieved by industrial robots, but these
play a valuable role in flexible assembly systems for short-run assembly work.
Assembly robots are without doubt an essential element of the “factory of the
future”.
One of the ways of achieving flexibility is to use automatic gripper changing

systems. The idea is to constantly interchange individual specialised grippers as
appropriate to technical requirements. In cases of this kind, an effector is more
than just a gripper and may also include further function groups (Fig. 7-8).

Fig. 7-8:
Gripper module
for flexible assembly
1
1 Industrial robot
connector flange
2 Upper part of Collision
changer system protection
3 Joining part
Uncontrolled joining
mechanism
Gripper with lower

changer system
The changer system provides a mechanical coupling and connections for signal
and power-supply lines, for example for compressed air. Each individual gripper
must be equipped with a lower changer system. Automatic changing (setting
one gripper down and picking up another) takes approx. 5 seconds. The purpose
of the joining mechanism is to provide automatic compensation for axial offset
and small anglar deviations. A collision protecting device can also be valuable,
particularly in cases where it is necessary to protect a complicated and costly
gripper from damage. If the gripper is overloaded, the collision protection device
disengages, triggering an emergency stop of the handling device.
For long-run assembly operations, other gripper systems can be considered,

such as assembly grippers. This term is commonly used to refer to all grippers
in assembly operations but should really only be applied to grippers inside
which an assembly operation can be carried out. These will of course be special
grippers built for a specific purpose or combination grippers. Fig. 7-9 shows an
example of these.

Fig. 7-9:
Assembly gripper
1
1 Hollow piston rod
2 Connecting piece
3 Parallel gripper
4 Short-stroke cyl. 2
5 Suction cup
6 Gripper jaws 3
6
5
The gripper system consists in this case of a suction gripper and parallel-jaw
gripper. These are independent and are activated individually. It is perfectly
possible to produce this combination gripper from standard components.
In accordance with the assembly sequence shown in Fig. 7-10, the joining part
is first picked up by the suction gripper. The basic assembly part is then gripped
by the parallel gripper. The joining process is carried out while the effector
travels to the set-down position. This operation can also be carried out during
set-down, by inserting the joining part into the basic assembly part. This method
can be used, for example, to place lenses in mounts. The advantage is that no
external assembly device is required.
Fig. 7-10:
Sequence for assembly
within a gripper
a) Approach
to pick-up position
b) Gripping the joining part
c) Lifting the joining part
d) Approach to
2nd pick-up position
e) Gripping the basic a) b) c) d)
assembly part
f ) Joining process
g) Module assembled
h) Set-down of
completed module
e) f) g) h)

Grippers are the direct interface between automation devices and the objects
8 to be gripped. The geometry of these objects can vary greatly. Operating con-
Checklist for grippers ditions, too, are certainly not constant and may be far from ideal. This makes it
difficult to select grippers. In individual cases, it may be that no standard gripper
is acceptable, making it necessary to develop a special gripper. The rule there-
fore is – check all the requirements of a given application and consider their
feasibility. The selection of grippers is a matter which needs to be taken very
seriously!
Up to the present time, no uniform guidelines have been developed for the
design and sizing of grippers. If a variety of workpieces need to be handled,
the selection of grippers will be determined chiefly by object and process para-
meters and other parameters under the user's control. There is at the moment
no universal algorithm to determine the structure of gripper systems and the
design of grippers. Programs are, however, avail-able for the calculation of
technical/physical parameters.
The relationships between the major technical/physical factors governing grip-

Many interrelationships per applications are shown in Fig. 8-1. The critical aspect is not steady-state
between factors conditions but the dynamic effects in a moving system. Furthermore, it is not
enough to consider random moments which occur at some point during a hand-
ling operation. Rather, it is important to determine the maximum values which
are encountered at various points in time within a motion sequence. There are
then two possibilities:
• Relaxation of requirements by changing motion and time parameters and/or

• Selection of a gripper on the basis of the maximum parameter values within
the motion sequence.
70 8 Checklist for grippers

Fig. 8-1:
Configuration
Anordnung von
Mutually influential factors Bewegungsrichtung
Direction of motion ofdes Shape
Form and
und number
Anzahl derof
of robotund
Roboter and
and basic variables relating Greifers
gripper zum Greifobjekt
towards object gripper components,
Elemente, Auswahl des
machine
Maschine
to the selection of grippers, choice ofund
Greifers gripper and
der Kine-
from the technical point of kinematics
matik of gripper
der Arbeits-
Position and
view Lage der Teile am Greifzone und Oberfläche
Gripping zone and components
elemente des Greifers
components
Bereitstellplatz an der Griffstelle
surface at gripping point
at pick-up point
cLage der Teile

Position and in
Lage der Objekte
Position of objects
components
der Übernahme-
in transfer device
iminGreifer
gripper
einrichtung
Shape
Form of Grösse
und size
of object to be Berechnung von Kräften
der Greifobjekte Calculation of forces Berechnung der
Calculation of
gripped und Momenten, die
and moments Flächenpressung
contact pressure an
während der Bewegung
which occur during der Griffstelle
at gripping point
Mass and des Teils im Raum
Masse und Eigen- 3D motion of object
properties auftreten
schaften der
of objects
Objekte
Definitionder
Festlegen of drive
Antriebs-
Werkstoff und
Material and parameters
parameter für Greifer-
Oberfläche
surface of des for gripper
antrieb drive
gripping object
Greifobjekts
Bewegungsfolge
Axis motion Bestimmen des
Determination
insequence
den Achsen Berechnung der auf den Greifergetriebes
of gripper gearing
Calculation of forces
Greifer wirkenden
acting on gripper during
Kräfte bei Bewegungen
robot motion
Geschwindigkeit des Roboters
Speed and
und Beschleuni- Kontrollrechnung und
Checking calculation
acceleration of
gung Optimierung der
and optimisation
robotdes
perRobo-
axis
ters je Achse Greiferkonstruktion
of gripper design
Gripper flange
Greiferflansch
and type of Auswahl des
Selection Typs des
of type Design
Konstruktion
und Energieart
power source Greiferantriebs
of gripper drive of gripper connection
Greiferanschluß
Avoid placing unnecessarily high requirements on the gripper technology,

since this will increase purchase and operating costs. Rather than have a robot
continually returning to a waiting position, it is better to reduce its speed
slightly.
With complicated workpiece shapes, the procedure must start somewhat earlier
with a search for suitable gripping surfaces on the object. This process is shown
in Fig. 8-2. We must be aware that any change in grip-ping points will have
effects on the dynamic behaviour of the gripper and must be recalculated for
a given gripper. If a workpiece has recesses or shoulders which can be used to
create a positive-locking connection with the gripper, these should be used.
This will allow the gripping force to be reduced.
8 Checklist for grippers 71

Fig. 8-2:
Generation of characteristic
gripper data, starting with
the gripper location Determination
Greifzoneof
gripping zone
ermitteln
Finding a gripping
Griff-Fläche
surfacesuchen
on the object
Calculation
Berechnung:of
--Force
Kraft Provisional
vorläufiger
--Moment
Moment location of gripper
Greifort
--Moment of inertia
Trägheitsmoment
Study of gripper und

Greifervarianten
Oberflächen- Überprüfen
Checking of der
Surface properties variants and
Feststellung der
beschaffenheit Greiferdaten
gripper data suitability of these
Eignung
Abmessungen
Estimation of von Verschieben
Relocation of der
Werkstückabsätzen
workpiece dimensions gripper plane
Greifebene
Dokumentieren
Documentation
der
Ergebnisse
of results
A number of attempts are being made to produce programs which will allow
the automatic planning of handling systems, including grippers. The procedure
used here, too, is to identify all possible gripping surface pairs on the object to
be manipulated (relating to two-jaw grippers, i.e. parallel surfaces). The contact-
free regions (gripping zone) are then defined. We then determine all the grippers
able to work within the defined gripping zones. There must be adequate coinci-
dence between the object gripping surfaces and gripper surfaces (gripper jaws).
The decision as to whether a gripper is able to grip a workpiece by the pair of
gripping surfaces selected is then taken in a process which takes into account
various physical and other parameters. Once all possible types of grippers have
been identified, an optimisation process is started to identify the best gripper
(type and variant).
The most practical method would of course be a comprehensive simulation

system in which a gripper could execute all the required motion sequences on
the computer screen in the form of an animation. This would allow continuous
output of all major parameters, with automatic signalling whenever limit values
were exceeded. It would also allow cases to be identified in which even slight
changes in speed or acceleration would offer an advantage.

