Agricultural Engineering-Farm machinery

Basics review….

Force is a derived quantity in the SI system of units. The derivation used Newton’s Second Law. One unit of force is
required to accelerate a mass of one kilogram at one meter per second per second thus 1 unit force = [(1 kg x m)/s]/s
= kg*m/s2. And this unit of force is given the name Newton ( 1 Newton = (1 kg x 1 m)/ s2 .

Work – is accomplished when a force acts through a distance. Then the derived unit of work is Newton*meter and
this is called joule (J)

Energy – is a capacity for doing work. It has the same unit as work. (Newton*meter).

Power = the rate of doing work.

= (Force x distance)/time = kW or Horsepower

Sources of farm power:

Human, animal, machines, natural resources (wind, water, solar radiation, fuels).

Power transmission elements

1. Horsepower rating for V-belts

HP = XS0.91 – (YS/de) – ZS3

Where: X, Y, and Z are factors per belt cross section classification
S = belt speed in thousands of feet per minute.
de = equivalent diameter of small sheave computed as:
sheave diameter ratio x small diameter factor.

2. Horsepower load of V-belts: Hp = S(T1 – T2)

33,000
Where: Hp = horsepower load
T1 = tight-side tension, lb
T2 = slack-side tension, lb
S = belt speed, fpm = (pitch diameter of wheel, in.)(rpm)/ 3.82
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3. Pitch length of V-belts:

L = 2C + 1.57(D + d) + (D-d)/4C

Where: L = pitch length of belt, in inches

C = center distance, in inches
D = pitch diameter of large sheave, in inches
d = small diameter of small sheave, in inches

4. From formula 2, the center to center distance could be derived as:

C = b + (b2 – 32(D – d)2)1/2

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Where:
b = 4L – 6.28(D + d)
D = pitch diameter of large sheave, in inches
d = pitch diameter of small sheave, in inches
C = center to center distance of the sheaves, in inches

5. Roller chains: Length in pitches.

L = (N1 + N2) + 2C + P(N1- N2)2

2 P 39.5C
Where:
L = length of chain, pitches C = center distance, inches
N = number of sprocket teeth P = pitch, inch(es)

The ideal gas law:

pV = mRT where: p = absolute pressure of the gas, in kPa
V = volume of the gas, in m3
m = mass of the gas, in kg
R = specific gas constant, in kL/kg0K
T = absolute temperature of the gas, in 0K

Pl = FS/3.6 where: Pl = linear power in kW

F = force in kN
S = speed in km/h

Pb = 2p(T)(N)/60,000
Where: Pb = brake power in kW
T = torque in N.m
N = rotational speed in rev/min

Pfe = (HV)(Mf)/3600
Where: Pfe = fuel equivalent power in kW
HV = fuel heating value in kJ/kg
Mf = fuel consumption in kg/h

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TERMINOLOGIES - Define the following terms:

Agricultural engineering Factor of safety Landside Pay back period

Automatic draft control Three-point hitch Share Cash flow
Theoretical field capacity Coefficient of traction Moldboard Break - even point
Effective field capacity Traction efficiency Disc plow Salvage value
Headland Furrow Integrated pest mgt. Book value
Horizontal suction (in plow) Back furrow Transgenic rice Market value
Vertical suction (in plows) Furrow slice Global warming Elastic demand
Dead furrow Furrow wall Robotics Inelastic demand
Dynamometer Soil tilth Tilt angle Position control
Side draft Tillage Disc angle Nozzle (in sprayers)
Plow Primary tillage Spray angle Knapsack sprayer
Harrow Secondary tillage Boom sprayer Pulley
Weight transfer on tractors PTO horsepower Drill planter Angle of wrap
Compression ignition engine Indicated horsepower Transplanter Sprocket
Engine displacement Rated horsepower Broadcaster Lug wheel
Combine harvester Soil structure Pneumatic seeder Farmer
Field capacity Scouring Flat broken land Land
Bedded or listed land True line of draft Brake horsepower Drawbar horsepower

Farm mechanization

1. Why is mechanization necessary?

 To increase labor efficiency and capacity
 To achieve timely operation (due to limited turn around time)
 To offset the problem of labor scarcity
 To minimize the drudgery of farm operations
 To attain quality products.

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of mechanization?