The first step towards finding the right gripper is to undertake a comprehensive
Step-by-step gripper description of the task for which the gripper is to be used. This will often involve
selection the combination of several components in an assembly station and will require
severval grippers. The question then is whether to use a gripper changer system
or not. Gripper systems which can be matched to individual assembly operations
make cycle times shorter and thus result in faster flexible assembly systems.
The time required for gripper changing must, however, be short, and only an
automatic changer system can ensure this. The determining variables are the
range of workpiece variants and the batch sizes involved. As a rule of thumb,
automatic gripper changer systems will be economically viable if the number
of geometrically different component variants per batch is 5 or more or the
production time per batch is up to 2 hours.
The flow chart shown in Fig. 8-3 can be used to select an individual gripper.
Each activity can be correlated to typical questions. These can help in a
discussion with users to arrive at a binding list of technical characteristics.
Intuitive selection of a gripper on the basis of gripping force alone, as is
still done in many cases today, can easily lead to error and should be avoided
at all costs.

Fig. 8-3:
Start
Start Preguntas
Typische
The main steps
in the selection of grippers típicas
Fragen
Abklärung aller
Determination of Bedingungen (Masse,
all conditions (mass, Größe,
size, Form)
shape) am Greifobjekt,
applying to the
der Bewegungssequenz
gripped und einschränkender
object,the motion sequence Randbedingungen
and any limiting factors 1 to 5 5
1 bis
originating in the process or its environment
von Prozeß und Umgebung
Definition of gripper
Festlegung principle:
des Single, Einzel-,
Greifprinzips: multible Mehrfachgreifer,
or special grippers,
6 6tobis
12 12
holding system, kinematics
Sondergreifer, or force fields
Haltesystem, Kinematik bzw. Kraftfelder
Determination of necessary forces,

Ermitteln der notwendigen forces occuring
und auftretenden and sowie
Kräfte loads der dabei
1313tobis
16 16
to which workpiece is subjectzu ertragenden Belastungen
vom Werkstück
no
nein Can the load
Kann beBelastungssituation
die successfully handled in
in jeder
every
17
17tobis
21 21
direction of motion?
Bewegungsrichtung beherrscht werden ?
ja
yes
ListZusammenstellung sonstiger wichtiger

of other important requirements, such asAnforderungen
accuracy, wie z.B.
Genauigkeit,
connection conditions,Anschlußbedingungen, Überlastschutz,
overload protection, deviation of gripping 22
22tobis
2626
Greifpunktverlagerungen
points and monitoring devices und Kontrollen
DesignGestaltung
of gripper jaws, sensor equipment,
der Greiferbacken, media Ausstattung,
sensorische 27
27tobis
32 32
throughfeeds and mounting
Medienführung und Befestigung
no
nein Does the concept
Entspricht das conform
Konzepttoden
theAnforderungen
requirements
as expressed in theAufgabenstellung
problem description? 33tobis
33 3535
gemäß ?
ja
yes
Evaluation and selection of gripper model
Bewertung und Typauswahl (monetär sowie nichtmonetär) 36
36tobis
3939
(financial and nonfinancial factors)
Outsourcing,
Realisierungspecial
durchexternal
Zukauf,manufacture or in-house
Fremdvergabe oder Eigenbau 40 40
Stop
Stopp
Let us now consider the questions:
1. Are the object properties, especially mass, size, fragility and surface quality,
sufficiently well known or are further tests required?
2. Is there good access to the gripped object (gripper freedom “feed channel”)?
3. Has the gripper application (handling cycle) been defined in a detailed
and binding way or are changes likely?
4. Is a single gripper required to handle both blanks and ready-machined
workpieces (radical changes in shape during working cycle)?
5. Are all working conditions known (pressure, temperature, object condition,
cycle time, dust generation, oil mist, humidity, coefficient of friction,
mass, etc)?

6. Can the object be held by a force-locking connection, or is positive locking
or a combination of the two methods also possible?
7. What principle is to be used, clamping or adhesion
(fluidic, magnetic, frictional)?
8. Are the object gripping surfaces (and forbidden zones) specified
or can they still be changed?
9. Is the workpiece being gripped at its centre of gravity to avoid moments?
10. Would a gripper changer system or turret gripper be worthwhile
for the handling of several different workpieces?
11. Is a positive-locking connection provided in the direction
of highest acceleration?
12. Is the workpiece position at the pick-up point in the magazine the same
as at the machining point?
13. Is it necessary also to make allowance for process forces,
such as occur during assembly operations, etc.?
14. Are high-friction or patterned gripper jaws advisable?
15. Are the grippers and the motion devices to which they are connected
dimensioned for peak forces and moment (e.g. in an emergency stop
situation)?
16. Can the workpiece withstand the intended contact pressure or must larger
or additional contact areas be provided?
17. Is it possible to dangerous situations (uncontrolled release of workpiece)
to result from a high-speed emergency stop)?
18. Has a sufficient safety factor been incorporated into the calculated gripping
force required?
19. Must the gripping force be precisely limited to prevent damage
to the workpiece?
20. Is a device required in order to maintain gripping force
(double non-return valve)?
21. Is it advisable to fit a collision- and overload-protection unit?
22. Is the achievable accuracy sufficient in order to provide a reliable solution
for the task in question?
23. Can the clearance contour of the gripper when open (or closed
with a workpiece) cause a risk of collision in the gripper's environment?
24. What kind of centring effect (during pick-up and alignment) is the gripper
expected to provide?
25. What triggering method (e.g. directional control valve combination)
should be recommended to users of pneumatic grippers?
26. Is the gripper control system required to be event-triggered
(by the presence of the object to be gripped)?
27. Are the gripper fingers (lever arms) as short as possible?
28. Is it necessary to monitor the finger positions (open, closed) with sensors?
29. Particularly in the case of assembly operations, is it advisable to provide
assembly mechanisms and/or force sensors?
30. Are several sets of gripper jaws (with facility for quick changing)
to be provided?

31. Are adapter plates required for the mechanical connection of the gripper,
and are these commercially-available designs?
32. Are the gripper jaws required to compensate for parallelism errors
at the gripping surfaces of the object?
33. Is the achievable time sequence (for pick-up, transportation and release)
acceptable?
34. Will the gripper provide the expected service life under the operating
conditions in question?
35. Are all operating values for the gripper within permissible limits?
36. Will a standard gripper, possibly with special jaws, be suitable,
or will a special solution be required?
37. Are the conditions of supply and guarantee as expected?
38. Do auxiliary devices (pressure devices, gripper magazine) need to be
considered?
39. What level of cleaning, servicing and maintenance will be required?
40. Has a satisfactory gripper been found or should the problem be referred
to a gripper specialist?
The Festo gripper selection tool (GST) can be used to make a selection on the
basis of technical/physical parameters.
The input parameters are as follows:
• Distance between centre of gravity of object and gripper

• Mass of object and fingers
• Mass moment of inertia of gripper finger and distance to centre of gravity
• Gripping motion type (internal, external)
• Direction of acceleration and maximum acceleration value
• Coefficient of friction between finger and object
• Operating pressure in compressed air supply network
• Safety factor
• Eccentricity of centre of gravity of object.
The result of this is a recommended gripper size, with an indication of the

degree of utilisation of maximum capacity in percent. This provides a starting
point for optimisation. It is possible, for example, to move to the next smallest
size of gripper by lengthening the closing times (if the process permits this)
if this is the only parameter which exceeds the permissible limit. An additional
program is available for the determination of mass moments of inertia.
Programs of this kind do not of course provide all the answers but they relieve
users of time-consuming calculations and provide more time for an examination
of all the other parameters. Technical/physical parameters governing fit and
clearances have first priority in nay case in the gripper selection process.

In the Middle Ages, vacuum was very much an unknown quantity. It was not
9 until Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg conducted his famous experiment with
Suction grippers – hemispheres and teams of horses that a first insight was gained into this stran-
abhorred by nature ge empty state which nature was said to abhor. People were, however, aware of
such things as the 45-centimetre scars seen on the skin of whales, caused by
the suction cups of giant octopuses. These cups can be 10 to 15 centimetres in
diameter and are located on the octopuses' tentacles, which are up to 15 metres
long. Today, suction cups are in widespread use in industry as an inexpensive
and simple automation tool. This is the first of three articles dealing with these
devices.
Vacuum technology operates with a flowing compressible medium – air. Vacuum

Air as a medium is said to be present in a space in which the air is diluted, resulting in a pressure
significantly lower than the surrounding (atmospheric) pressure. This principle,
applied to suction cups, means that there is a pressure difference between the
interior of the suction cups and the surrounding air. Atmospheric pressure
presses the lips of a suction cups against a workpiece. The suction cup is thus
a means to create the boundary of a pressure zone. Fluctuations in atmospheric
pressure mean variations in holding force. For every 100 metres increase in
altitude above sea level, atmospheric pressure falls by 12.5 mbar. This pressure
is 1013 mbar at sea level, falling to 763 mbar at an altitude of 2,000 metres
above sea level.
Suction cups are a popular and simple solution for repetitive gripping appli-
cations of the “pick up, move, set down” type, provided that the workpieces in
question have flat non-porous surfaces. A further advantage is that suction cups
can be used with non-magnetic materials such as glass, ceramics and wood.
We can make a general distinction between 2 types of suction-cup applications:
• Large suction area and small pressure difference

The advantage here is that the holding force can be built up quickly and that
there is little deformation of soft flexible workpieces. In the case of slightly
porous materials, air is not drawn through these.
• Small suction area and large pressure difference

This means high gripping forces as the suction cups used become smaller.
This allows the clearance radius of manipulators to be made smaller, which is
often a decisive factor when space is limited.
Fig. 9-1 shows the most important functions of a suction cup. Not all these
functions will be used in every application.
9 Suction grippers – abhorred by nature 77

Fig. 9-1:
The most important functions
and properties in relation to 1
suction grippers
2
1 Vacuum line
2 Pressure switch
3
3 Angular freedom
4 Quick exhaust
5 Vertical freedom
6 Quick interchangeability 4
7 Generation of holding force
8 Workpiece contact sensor 5
Suction cups are suitable for a large number of handling operations, such as
sorting, feeding, clamping, turning and stacking, and are used as grippers with
lifting devices, balancers, feed devices, stacking systems, packing machines and
production lines. Suction cups are particularly convenient when workpieces have
the following features:
• Awkward dimensions
• Susceptible to deformation
• Non-magnetic
• Surfaces sensitive to scratching (ground, polished, painted)
• Undulating but non-porous surfaces.
78 9 Suction grippers – abhorred by nature

The purpose of this is to define the vacuum in the suction chamber and the size
Sizing suction cups of the suction area in such a way that these compensate reliably for all the
forces occurring during manipulation operations. In the case of slow motions,
such as the movement of suction-held workpieces on a balancer, it is sufficient
to consider static forces. With high-speed motions, dynamic forces must also be
considered. Fig. 9-2 illustrates the relevant force conditions. The following
applies as a general principle:
1
F = (po – pu) · A · n3 · η · z ·
S
The terms used in the above are as follows:
A = Theoretical area of suction cup.

F = Working load; weight force of gripper object;
total load acting on suction bond.
n3 = Coefficient of deformation. Very soft lips (bell-shaped suction cups)
deform strongly as vacuum builds up, which may reduce the effective
suction area.
n3 = 0.9 to 0.6.
po = Atmospheric pressure; dependent on altitude above sea level.
pu = Pressure in seal suction chamber.
S = Safety factor to guard against detachment of workpiece.
A state of equilibrium alone is not sufficient – the gripped object
must be pressed against the suction cup with a certain force.
S = 2 to 3.
z = Number of suction cups.
η = Efficiency of system, including leakage allowance.
Fig. 9-2:
Force conditions with
vertically-moving suction cup FS
pu
po
F
With high-speed motions, allowance must also be made for forces resulting from
weight, mass moment of inertia and centrifugal force. This results in different
lines of action for the overall force. Furthermore, the centre of gravity of the
gripped object may not coincide with the centre of the suction cup. Fig. 9-3
shows the resulting typical load cases and the calculation of the required
suction cup force FS.

The force F is always the force resulting from all static and dynamic effects,
including allowance for superimposed motions.
Fig. 9-3:
Typical force situations 1 v FS Fs ≥ n1 · F
at suction cup
F Sum of all forces producing detachment and shift
FS Force produced by vacuum
S
n1 Safety coefficient against shift
F
2 v FS
Fs ≥ F(n1 · cosα + n2/µ · sinα)
µ
Fs ≥ n1 · Fz + n2/µ · Fx
FX
n2 Coefficient of protection against shift
S α µ Coefficient of friction (suction cup/workpiece)
FZ F
3 FS Fs ≥ n1 · k1 · F
v
k1 = 1 + r/R
S k1 Coefficient of eccentricity of line of force action
r Distance between force action and suction-cup axis
r R
F R External radius of suction cup
4 v FS
Fs ≥ n1 · k1 · Fz + n2/µ · Fx or
µ Fs ≥ F(n1 · k1 · cosα + n2/µ · sinα)
S
FX α Angle between force action and vertical
r
α S Centre of gravity of gripped object
FZ F
5 FS
Fs ≥ n1 · k1 · Fz + n2/µ · k2 · Fx or
µ
Fy Fs ≥ F(n1 · k1 · cosα + n2/µ · k2 ·sinα)
S
k2 = 1 + r/R + Fz/Fy · µ
R α F
r k2 Coefficient of eccentricity of line of force action
FZ
6 v
Fs ≥ n2 · F/µ
FS S Special case of (2) with α = 90°

With a horizontal suction-cup axis, the holding force
remains less than 50% of the value for a vertical axis
µ F

In cases of lateral motion and where the suction surface is positioned vertically,
we must consider a further variable – the coefficient of friction µ. This can be
taken as µ = 0.5 for clean dry glass, stone and plastic, falling to µ = 0.1 to 0.4
with damp and oily surfaces. Other sources quote the following guide values:
Type Type of surface Coefficient of friction

of suction cup with peak-to-valley height
Ra = 0.05 µm Ra = 1.5 µm
Rigid Oil-free 0.85 —

Slightly Oil-free 0.45 0.65
deformable
Rigid/slightly Lubricated with 0.15 0.35
deformable drilling emulsion
Rigid Lubricated with coolant 0.05 0.25
Slightly Lubricated with coolant 0.025 0.15
deformable
Notwithstanding this, exercise caution; the coefficient of friction can fluctuate

widely, like a person’s blood pressure.
In the case of oiled or greased sheet metal, which often requires handling during
shaping processes, problems may be encountered due to the fact that the speci-
fied coefficient of friction between the steel and rubber no longer applies. The
coefficient will be considerably lower, since in most cases the lips of the suction
cup will not penetrate the oil film. In situations of this kind, it is the law of fluid
friction which applies and not Coulomb’s law of friction. Tests should always be
made in cases of this kind before a suction cup is selected.
To select a suction cup, proceed as follows:

1. Identify all the external forces acting on the suction cup.
These will include weight, inertia and centrifugal forces. Examples, assistance
and notes on this calculation can be found in [1] to [3].
2. Determine the suction force FS, to be generated by vacuum in accordance with
the force situation shown in Fig. 9-3. The load may vary during the handling
sequence, e.g. if the attitude of the suction surface changes from horizontal
to vertical. Calculation should always be carried out on the basis of the worst
load case.
3. Choose a vacuum operating pressure as appropriate to the vacuum generator.
Always try to choose an economic pressure. It is possible, for example, by
increasing the vacuum from pu = – 0.6 bar to pu = – 0.9 to boost force by a
factor of 1.5, but energy consumption will rise by a factor of 10. A vacuum
of pu = – 0.7 bar will generally be used.
4. Calculate the suction cup size from the required suction area.
If a standard suction cup smaller than the necessary size has been chosen,
calculate the number of cups required. Distribution of the holding force
among several suction cups makes a handling system more reliable.

5. Define the suction time (evacuation time).
This is calculated from the volume to be evacuated (suction cups, lines)
and the performance curve for the vacuum generators, or in other words
the volume to be evacuated divided by the evacuation flow rate per unit time.
Suction cups used in handling systems operate with rough vacuum, which
How can the necessary ranges from 105 to 102 Pa. Other ranges include fine, high and ultra-high
vacuum be achieved? vacuum. 70% vacuum is the value generally used with suction cups. This means
0.7 bar vacuum or 0.3 bar absolute pressure.
We will present 4 types of vacuum generation in this article (Fig. 9-4).

These are:
• Vacuum pumps and blowers
• Vacuum generators operating on the venturi principle (ejectors)
• Adhesive suction cups
• Pneumatic cylinders.
Fig. 9-4:
Methods of producing
a vacuum
a) Rotary pump or other

type of pump
b) Vacuum generator
c) Adhesive suction cup
d) Piston suction system a) b)
c) d)
The use of vacuum pumps has the following advantages:

• Higher vacuum is possible
• Low operating costs
• Low noise level.
The disadvantages are the higher purchase cost and the cost of further
accessories, such as air reservoirs. Some companies, for example light-bulb
manufacturers, use not only a central compressed-air supply but also a central
vacuum supply. In these cases, decentral vacuum generators are not required.

Vacuum blowers produce only a relatively low vacuum, as can be seen from the
comparison in Fig. 9-5. They do, however, have a large suction capacity, making
them useful in cases where it is necessary to compensate for the porosity of
workpieces.
Fig. 9-5:
Comparison of performance
-0,9
of typical vacuum generators
-0,8
-0,7 Vacuum pump

Vakuumpumpe
-0,6
in barin bar
-0,5 Ejector
Ejektor
Vacuum
-0,4
Vakuum
-0,3
-0,2 Vacuum blower

Vakuumgebäse
-0,1
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Suction capacity
Saugvermögen in l/min in l/min
Venturi-type vacuum generators have the following advantages:
• Very simple design, with no moving parts and low purchase cost
• No additional equipment required; fast response time
• Extremely reliable.
The disadvantages are the higher operating cost resulting from the consumption
of compressed air and the need for silencers. These vacuum generators must
be sized for peak load, since no reservoir is used. Suction air is generated in
the ejector as compressed air passes through the restricted cross-section at the
drive nozzle. This restriction produces an increase in flow velocity. Following this,
the air expands and exits via the receiver nozzle. If the exhaust-air duct is shut
off (Fig. 9-6b), an ejector pulse effect is produced.
The venture principle is named after Giovanni Battista Venturi (1746 to 1822), an
Italian physicist. Venturi's main work was concerned with hydrodynamics and
hydraulics and he invented the nozzle with flow restrictor which bears his name
today. This nozzle is also used as a measuring nozzle to determine flow rate in
accordance with the Bernoulli formula.