 Increases labor efficiency
 Enables timely farming operation
 Reduce the drudgery of farm operations
 Increase safety of laborers
 Elevates the social status of the workers/farmers
 Displaces labor in some areas
 Require additional fixed investment

3. What are the current concerns in agricultural mechanization?

 Sustainability of the resource base
 Undesirable effect of machines such as soil compaction
 Gender issues in mechanization
 Contribution of machine emission to global warming

4. What are the current and emerging farm mechanization technologies?

 Application of geographical information system (GIS) in monitoring the resource base
 Precision farming - maximum use of inputs such as fertilizers/chemicals
 Computer-controlled farming operations (such as remote-controlled tractors and
chemical sprayers)

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 Application of robotics to high risk or hazardous farming operations

PLANTING EQUIPMENT

Definition: Planting Equipment - is any device used to place seed, seed pieces, or plant parts
in or on the soil for propagation and production of food, fiber, and feed crops. It could be
manually, mechanically (engine), or remotely operated.

A. Classification of Planting Equipment:

1. Row-crop planters
a. Trailing
1) drill
2) hill-drop
3) check-row
b. Front Tractor-mounted
1) drill
2) hill-drop
3) check-row
c. Rear Tractor-mounted
1) drill
2) hill-drop
3) check-row
4) transplanters or planters

2. Broadcast Crop
a. Endgate seeders
b. Narrow-and wide-tract and weeder-mulcher
c. Airplanes

3. Grain Drills
4. Planting attachments for other equipment

B. Row-crop Planters

1. Definition of Terms:
a. Row-crop planters - planters designed and constructed to plant seeds in rows far
enough apart to permit cultivation of the crop.
b. Transplanter - equipment for placing growing plants or plant parts in the soil.
c. Lister Planters - are drill planters designed to plant corn in listed furrows.
d. Drill planters - are row-crop planters designed to deposit seeds continuously in
straight columns.
e. Hill-drop planters - row-crop planters designed to deposit one or more seeds in a
hill in equal intervals.
f. Check-row - row-crop planters equipped with valves, checkheads and wire. Enable
operator to perform hill planting at definite spacing (in checks or squares) which
facilitates mechanical weed control and other operations.

2. Parts and Accessories for Corn Planters:

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a. Cutoff pawl - acting under spring pressure pushes the extra kernels back at the cell
under the plate cover.
b. Knockout pawl - under spring pressure comes in contact with the kernel, knocking
through the cell into the seed tube, where it is allowed to fall either upon the valve if
checking or directly into the soil if drilling.
c. Seed plates - used for planting corn.
1) Edge drop - carries the kernel of corn on edge in the cell plate.
2) Flat drop - carries the kernel flat in the cell of the plate.
3) Full-hill plate - consist of cells around the outer edge large enough to admit
several kernels at the same time.
d. Types of furrow openers
1) curve runner - generally used.
2) Stub runner - is suited to rough and stony ground.
3) Single-disk furrow opener
4) Double-disk furrow opener
e. Covering attachments - covers the seeds.
g. Row marker - used to keep the rows straight, parallel and of equal distance apart. It
is intended for the machine operator as a guide.

C. Broadcast and Drill Planters:

1. Types of machine broadcasters:

a. knapsack
b. endgate
c. tow-wheel
d. weeder-mulcher
e. airplane

2. The knapsack seeder is consists of a good-sized canvas sack fastened to a seeding

mechanism, the whole being slung over the shoulders. A crank turned by hand revolves
a wheel having several different radial ribs for scattering the seeds. The ribs throw the
seeds out to the front and sides in a steady stream. A sliding gate regulates the quantity
of seeds. Wider gate opening result in higher seed density (seed per unit area).

3. The two-wheel drawn planter makes use of fluted wheels in sowing seeds.
4. The weeder-mulcher drops seeds on the ground and then covers them by means of a
long spring-steel mulcher fingers.
5. Grain drills are planters designed and built to place the seed of small grains and
grasses in the ground in narrow-spaced rows at a uniform depth.

CULTIVATION AND CROP PROTECTION EQUIPMENT

A. Four general methods of controlling weeds, insects and plant diseases:

1. mechanical cultivation or weeding
2. selective burning or flaming
3. chemical application through spraying
4. manual weed control
5. flooding

B. Factors influencing the selection of weed control method:

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1. type and age of crop

2. type and size of the weeds or grasses
3. timeliness
4. available equipment
5. environmental concerns

C. Mechanical Cultivation
1. Mechanical Cultivation-farm operation using appropriate tool to stir the surface of the
soil to a shallow depth to destroy young weeds & promotes crop growth.
2. Cultivation may control weeds in three ways:
a. uprooting the weeds
b. cutting off the stem of the weeds just below the ground surface
c. Smoothering the aerial parts of the weeds by covering with soil.
3. Mechanical row-crop cultivators may be classified according to their attachment to the
tractor:
a. front-mounted
b. rear-mounted
c. side-mounted
4. Factors influencing the selection of cultivating tools:
a. type and size of crop plants
b. soil type and field condition
c. purposes for which cultivation is being performed
5. Tools for cultivation:
a. sweeps (full or half )
b. furrowers
c. weed knives or beat hoes
d. shovels (double-point, single-point, hoof shovel or spearheads)
e. rotational blades (L-shaped, rectangular blades)
6. Cultivator attachments:
a. Rotary hoe - they are run directly over the rows and are used for breaking the soil
crust over seedling and for destroying the weeds in the early stages of plant growth.
They also acts as shield and they allow sweeps to work at high speeds without
covering, even when the plants are small.
b. Rolling cultivators - it has twisted blades which have slicing action that moves the soil
laterally as well as uprooting small weeds and mulching the soil.
c. Fertilizer attachments
d. Shield attachments - used in closed cultivation to prevent covering of the plants with
dirt or clods.
e. Disk-hilling and barring-off attachments - for hilling, the disk are set to throw the soil
to the plant row. Where the crop is quite grassy, the disks are set to throw the soil
away from the plant.
f. Knife attachment - it is used as barring-off tool, but it does not leave an open furrow
as do the disks.
g. Stabilizer - these are rigid disk plates found on both sides of the frame of cultivating
implement. They absorbed the side forces exerted by the soil forces thus stabilizing
the implement during the operation.

7. Cultivator adjustments:
a. relative horizontal position

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b. depth
c. pitch
d. directional adjustments
8. Protective devices for cultivator standards - the purpose is to provide overload protection
in case the tool encounters a stone, root or other solid objects.
a. spring-trip mechanism
b. friction-release

D. Flame Weeding
The theory of selective weeding is that the heat intensity and the exposure time are
adjusted so enough heat is applied to the weeds and grasses to cause expansion of the
liquid in the plant cells and consequent rapture of the cell walls but not enough heat to
cause actual combustion. This method of weed control is usually applied during the stages
of growth of the crop in which it can already withstand the heat. The forward speed of
operation ranges from 3 to 4 mph.

E. Spraying

1. The primary function of the sprayer - is to break the liquid into droplets of effective size
and distribute them uniformly over the surface or space to be protected and regulate the
amount of chemical solution to avoid excessive application that might prove harmful or
wasteful.
2. Spray particle size is significant in relation to:
a. penetration and carrying ability obtained with hydraulic sprayers
b. efficiency of catch of sprays or dusts by plant surfaces
c. uniformly and completeness coverage
d. effectiveness of individual particles after deposition
e. drift - is essentially a function of the rate of fall of particles in relation to the horizontal
velocity, which is related to particle size and local climatology.

3. Recommended methods to prevent or reduce drift:

a. avoid high setting of nozzle
b. careful selection of nozzle size and working pressure
c. avoid spraying during unfavorable condition
4. Metering system for liquid sprayers:
a. constant speed, constant head pump-orifice system
b. compressed air orifice system
c. gravity flow system
d. displacement ground-driven metering system
5. Types of sprayers:
a. Hand Sprayers
1) compressed-air sprayers
2) knapsack sprayers
b. Power sprayers
1) hydraulic sprayers or field sprayers
2) hydro-pneumatic sprayers
3) blower sprayers
c. Hydraulic sprayers - make use of pumps to build up spray pressure on the spray
solution.
1) Classification of hydraulic sprayers
a. boom-type field sprayers with maximum operating pressure of 40 to 100 psi