Fig. 9-6:
Mode of operation of venturi
nozzle, with shut-off valve to 2 3
1
produce ejector effect
a) Suction 4
b) Ejection
5
1 Shut-off valve
2 Receiver nozzle 6
3 Driver nozzle
4 Compressed air supply
5 Suction cup a) b)
6 Workpiece
Ejectors can be multi-stage and can be operated in parallel. In comparison with a

single-stage ejector, a multi-stage (multi-chamber) ejector is a series connection
of several vacuum generators (Fig. 9-7). Series circuits permit the rapid suction
of large quantities of air (shorter evacuation times). The advantage of this
arrangement is thus the high suction capacity.
Fig. 9-7:
Vacuum generators
in a series circuit
p Pressure p
V Vacuum
Adhesive suction cups are merely pressed onto the workpiece to force out the
air they contain; a vacuum is then created by the resilience of the suction cup
material or by weight forces. It is virtually impossible to compensate for leakage
losses. The suction surfaces must be smooth and non-porous.
Piston suction systems are occasionally used with automatic assembly

machines. These systems produce vacuum and an ejector pulse in the same line
in alternation in synchronisation with the machine cycle. The piston stroke and
timing are stored in the form of a control cam.
It is even possible to generate vacuum using a solenoid, as with the patented

suction cup shown in Fig. 9-8. As the solenoid picks up, the volume of the
chamber below the suction cup increases, creating a vacuum which holds the
workpiece in place.

Fig. 9-8:
Solenoid-actuated suction cup
In order to make a suction cup work, it is necessary to connect up a number of

Vacuum circuits other components. Fig. 9-9 shows a typical circuit based on an ejector. A vacuum
switch is used to monitor the vacuum and detect whether the necessary vacuum
has been reached after the start of suction. Only then does the handling device
continue its motion sequence. Pressure data can also be used for “vacuum
management”, i.e. to switch off the vacuum generator for short period to save
energy. Vacuum switches are also used to generate an alarm in the case of an
undesired pressure drop, for example in the case of balancers and small hoists
where operators are working in the vicinity of the load.
Fig. 9-9:
Example of a vacuum circuit
based on an ejector 1 2 3 4
1 Directional control valve

for compressed air supply
2 Ejector
3 DCV to control exhaust air
(switchover to ejection) p
4 Silencer
5 Filter
6 Pressure switch for vacuum
7 Suction cup 5 8
8 Distributor
6 7
The line diameter in the vacuum circuit should not be undersized, since this will
increase flow resistance, but should not be oversized that suction times become
too long. We see in nature that trees need to feed vital liquids to the very last
leaf tip, which has resulted in the evolution of appro-priate distribution systems.

A similar task faces technicians who need to size the lines of a suction system.
They must consider the flow resistance in the tubing of the system. If we
imagine a tree fitted with suction cups, as shown in Fig. 9-10, we must size the
tubing in accordance with the factors shown. Each further branch should be
made smaller by a factor of 1.42.
Fig. 9-10:
Correct choice of tubing
diameter is important in the
distribution of suction air 1
1 Suction cup
0,35.D
2 Line
D Tubing diameter 0,5.D

2
0,71.D
[1] Automatisieren mit Vakuum (“Automation With Vacuum”; 4th edition),

Publications published by FESTO Pneumatic Esslingen
[2] Greifer für die Handhabungstechnik (“Grippers For Handling Systems”;
brochure) by FESTO Pneumatic Esslingen 1996
[3] Vakuum-Greifer und -Saugdüsen einfach und schnell auswählen
(“Fast And Easy Selection Of Vacuum Grippers And Generators”; slide rule),
produced by FESTO Pneumatic Esslingen

Suction cups are the active components which create the contact between a
10 handling device and the workpiece to be handled. There are many different
Suction cups workpieces and gripping applications, and an equally diverse range of suction-
for every application cup variants, with differences of size, material, geometry, Shore hardness and
design. We will investigate some of these variants in the following.
Familiar suction-cup materials include perbunan (buna-N), silicone, polyrethane

Large number of and neoprene. Natural rubber is also used. In certain applications, there may be
application parameters a requirement for suction cups which do not mark workpieces, for example for
use with polished plate glass or polished metal workpieces. One method is to
use textile hoods under the suction cups or textile laminates. There are also
fluorine rubber suction cups which are non-marking. Shore hardness values (in
accordance with DIN 535051) lie in the range of 30° to 90°. The choice of suction
cups is greatly influenced by the intended application and the associated loads
presented by the workpiece and environment. Particularly important are pro-
perties such as resistance to abrasion, oil resistance (chemical resistance),
suitability for use with food and short- or long-term temperature resistance.
With standard quality rubber, elementary sulphur is often used in conjunction
with vulcanisation accelerators. It is possible for some free sulphur to remain
which then reacts with the workpiece. Only sulphur-free elastomers should
therefore be used to handle metals.
Workpiece temperature in general can vary between – 50 and 250° C. Anything

over 70° C can be regarded as a special case and will usually require special
materials. At temperatures below zero, the hardness of suction cups may in-
crease, making the cups virtually rigid and preventing adequate adaptation to
the surface of the workpiece.
The elasticity of suction cups means that handling applications in general cannot
achieve positioning accuracies of better than ±1.0 mm. Additional technical
measures are therefore required if the positioning error is to be reduced further.
Normal suction-cup diameters range from 1 to 630 mm (flat suction cups).
10 Suction cups for every application 87

If we could bring the suction cups available from every manufacturer together
Suction-cup shapes in one place, we would have a collection as garish as any eastern bazaar.
and designs Let us, however, first consider the different shapes and designs of suction cups.
As shown in Fig. 10-1, these are as follows:
• Bellows suction cups

Suitable for slightly curved, inclined, easily deformable and uneven surfaces.
Provides a slight lifting motion; compensates for height differences; can have
up to 6.5 pleats. Small diameters of this type are Suitable for thin materials.
Bellows suction cups with a large number of pleats are sometimes fitted with
an internal or external support spring to provide additional rigidity.
• Flat suction cups

In general terms universal suction cups, Suitable for non-porous flat and
slightly curved surfaces; able to transmit high vertical forces.
• Deep suction cups

Good adaptation to round surfaces (Fig. 10-5) and profile sections.
Should not be used for flat surfaces, since rigidity is low and wear is rapid.
• Ribbed suction cups

Suitable for flat and unstable surfaces. The ribs across the mouth of the cups
prevent thin materials from being drawn into the cups and make these more
resistant to lateral deformation. This type of suction cup is also useful for
use with vertical surfaces, since the ribs provide increased friction when the
workpiece is in contact with these after being picked up. Since the lips of
the suction cups do not flex very much, virtually 100% of the effective suction
area is maintained. The more rigid design means on the one hand that suction
cups can be produced in larger sizes without a support plate but on the other
means that the suction cups cannot grip objects with any pronounced curve.
• Suction cups with cellular rubber seal

These provide a good seal with uneven and heavily-textured surfaces, such as
corrugated sheet metal, textured glass, concrete slabs, fireproof bricks, etc.
Not good for applications with vertical workpieces.
• Oval suction cups

Good for long, narrow or slightly-curved workpieces. Can be used for
“spiders” (large grippers with a large number of suction cups spread over
their area) in the automobile industry; typical features are metal baseplates
and narrow flexible sealing lips.
88 10 Suction cups for every application

• Double-lip suction cups
A seal is provided by a combination of a sealing lip and sealing ring. This gives
great elasticity. When operated at close to maximum load, these suction cups
may alternate in a relatively uncontrolled way between their inner and outer
sealing lips.
• Self-adhering suction cups

These are not connected to an external vacuum source. A vacuum is created
by the suction cup itself as it presses against a workpiece. There is no com-
pensation for leakage losses. A hand-lever valve is used to break the vacuum.
As the cup is pressed against a workpiece, its volume is reduced, causing air
to be displaced. As the cup springs back into shape, a vacuum is created
under the suction cup. The level of this vacuum is, however, hard to define,
since the deformation force can vary widely.
• Lifting suction cups

Combination of a piston system and a suction cup. Once a workpiece has
adhered to the suction cup, it rises away from the workpiece stack. A lifting
suction cup can therefore make a separate lifting axis unnecessary. Strokes of
up to 50 mm are normally available. This type of suction cup is used to handle
cut cardboard, paper, foil pieces, thin sheet metal, packaging items, etc.
Fig. 10-1:
A small selection of the major
types of suction cup
1 Bellows suction cup