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b. high pressure, general purpose or orchard sprayers with maximum operating

pressure ranging from 250 to 800 psi but mostly 400 to 800 psi
2) Basic components of hydraulic sprayer:
a. tank
b. agitator
c. framework for mounting the sprayer
d. pressure regulator
e. relief valve
f. pressure gauge
g. strainer and screen
h. control valves
i. pipes and fittings
j. boom and nozzles
k. pump
3) Pumps used in hydraulic sprayers:
a. positive displacement pumps - those types where only a small amount of
liquid leaks past the actuator and it can only develop very high pressure (e.g.,
reciprocating pumps, diaphragm pumps, gear pumps).
b. non-positive displacement pumps - those that are unable to develop more
than 50 psi as used on farm sprayers (e.g., rotary pumps with flexible
impeller, centrifugal pumps).
4) Rotary pumps - they are used for low pressure spraying. They are mounted on
the tractor PTO shaft. They have a capacity of about 20 rpm. Their use are
literally limited to sediment-free types of spray materials.
5) Centrifugal pumps - these pumps employ centrifugal force to lift liquids from a
lower to a higher level. Because of their simplicity, low cost, and ability to operate
under wide variety of conditions, they are one of the most popular types. They
are adapted to operate under practically any head up to several thousand feet,
will handle liquids at most any temperature up top 1000 F.
6) Agitators - used to keep the spray solution uniform. It can be either mechanical or
hydraulic agitators.
7) Air chamber - used to cushion the discharge-pressure fluctuations, induce a
uniform flow in sprayers using reciprocating and diaphragm pumps.
8) Pressure gage - used to guide the operator in adjusting the working pressure,
located at the discharge line.
9) Pressure regulators - used to control and adjust the working pressure on the
nozzles. They also serve as protective device in automatically unloading the
excess pressure when the discharge line is closed.
10) Spray boom and nozzles

a. Boom - is a pipe on which the nozzles are properly spaced and mounted.
b. Nozzles - are used to direct the liquid in a thin film or stream which will break
up into droplets.

11) Parts of Nozzles:

a. body d. washer and whirl plate
b. cap e. strainer
c. orifice plates

12) Types of hydraulic nozzles

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a. hallow-cone (side-entry or cone insert) - the liquid is fed into a whirl chamber
through a tangential side entry passage or through the spiral passage in a
whirl plate or core insert to give it a rotary velocity component. The orifice is
located on the axis of the whirl chamber and the liquid emerges in the form of
a hallow conical shoot which then breaks up into droplets.
b. disk-type solid-cone - is the same as that of a hallow-cone nozzle except for
the addition of an internal axial orifice. The axial stream is atomized and fills
in the central section of the hallow-cone pattern.
c. Fan-spray nozzle - has a narrow, elliptical orifice formed by the intersection of
a slot drilled across the face and semi-spherical surface cut out from the
inside. The liquid emerges as a flat shaped sheet, which is then broken up
into droplets.
d. Flooding nozzles - is commonly used as agricultural sprayers because of
wider spray angle and atomization even at a low pressure, unlike hydraulic
nozzles.
13) Liquid atomization
a. pressure or hydraulic atomization
b. gas atomization
c. centrifugal atomization
14) Factors affecting uniformity of distribution:
a. nozzle size
b. pressure on the spray solution
c. nozzle spacing
d. boom height
e. speed of travel
15) The proper height of the boom above the deposition surface is a function of:
a. nozzle spacing
b. nozzle spray angle
c. amount of overlap required for uniform coverage, as determined by the
nozzle spray pattern.

TILLAGE

TILLAGE AND TILLAGE EQUIPMENT

Definition of Terms:
1. Tillage - is the mechanical manipulation of the soil from a known condition into a
different desired condition.
2. Tilth - the physical condition of the soil in relation to plant growth.
3. Soil structure - is the physical constitution of the soil material as expressed by size,
shaped and arrangements of the solid particles and associated voids to form the
compound particles and the compound particles themselves.
4. Field capacity - is the moisture content of the soil after it has been saturated and
allowed to drain for 24 to 72 hours.
5. Land - the unplowed soil.
6. Headland - unplowed soil at the end of the furrow strip.
7. Furrow slice - is the ribbon of soil cut, lifted, pulverized and thrown to one side of the
plow bottom.
8. Back furrow - is the raised ridge formed when a furrow slice is lapped over another
slice. This ridge is slightly higher that the other ridges.