2 Flat suction cup 1 2 3 4
3 Deep suction cup
4 Ribbed suction cup
5 Profile suction cup
6 Suction cup with cellular
rubber seal
7 Lifting suction cup
8 Oval suction cup
with metal plate 5 6 7 8
9 Double suction cup
10 Double-lip suction cup
11 Self-adhering suction cup
9 10 11

Fig. 10-2 shows the results of a comparative study [1] of flat suction cups
without metal reinforcement (A), flat suction cups with metal plates and small
flexible sealing lips at the extreme edges (B), double-lip suction cups (C) and
bellows suction cups (D). The aim was to find the maximum trans-mittable
vertical and horizontal forces, the flexible vertical stroke produced by a
vertical force and the residual volumetric flow rate between the suction cup
and the workpiece. These involve relationships, in certain cases very complex
relationships, between the shape and material of the suction cup and the
surface properties of the workpiece.
Despite its relatively simple design, type A exhibits good results for all criteria.
Its comparatively large flexibility in the vertical direction as the vertical force
increases, makes it suitable for use in all but a few applications. Type B allows
very high vertical forces, since the vacuum chamber stays in shape even under
high vacuum thanks to spacers and the small narrow sealing lips. In the case of
type C, the double seal results in a very low residual volumetric flow rate. The
complex seal system, however, takes up more space, thus reducing the effective
diameter of the suction cup. Type D is characterised by the low maximum
vertical forces which it can transmit, its lack of geometrical stability under the
action of lateral forces, and its very large elastic vertical stroke. This rules this
type out for a variety of handling applications.
Fig. 10-2:
Evaluation of various Criteria Transmittable Transmittable Flexible Residual
types of suction cups vertical horizontal vertical volumetric
force force stroke flow rate
Design
Very good
Ideal A
Suitable
Suitable in certain cases
— Not applicable
— —

The ideal workpiece surface for suction cups is one which is perfectly flat and in
Freedom of movement particular non-porous. In many cases, however, workpiece surfaces are not flat,
of suction cups which means that suction cups must be compliant or adjustable on their vertical
axis and in their angular attitude. There are various ways of achieving this
(Fig. 10-3). In the simplest cases, bellows suction cups can be used. They offer
a certain degree of angular compliance. Multi-axis freedom of movement is
required mainly in cases involving large irregularly-shaped workpieces, such
as are typically encountered in the automobile industry.
Fig. 10-3:
Freedom of movement
of suction cups
1 Bellows suction cup

2 Spring-loaded flat
suction cup
3 Angle adaptability
provided by
ball-and-socket head 1 2 3
4 Longitudinal freedom
of movement through
suction cup's own mass
5 Fixed angle setting
6 Longitudinal and angular
freedom of movement
through double joint
and longitudinal guide
4 5 6
Spring-loaded suction cups can also cushion the impact of workpiece contact
and compensate for height differences. The spring tension also offers the
advantage that the suction cup comes into contact with the workpiece before
the handling device stops. This reduces the time taken to build up the required
vacuum in the end position.

Ball-and-socket brackets also reduce the bending forces which occur during
the handling of movable objects. Another method which has been suggested of
achieving flexibility is a matrix of individual suction cups which are able to
execute a large vertical motion (Fig. 10-4). The suction cups can then adapt to
a given surface as they are lowered onto an indi-vidual workpiece or a pile of
workpieces. When in position, all the rods are clamped into place, allowing the
handling device to store the workpiece shape temporarily and lift a layer of
individual workpieces.
Fig. 10-4:
Suction-cup array fitted to
rods allowing longitudinal
movement and used to pick up
workpieces of constantly
varying contours [2]
Let us at this point once again mention deep suction cups (bell-shaped), which
have the adaptability to handle concave and convex workpieces very well, as
shown in Fig. 10-5.
Fig. 10-5:
Deep suction cups can adapt
well to curved surfaces
a) Gripping a convex body

b) Gripping on a concave
surface
a) b)

A special type of vacuum gripper is shown in Fig. 10-6 which in a way combines
a bellows with the sleeve principle of a rolling diaphragm, resulting in a very
large freedom of movement. This is intended for use with objects whose geo-
metry, position and orientation vary continually within certain limits. Suction
cups with numerous pleats are often used in the food industry.
Fig. 10-6:
Vacuum gripper with very
large freedom of movement
of suction components
1 Suction cup
2 Workpiece
3 Magazine plate
Non-rigid sheet workpieces have always been considered difficult to handle.

“Normal” grippers are defeated by foils, due to the “choking” effect which
occurs. Fig. 10-7 shows this. The foil material is drawn into the suction cup and
finally lies directly over the suction hole. This means that the gripped area is
very small. The workpiece cannot be held and falls away from the suction cup.
Fig. 10-7:
Standard suction cups are not
very suitable for use with thin 1
foil material
3 4

The answer is to use numerous individual suction cups, each operating at a low
vacuum. Even better are low-pressure grippers whose active surface consists of
porous material which can let air through. Special plates are also available with
a large number of fine suction holes. Components of this kind can be combined
to form large units, as shown in Fig. 10-8. One disadvantage of course is that the
gripper is awkward due to its size.
Fig. 10-8:
Low-pressure gripper
equipped with porous plastic
or perforated plates
Particularly with soft-lipped and bellows suction cups, it is often necessary to

Ensuring a correct take measures to ensure a correct gripping position. These measures can be as
gripping position follows:
• Precise alignment and stopping of workpiece while contact is established by

the gripper. The aim of this is to prevent slippage during pick-up.
• Fitting of internal positioning devices
• Attachment of external positioning aids (Fig. 10-9).
We accordingly use centring aids, insertion guides and support stops. In the
case of electronic components for fitting to PCBs, which require gripping from
above, it can improve accuracy to grip the components a second time after they
have been aligned mechanically.

Fig. 10-9:
Positioning aids and stops for
use with vacuum grippers
a) Fine positioning 1
during gripper contact v
2 6
b) Stop to reduce displace
ment during lateral motion 3 4 5
c) Alignment by spring- 7
loaded stops before
gripper contact a) b)
1 Centring mandrel
2 Spring 8
3 Suction cup
4 Workpiece
10
5 Magazine feed
6 Arm
11
7 Support 9
8 Vacuum connection
9 Roller conveyor
10 Tapered guide
11 Spring-loaded c)
guide wedge
The needless discharge of suction air means a waste of energy and usually also
Workpiece-controlled indicates a gripper malfunction. Attempts are therefore made to equip suction
activation of suction air cups in such a way that they activate vacuum generation only when they reach
the workpiece surface. There is a further problem: When several suction cups
are used in an array, it may occur that not all the suction cups are covered by
the workpiece, for example during the handling of packages of varying sizes in
positions which are not always precisely defined. Any suction cups which remain
uncovered must be deactivated in order to prevent the vacuum from collapsing.
The basic concept is illustrated in Fig. 10-10.
Fig. 10-10:
Automatic deactivation
of uncovered suction cups
1
1 Vacuum 2
2 Basic body
3
3 Airborne ball bearing
4 Suction cup 4
5 Workpiece
5

The flow of incoming air closes the uncovered suction cup. Flow-activated valves,
triggered by flow losses, can also be used with permeable surfaces such as
perforated plates to deactivate any uncovered suction device. Valves of this kind
are commercially available and are generally equipped with a filter to prevent
dirt particles from entering the vacuum circuit. In the case of the Festo vacuum
efficiency valve ISV-..., a spring-loaded “float” is used as a shut-off device.
Provided that a vacuum starts to build up under the suction cup, a ring seal
will open and release the required suction cross-section. Fig. 10-11 shows
an application in the form of a circuit diagram.
Fig. 10-11:
Circuit diagram for a suction
head fitted with vacuum 1
efficiency valves
2
1 Vacuum generator
2 Exhaust air 3
3 Distributor
4 Vacuum efficiency
valve with filter
5 Flat suction cup 4
It also takes some organisation to activate a suction cup at the right moment.
Sensor valves are often used for this purpose, as are proximity sensors.
Fig. 10-12 shows a number of variants. Sensor valves are installed in the vacuum
line and act directly on this, while external sensors supply an electrical signal
which is used to activate directional control valves. With the solution shown
in Fig. 10-12b, the handling device travels towards a stack whose height is of
course constantly changing. Once the workpiece has been reached (topmost
sheet), the lowering motion is stopped and the vacuum is activated. In the case
of Fig. 10-12d, a “positive signal” triggers the vacuum by actuating a directional
control valve.