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9. Dead furrow - is the open trench, about twice the width of one bottom, formed when two
adjacent furrow slices are thrown opposite each other.
10. Furrow - is the trench/left when the plow bottom cuts and turns the furrow slice.
11. Furrow wall - is the unbroken side of the furrow.
12. Scouring - is defined as the soil sliding freely over the surface of the plow bottom.
13. Primary tillage - is the initial breaking of the soil.
14. Secondary tillage - is the further breaking of the soil following primary tillage operation.
15. Flat broken land - land broken by continuous lapping of furrows.
16. Bedded or listed land - land broken in alternate back furrows and dead furrows.
17. True line of draft - is the line passing from the center of resistance through the hitch
point and to the center of pull.
18. Indicated horsepower (IHP) - is the power generated in the cylinder and received by
the piston.
19. Brake horsepower (BHP) - is the power delivered by the engine crankshaft.
20. Drawbar horsepower (DHP) - is the power developed at the hitch or drawbar and
available for pilling, dragging or similar tractive effort.
21. PTO horsepower - is the power developed at the power-take-off (PTO) shaft of the
tractor.
22. Rated horsepower - is the amount of power that the engine will generate at some
designated crankshaft speed or it may be designated as a certain percentage of the
maximum power output.

A. Objective of Tillage: 4. to mix crop residues and fertilizers

1. to develop proper soil tilth with the soil
2. to conserve soil and water 5. to control weeds
3. to effect control of some pests and 6. to aerate the soil
diseases

B. Tillage Operation:
1. primary tillage
2. secondary tillage
3. rotavation

C. Tillage Equipment
1. Primary tillage equipment:
a. Moldboard plow
1) share - cuts the furrow slice and partially lifts it
2) moldboard - breaking and inverting unit. Shin -the cutting edge of the
moldboard, just above the landslide.
3) Landslide - stabilizer to make the plow run in a straight path counteracting the
side pressure exerted by the furrow slice on the moldboard.
b. Moldboard plow accessories:
1) Rolling colters - are round, flat, sharpened steel disks, either smooth or notch
used to cut the furrow slice from the land and leave a clean wall.
2) Jointer - a miniature plow ahead of the plow bottom used to cut a narrow-shallow
furrow slice from the left upper side of the furrow in such a way that complete
coverage by the main plow is initiated.
3) Weed hooks - rods attached to the plow beam used to bend tall weeds in order to
have a thorough weed coverage.

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4) Concave rolling disk colter - turns and cuts a shallow furrow slice.
5) Spring-trip standard/hydraulic automatic reset standard - allows the plow to move
rearward when it meets an obstruction during the field operation.
c. Disc plow - it is a perfectly round, concave disk of heat-hardened steel, sharpened
on the edge to aid in the penetration of the soil.
1) Accessories of the disk plow:
a. Rear furrow wheel –Used to counteract the side thrust on implement
b. Scraper - set with each disc to clear the disc of sticky soil and to assist in
inverting the furrow slice.
2. Secondary Tillage Equipment
a. Disk harrows
1) Single-action disk harrows - consist of two gangs of disc placed end to end,
which throw the soil in the opposite direction.
2) Double-action harrow - another set of 2-gang plow behind the single action
harrow arranged so that the disc on the front gangs throw the soil in outward
direction, the disc on rear gangs throw the soil in opposite direction.
3) Offset disc harrows-consists of two gangs, one is located behind the other.
b. Spike and spring tooth harrows
c. Chisel type - a tool with a rigid curved on straight shank with a relatively narrow
shovel point, usually arranged in staggered rows. It is usually used to break through
or shatter compact or otherwise impermeable soil and to improve rainfall penetration.
Also used for stubble-mulch or subsurface tillage.
d. Subsoiler - these are tillage equipment heavier and larger than the chisel plow use to
penetrate the soil to a depth from 20 to 36 inches. Form a tunnel at the subsoil to
serve as drainage channel for water.
e. Middle breaker or lister - these are left and right-hand moldboard plow joined
together. Used to make furrows & to reshape the field after heavy rain.
3. Draft Requirement
a. Factors affecting draft of a plow
1. type and shape of bottom
2. sharpness of the cutting tool
3. over-all adjustments of the plow
4. depth and width of cut of the furrow
5. speed at which the plow is operated
6. type of soil
b. Effect of soil moisture on tillage operation
1. Effect of too dry soil
a. increases the rate of wear of the implement
b. increases the power requirements
c. increases likelihood of implement breakage
2. Effect of too wet soil
a. increases the power requirement
b. reduces the work output of the machine
c. increases the total time for operation
d. promote soil compaction
 The correct moisture content is at a level of between 50% to 75% of field
capacity.