Fig. 10-12:
Activating the vacuum 2 1
5
a) Integrated
electrical sensor 6
3
b) External electrical sensor
c) Vacuum sensor valve 4
in suction line
d) Integrated
inductive sensor
a) b)
1 Vacuum connection
2 Electrical sensor
8
3 Sealing lip
7 9 10
4 Stack of workpieces
5 Limit switch
6 Flat suction cup
7 Sensor valve
8 Suction bore
9 Inductive sensor
10 Workpiece held c) d)
by vacuum
Rapid ejection of workpieces from suction cups is just as important for fast
Ejector systems machining cycles as a fast pick-up. There are various ways of achieving this.
If a vacuum generator is used to produce the vacuum, it has become standard
practice to fill a small reservoir with compressed air during vacuum generation.
When the compressed-air supply to the generator is switched off, vacuum gene-
ration ceases and at the same time the compressed-air reservoir discharges
abruptly. This creates a positive pressure in the suction chamber, ejecting the
workpiece from the suction cup (Fig. 10-13).
Fig. 10-13:
Circuit diagram for a vacuum
generator with an ejector
pulse system
p Input pressure
V Vacuum
If it is necessary to pressurise long supply lines from a vacuum pump to

the suction cup, the ejection process of course takes much longer. Here, too,
however, it is possible to provide a “short-circuit” to atmosphere. This is shown
in Fig. 10-14. As the suction cup contacts and holds the workpiece, the head
retracts. Once the air suction is switched off, it only requires a slight fall in
pressure for the spring to cause the head to advance. This exposes the bypass

hole, which accelerates the creation of a pressure equilibrium. The speed
of response when triggered depends on the size of the bypass cross-section
in the valve or any other equivalent opening leading to atmosphere. These
openings should therefore be as large as possible.
Fig. 10-14:
Vacuum head with “short-
circuit” hole to atmosphere
It is of course also possible to switch straight from suction air to compressed air,
and this is done in practice. An example of this is shown in our last illustration,
Fig. 10-15. By the way, precise ejection at the desired point is particularly
important with fragile or very light workpieces, since these could otherwise
stick to the suction cup momentarily and then fall at a greater height from the
handling device during its return stroke and possibly suffer damage.
Fig. 10-15:
Circuit diagram for a suction
gripper with a vacuum
generator and compressed-
air ejector system
p Supply pressure
V Vacuum
p
[1] Braun, D.: Industrieroboter - Auslegung von pneumatischen Flächengreifern

Publications (“Robots industriales: Dimensionado de ventosas de sujeción
neumáticas”), publicado por Verlag T+V Rheinland, Cologne 1989
[2] Tella, R.; Birk, J; Kelley, R.: Una ventosa de vacío adaptada al contorno,
10º Simposio Internacional de Robots Industriales, Tagungsband,
Milán 1980

The range of applications of standard and special suction cups is very wide,
11 covering everything from sanitary porcelain and strips, planks and panels to
Suction cups in foodstuffs. The processes involved generally form part of a medium or large
handling technology scale production operation. Suppliers of suction cups usually offer a complete
selection of individual units and modular systems. Apart from suction cups
themselves, systems of this kind include vacuum generators, valves, tubing
and piping, instrumentation, control equipment and flexible mounting systems.
We will consider some selected examples of applications below.
It is always surprising to see how suction-cup applications can be modified.

Exploiting the pro- This will be demonstrated by bellows suction cups and the examples shown in
perties of suction cups Fig. 11-1. It is, for example, possible to exploit the angular flexibility of suction
cups with inclined workpiece surfaces or alternatively to work with different
levels of vacuum to produce bowing of thin sheet-metal workpieces. It is also
possible to bring an inclined workpiece surface into a horizontal position as it
is picked up by providing leveling stops on the gripper. Conversely, workpieces
which are normally straight can be inclined if this is required in packing or
magazining operations.
Fig. 11-1:
Some typical applications
of bellows suction cups
1 Picking up inclined
workpieces
2 Leveling of an inclined
formed part
3 Limiting suction force
4 Highly-flexible 1 2 3
suspension for undulating
workpieces in random
orientation
5 Picking up stepped
workpieces
6 Gripping formed parts
with undulating surface
7 Picking up flat workpieces
from magazine
8 Separating and picking up 4 5
flat workpieces
p1 p1 p2 p2
p1 > p2
6 7 8
The last example concerns a situation which is frequently encountered and

which we will now study more closely.
11 Suction cups in handling technology 99

It is not easy to grip thin sheet-metal material, since sheets can stick to a stack
Feeding of thin panels over their entire area and burred edges can become tangled. Plastic panels may
and sheet-metal also stick together due to electrostatic charges. It is therefore necessary to
material prevent two workpieces from being picked up at the same time. Fig. 11-2 shows
a number of ways of achieving this [1].
Fig. 11-2:
Picking up thin panels
with a suction cup 1
a) Undulating effect 2
b) Air nozzle to assist
separation
1 Suction cup
2 Blast nozzle
3 Indexing motion
4 Lifting device to raise stack
3
4
a) b)
In Fig. 11-2a, the suction cups do not merely lift the panel but first generate
undulations along the length of the panel to detach any second panel which
may be adhering to the underside of the first. Only then is the panel lifted. Each
lifting cylinder must accordingly be controlled separately. “Peeling” effects can
also be produced by combining spring-loaded suc-tion cups with a non-spring-
loaded suction cup at the edge of the panel. In this case, the panel is lifted at
the edge while still being held down at other points by the spring force of the
suction cups. It is also possible to equip flat suction cups with a separator
insert, which is a fixed support within the suction chamber. When vacuum is
present, the panel picked up by the suction cup bends slightly around the sepa-
rator insert, due to the upward motion of the soft suction-cup lips. This effect
can be exploited with thin sheet metal up to approx. 3 mm.
When panels are picked up which are slightly porous, such as chipboard, a
“through-suction” effect may be encountered, also resulting in two panels being
lifted from a stack at the same time. The remedy here is to increase the suction
area (by using more suction cups) and reduce the vacuum level.
Problems may also be experienced with magnetic grippers when picking up

thin sheet-metal workpieces, since field lines may pass right through the first
workpiece and pick up a second workpiece as well. In order to solve this pro-
blem, combination grippers have been developed, as shown in Fig. 11-3. The
workpiece is first gripped by a suction cup and slightly lifted by this.
100 11 Suction cups in handling technology

The magnet is now activated, significantly increasing the holding force. This
higher force allows high-speed manipulations to be carried out.
Fig. 11-3:
Combination gripper for hand-
ling thin ferritic sheet-metal
V
workpieces
1
1 Electromagnetic coil
2 Suction-cup lip made
of soft cellular rubber 2
V Vacuum
200 mm
Double lifting of small blanks can be rectified by using a second suction cup to
remove the second workpiece, which is held less firmly than the first workpiece
and can thus be “vacuumed” away and set down at another place. The first
gripper can swivel away from the second suction cup or else rotate, as shown
in Fig. 11-4. The two grippers rotate synchro-nously in opposition. The suction
forces are adjusted to different levels. A second workpiece is picked up along
with the first, carried along and then ejected into a set-down tray.
Fig. 11-4:
“Vacuuming” second work-
pieces away with a rotating
suction cup
1 Blanks magazine 1
2 Suction cup
for second workpiece
3 Set-down tray
for second workpieces
4 Rotary gripper 2
5 Feed device
for production machine
3
A further combination of physical effects is shown in Fig. 11-5. It can be used

only with ferromagnetic workpieces, since it utilizes “spreader magnets” at
the sides of the stack of metal sheets. The magnetic fields of these produce
repulsion forces within the stack which cause the top sheets to float (peel
away). This reduces the risk of two sheets being picked up at once and allows
the suction cup to make gentler contact with the workpiece. The number,

arrangement and cross-section of these permanent magnets is governed by the
thickness and size of the sheet-metal workpieces. In the case of metal strips, it
is sufficient to have a spreader magnet positioned at the ends where the suction
cup is applied to the strip.
Fig. 11-5:
Workpieces removed from
stack using a suction cup
and spreader magnets
2 mm
1
1 Suction cup
2 “Floating” sheet 2
at top of stack
3 Permanent magnet 3
4 Stack of sheet-metal
work pieces
Here is another feed solution based on suction cups. In duplication systems,

the device shown in Fig. 11-6 is used to prevent double pick-ups. The magazine
outlet features a width restrictor which causes workpieces to become bowed as
they are removed from the magazine. Any second workpiece adhering to the first
is detached and remains in the magazine.
Fig. 11-6:
Forced bowing of thin blanks
at magazine outlet prevents
double pick-ups
1
1 Vertical magazine
2 Toothed insert
3 Spring-loaded ratchet
4 Suction cup

The bowing effect is used in many other adapter feed devices. The feed station
shown in Fig. 11-7 also features a suction cup which holds the sheet-metal work-
pieces at their centre. The dead weight of the workpieces causes these to sag.
After the sagging phase during lifting, the sheet-metal workpiece springs into
the pick-up roller slot. The rollers grip the metal workpiece and convey it out-
wards, whilst the suction cup simultaneously detaches from the workpiece and
returns to its “home” position.
Fig. 11-7:
Feeding station
for thin sheet metal
1 Lifting cylinder 1
2 Suction
3 Pick-up rollers
4 Contact point 2 3
5 Workpiece stack

The number of applications which fall under this heading is colossal. We can the-
Distribution refore do no more than show just a few examples, which may prove useful for
and feeding your own applications. As is well known, suction cups with soft lips do not ope-
with suction cups rate very accurately. Furthermore, the workpiece in question may be displaced
when the suction cup “springs” into action if it is not specially guided. This is a
disadvantage, but one which does not become apparent in many applications,
since the workpiece is precisely centered by other technical means at its
destination, particularly in the case of feed operations. This can be seen in the
example of a tub filling and closing machine shown in Fig 11-8. A tub released
by a distributor device is picked up by vacuum and set down on a rotary table.
The suction cup passes through the workpiece carrier on the table in order
to do this. The tub aligns itself precisely on the table. It would in theory also
be possible to allow the workpieces to fall into their carriers by gravity, but this
would not provide sufficient reliability for automated operation. If workpieces
are allowed to move at random even for a short time, there can be no guarantee
of accurate movement. Even if the result is acceptable 99 times out of 100, this
is not good enough.
Fig. 11-8:
Feed system
on a packing machine 1
1 Vertical magazine 2
2 Distributor
3 Suction cup
4 Rotary indexing table
5 Lifting cylinder
6 Tub (workpiece) 3
7 Production machine
4
6
5
7
Fig. 11-9 shows the feeding of food containers on a filling line. Retaining brushes
on the magazine ensure that only one container is removed at a time.
The gripper arm carries a suction cup and is able to reach down between the
two conveyor belts and set down the deep-drawn foil container. Only when this
has been transported onwards can the arm swivel back into its pick-up position.
A rotary pneumatic cylinder can be used as a drive or, as shown here, a rack-
and-pinion gear unit with a linear cylinder.

Fig. 11-9:
Feeding of food containers
1 Retaining brush 1
2 Stack of containers 2
3 Magazine rod 3
4 Spindle-driven lift ram
4
5 Limit switch
11
to monitor feed
6 Double conveyor belt 10
7 Lateral guide
8 Suction-air line
9 Gripper arm drive
10 Swivel arm
11 Suction cup
5
6 7 8
9
Suction cups are also frequently used in combination with other grippers to
provide auxiliary functions. This is illustrated in the example, Fig. 11-10 showing
the stacking of spools of textile thread. These spools are gripped internally by a
mandrel gripper and placed on a pallet. The auxiliary function to be provided
by the handling device, is to insert a separator board between each layer. The
device picks up the separators from another stack via suction cups which are
advanced into their working position specifically for this operation. In this way, it
is possible to operate without a gripper-changing system. Combinations of this
kind can be produced relatively easily by using pneumatic cylinders with hollow
piston rods.
Fig. 11-10:
Multi-layer stacking
of textile thread spools, 1
using a combination gripper
1 Gripper connection
2 Lifting cylinder
2
3 Hollow piston rod
4 Separator
5 Mandrel gripper
6 Gripper thread spool 5 3
7 First stack layer
8 Transport pallet 4
6
7

Fig. 11-11 shows a glass bulb feeder system. The bulbs enter the feed conveyor
by gravity and are transferred to a pick-up position. These workpieces, which
are fragile and curved on all sides, can be reliably picked up via suction gripper
and fed into the machine in a 2-second cycle. If it is not possible to align light
workpieces sufficiently well by gravity, it may be necessary to provide an aid.
This can take the form of mechanically-operated V-shaped jaws at the pick-up
station. A mechanical radial gripper can provide a suitable basic module for a
device of this kind.
Fig. 11-11:
Feeding station
for glass bulbs
5
1
1 Swivel magazine
2 Handling device
with suction cup 6
3 Forked carrier in feed chain
4 Glass bulbs
5 Filling area 2
6 Magazine rail
8
3 7
[1] Hesse, S.: Atlas der modernen Handhabungstechnik

Publications (“Atlas Of Modern Handling Technology”),
published in German by Vieweg Verlag, Wiesbaden 1995

Fig. 1-1: Division of a workpiece into gripping zone (G),
12 clamping zone (S) and set-down zone (A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
List of illustrations Fig. 1-2: How can a workpiece be picked up? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Fig. 1-3: The right choice of gripping point can affect the positioning
error during assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Fig. 1-4: Feeding a clamping device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Fig. 1-5: Types of point loading resulting from gripping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fig. 1-6: Unambiguous pick-up points ensure reliable gripping . . . . . . . . . . 14
Fig. 1-7: Gripper devices which close in an arc may cause a shift
of the gripping centre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Fig. 1-8: Centre deviation resulting from workpiece form errors . . . . . . . . . . 15
Fig. 2-1: Using a 3-point gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Fig. 2-2: Multi-point gripper for long workpieces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Fig. 2-3: Multi- workpiece gripper for transfer of complete rows
of workpieces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fig. 2-4: Multi-workpiece gripper for assembly operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Fig. 2-5: Multiple suction cup grippers for assembly operations . . . . . . . . . . 20
Fig. 2-6: Methods of holding a workpiece (example: ball bearing) . . . . . . . . 21
Fig. 2-7: Gripping principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Fig. 2-8: Gate feeder using a parallel jaw gripper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Fig. 3-1: 3-Point gripper combined with swivel/linear unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Fig. 3-2: The human hand can execute motions with 6 degrees
of freedom (according to Bejczy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Fig. 3-3: Double gripper designed as crown turret . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Fig. 3-4: Shaft gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Fig. 3-5: Handling module for assembly of small workpieces . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Fig. 3-6: Handling unit with suction cup and semi-rotary actuator . . . . . . . . 28
Fig. 3-7: Inverting workpieces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Fig. 3-8: Tripple gripper installed on a special machine
with double stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Fig. 3-9: Picking up ferromagnetic sheets from a stack using
a suction cup/lifting module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Fig. 3-10: Simple specimen shaker made from standard components . . . . . . 31
Fig. 4-1: Some of the subsystems of a mechanical gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Fig. 4-2: The contour at the gripping point of the workpiece
determines the jaw shape used 1, 2 or 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Fig. 4-3: Gripper jaws with compliant surfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Fig. 4-4: Jaw shape with centring effect for scissor tong grippers . . . . . . . . . 35
Fig. 4-5: Gripping several workpieces simultaneously
using a pressure distributor to compensate for tolerances . . . . . . . 36
Fig. 4-6: Jaws of a parallel gripper for 3 diameter ranges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Fig. 4-7: Gripper jaws with specially shaped multiple
gripping surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
12 List of illustrations 107

Fig. 4-8: Variants of jaws for parallel grippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Fig. 4-9: Mobile gripper jaws lift the workpiece out of the V-shaped
recess in the magazine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Fig. 4-10: The type of approach affects the required opening . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Fig. 5-1: The law of interacting forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Fig. 5-2: Forces acting on gripped objects (state of rest) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Fig. 5-3: Plan view of 2 gripper situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Fig. 5-4: Calculation of contact forces for a gripper
with a V-jaw on one side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Fig. 5-5: Forces at the parallel jaw gripper with V-jaw for workpieces . . . . . . 45
Fig. 5-6: Force situations during gripper motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Fig. 5-7: Example of a handling task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Fig. 5-8: Examples of torque created as a result
of a gripped workpiece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Fig. 5-9: Eccentric forces acting on a gripper finger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Fig. 5-10: Gripping force FG as a function of gripper stroke h . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Fig. 6-1: Characteristic data for grippers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Fig. 6-2: General model of a handling operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Fig. 6-3: A joining mechanism with combined lateral
and angular compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Fig. 6-4: Situation, in which an overload of the gripper and
handling device can occur if no compensation is provided . . . . . . . 56
Fig. 6-5: Picking up a workpiece from a magazine pallet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Fig. 6-6: Gripper combined with a pressing element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Fig. 6-7: Simple joining mechanism for vertical assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Fig. 6-8: Collision protection with adjustable parameters
for a gripper showing reaction capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Fig. 6-9: When working with three-dimensional object configurations,
consideration must be given to the clearance contour
of the gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Fig. 6-10: Specifications of load capacity for industrial robots . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Fig. 7-1: Approximate correlation between gripped objects

and gripper types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Fig. 7-2: Radial gripper holding a sheet metal workpiece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Fig. 7-3: IC’s have splayed pins, which are aligned to the desired
spacing during the gripper motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Fig. 7-4: Example of twin workpiece gripper as a special use
of a parallel jaw gripper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Fig. 7-5: Handling a length of bar material with a 3-point gripper . . . . . . . . . 65
Fig. 7-6: Gripping a rectangular workpiece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Fig. 7-7: A 4-point gripper created by combining 2-point grippers . . . . . . . . 67
Fig. 7-8: Gripper module for flexible assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Fig. 7-9: Assembly gripper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Fig. 7-10: Sequence for assembly within a gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
108 12 List of illustrations

Fig. 8-1: Mutually influential factors and basic variables relating
to the selection of grippers from the technical point of view. . . . . . 71
Fig. 8-2: Generation of characteristic gripper data starting
with the gripper location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Fig. 8-3: The main steps in the selection of grippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Fig. 9-1: The most important functions and properties in relation

to suction grippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Fig. 9-2: Force conditions with vertically moving suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Fig. 9-3: Typical force situations at suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Fig. 9-4: Methods of producing a vacuum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Fig. 9-5: Comparison of performance of typical vacuum generators . . . . . . . 83
Fig. 9-6: Mode of operation of Venturi nozzle with shut-off valve
to produce ejector effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Fig. 9-7: Vacuum generators in a series circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Fig. 9-8: Solenoid actuated suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Fig. 9-9: Example of a vacuum circuit based on an ejector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Fig. 9-10: Correct choice of tubing diameter is important
in the distribution of suction air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Fig. 10-1: A small selection of the major types of suction cups . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Fig. 10-2: Evaluation of various types of suction cups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Fig. 10-3: Freedom of movement of suction cups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Fig. 10-4: Suction cup array fitted to rods allowing longitudinal
movement and used to pick up workpieces of constantly varying
contours. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Fig. 10-5: Deep suction cups can adapt well to curved surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Fig. 10-6: Vacuum gripper with very large freedom of movement
of suction components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Fig. 10-7: Standard suction cups are not very suitable for use
with thin foil material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Fig. 10-8: Low pressure gripper equipped with porous plastic
or perforated plates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Fig. 10-9: Positioning aids and stops for use with vacuum grippers . . . . . . . . 95
Fig. 10-10: Automatic deactivation of uncovered suction cups . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Fig. 10-11: Circuit diagram for a suction head fitted with vacuum
efficiency valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Fig. 10-12: Activating a vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Fig. 10-13: Circuit diagram for a vacuum generator with an ejector
pulse system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Fig. 10-14: Vacuum head with “short-circuit” hole to atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . 98
Fig. 10-15: Circuit diagram for a suction gripper with a vacuum
generator and compressed air ejector system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
12 List of illustrations 109

Fig. 11-1: Some typical applications of bellows suction cups . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Fig. 11-2: Picking up thin panels with a suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Fig. 11-3: Combination gripper for handling thin ferritic sheet
metal workpieces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Fig. 11-4: “Vacuuming” second workpieces away with a rotating
suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Fig. 11-5: Workpieces removed from stack using a suction cup
and spreader magnets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Fig. 11-6: Forced bowing of think blanks at magazine outlet
prevents double pick-ups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Fig. 11-7: Feeding station for thin sheet metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Fig. 11-8: Feed system on a packing machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Fig. 11-9: Feeding of food containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Fig. 11-10: Multi-layer stacking of textile thread spools using
a combination gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Fig. 11-11: Feeding station for glass bulbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
110 12 List of illustrations

2-point gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
13 3-dimensional axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
List of special terms 3-point gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4-point gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
A Accuracy of gripping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Adapter rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Adhesive suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Alignment effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Angle gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 51
Angular compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Application area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Assembly gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Assembly mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Axial alignment error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Axis gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
B Ball-and-socket head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Bellows suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88, 99
C Centre deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Centring aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Changing system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Characteristic curve for gripping force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Characteristic data for grippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Checklist for grippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Clamping force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Clamping marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Clamping safety margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Clamping zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Clearance contour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Coefficient of friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45, 80
Collision-protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Combination gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38, 66, 100, 105
Compensate for tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Compliance device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Contact force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13, 43
Contact sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Crown turret . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Cushioned stop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
D Deceleration force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Deep suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88, 92
Degrees of freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Degrees of transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Diameter of the interference circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Distribution with suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Double gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Double-lip suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Duplex machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
13 List of special terms 111

E Eccentric force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Ejector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Ejector system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
External gripping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
F Feed channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60, 65

Feed gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Feeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Feeding station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103, 106
Final effector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Force conditions with suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Force-locking connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Friction force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Friction locking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
G Geometrical error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Gripped object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Gripper finger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Gripper fingers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Gripper jaws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 37
Gripper module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Gripper pin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Gripper selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Gripper selection tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Gripper system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Gripper types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Gripper working area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Gripping centre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Gripping force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41, 43
Gripping point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11, 17
Gripping stroke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Gripping surface pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Gripping zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 72
Guide wedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
H Hand axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24, 27

Hand-joint sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Handling module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Handling of sheet metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Handling operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
High point loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
I Inertia force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Interference circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Internal gripping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
IRCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
J Jaw shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Jaw-type gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
K Knee-lever gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
112 13 List of special terms

L Lateral compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Lifting suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Load-bearing capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Low-pressure gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
M Magazine pallet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Maximum load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Moulding jaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Multiple suction-cup gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Multi-point gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Multi-stage ejector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Multi-workpiece gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
N Nominal load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Non-slip covering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Normal force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
O Opening safety margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Oval suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Overload of gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
P Parallel-jaw gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 23, 26

Peak-to-valley height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Pendulum jaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Pick-and-place device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Piston suction system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Placing error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Planned gripper application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Plastic covering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Plug gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Point loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Position compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Positioning aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Positioning error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11, 14
Positive-locking connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Positive-locking gripping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Pressure device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Pressure distributor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Pressure per unit area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Pressure plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Pulse effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Q Quick exhaust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
R Radial gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25, 62, 64

RCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Repetition accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Ribbed suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Rubber covering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Running freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
S Safety factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Scissors-type gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
13 List of special terms 113

Securing function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Self-adhering suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Sensor, inductive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Separator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Sequence gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Service life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Set-down zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Shaft gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Short-stroke axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Shut-off device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Single-stage ejector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Specimen shaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Spreader magnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Spring-loaded gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Standard gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Stepped track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Suction cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77, 96
Suction-cup array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Suction-cup shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Suction-cup/lifting module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Swivel/linear unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
T TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Third law of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Three-finger gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Three-point gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Thruster device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Tool centre point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 35
Triple turret gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Turning workpieces over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Turret gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Twin-workpiece gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Two-finger gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33, 43
Type of approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
U Universal jaws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Uses of grippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
V Vacuum blower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Vacuum circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Vacuum efficiency valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Vacuum generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Vacuum management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Vacuum switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Vacuum technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Vacuum pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Venture-type vacuum generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Venturi nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Vertical magazine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Vice-type gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
V-jaw gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
W Wide-range gripper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
114 13 List of special terms

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328 mm 8 mm 120 mm 42 mm

Grippers and their applications

© 2004 by Festo AG & Co. KG

The robot is an important handling machine which roughly reproduces the

1 Analysis of gripper functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 Gripper applications for component production and assembly . . . . . . . . 16

3 Grippers and hand axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

4 Construction of gripping effectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

5 Forces acting on grippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

7 Application areas and gripper types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

8 Checklist for grippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

9 Suction grippers – abhorred by nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

10 Suction cups for every application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

11 Suction cups in handling technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

12 List of illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

13 List of special terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

A general definition of grippers is given in the VDI Guideline 2860. According to

A gripper application can be defined in terms of technological requirements,

1 Analysis of gripper functions 9

A workpiece is to be picked up and brought into a clamping position. The work-

This is an important factor in the selection of a gripper, since in the case

10 1 Analysis of gripper functions

The connecting wires of an electronic component are to be inserted into a

1 Analysis of gripper functions 11

He envisages a controlled mechanical jaw-type gripper with internal gripping.

12 1 Analysis of gripper functions

Excessive point loadings may produce clamping marks on workpieces

In the case of grippers with plain-bearing guides, oscillations of the overall

Problems can occur in 3 situations:

1 Analysis of gripper functions 13

Problems may also be encountered in obtaining set-down at precise points.

14 1 Analysis of gripper functions

A gripping operation can be influenced by a number of parameters which

[1] Volmer, J. (Hrsg.): Industrieroboter – Funktion und Gestaltung

1 Analysis of gripper functions 15

a) Adjustable gripper pins

16 2 Gripper applications for component production and assembly

Frequent use is made of modified gripper systems based on standard grippers.

2 Gripper applications for component production and assembly2 17

The following problem may be encountered when feeding workpieces

18 2 Gripper applications for component production and assembly

2 Gripper applications for component production and assembly 19

20 2 Gripper applications for component production and assembly

Clamping force is very frequently used to hold workpieces. We must, however,

If we assume a coefficient of friction of 0.1, the gripping force FG would be

2 Gripper applications for component production and assembly 21

A positive-locking connection may also be desirable for feed motions. When a

22 2 Gripper applications for component production and assembly

[1] Seegräber, L.: Greifsysteme für Montage, Handhabung und Industrieroboter

2 Gripper applications for component production and assembly 23

Thrust motions (Fig. 3-2) are described as follows:

24 3 Grippers and hand axes

Particularly in applications involving the feeding of machine tools, it is desirable

3 Grippers and hand axes 25

Gripper systems are also sometimes modified for a given application.

26 3 Grippers and hand axes

3 Grippers and hand axes 27

It is often necessary to rotate or turn over workpieces between workstations,

28 3 Grippers and hand axes

3 Grippers and hand axes 29

30 3 Grippers and hand axes

[1] Siegert, H.-J.; Bocionek, S.: Robotik: Programmierung intelligenter Roboter

3 Grippers and hand axes 31