4. Advantages of Tillage Equipment:

a. Moldboard plow - it eliminate back furrows and dead furrows leaving the field more
nearly leveled for irrigation and drainage.

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b. Disk plow - it is suitable for sticky, waxy, non-scouring soils and soils having a hard
pan. It is also suitable for dry, hard, rough, stony and rooty ground.
c. Rotary plow - effective for mixing chemical into the soil and for cultivation in certain
row crops. Also good for cutting up vegetative matter and mixing throughout the tilled
layer.
d. Chisel plow - effective in loosening, hard dry soil before the regular plowing.
e. Subsoil plow - effective in penetrating the soil to depth from 20-36 inches, effective in
opening and breaking up compacted soils in order that water may seep into the
opened spaces and stored.
f. Harrow - effective in leveling the ground and crushing the clods, striving the soil and
preventing and destroying the weeds, effective in putting the soil in better tilth for the
reception of seeds.
g. Roller - effective as a clod crusher, effective in preparing the seedbox by thoroughly
pulverizing and forming the loose soil so that there will not be any large air spaces or
pockets.
h. Pulverizer - effective in pulverizing an area between rows and for field work rather
than row work.
i. Mulchers - a combination of pulverizing equipment and harrow spring teeth.

Farm work classification based on movement:

A. Tractive Work
1. Land Preparation
a. plowing
b. harrowing
c. leveling
2. Cultivation
3. Harvesting

B. Stationary Work
1. Threshing
2. Irrigation pumping
3. Feed grinding
4. Grain cleaning/milling, etc.

Types of Implements:
1. Pull type or trailed implement - is one that is pulled and guided from a single hitch
point and is never completely supported by the tractor
2. Mounted implement - is one that is attached to the tractor through a hitch linkage in
such a manner that it is completely supported by the tractor when in the raised
position. The linkage usually provides rotational stability about the longitudinal axis
and it permits depth or height control by vertical support from the tractor, if desired,
while the tool is in the operating position.
3. Semi-mounted implement - is attached to the tractor through a horizontal or nearly
horizontal axis and is partially supported by the tractor, at least during transport, but
is never completely supported by the tractor. In the usual situation the hinge axis is
traverse at the rear of the tractor and the hitch provides rotational stability about the
longitudinal axis. The implement may respond directly to tractor steering, but if a
vertical hinge axis is superimposed on the horizontal axis (as on large, semi-
mounted plows), the rear of the implement is guided by its own wheels.

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4. Self-propelled machine - is one in which the propelling power unit is an integral part
of the implement.

Factors Affecting Field Capacity of a tillage machine:

1. time efficiency
2. width of cut
3. speed of travel\

Difference between Traction Efficiency and Coefficient of Traction?

Coefficient of Traction - defined as the ratio of the tractor drawbar pull to the dynamic
load on the traction device. Some of the factors which affect the coefficient of traction are: types
of traction device, tire inflation, soil type and state, soil moisture content, lug design, dimension
of tractor device, and soil pressure distribution. Furthermore, it refers of the ratio of forces.

Traction Efficiency - refers to the conversion of energy. It can be defined as the ratio of
the drawbar power to axle power. It is also a measure of the efficiency with which the traction
device transforms the torque of the axle into a linear drawbar pull. Traction efficiency can be
decreased by factors such as steering, rolling resistance, slip, friction, and deflection of the
traction device.

Factors to be considered in designing and analyzing a system for mounting implements:

1. Ease of attachment and adjustment, versatility, and safety.

2. Standardization to permit interchangeability.
3. Uniformity of tillage depth as the tractor passed over ground-surface irregularities.
4. Ability to obtain penetration of the implement under adverse conditions, particularly
with implement such as disc harrows and disc plows.
5. Rapidity with which the tools such as plows and lister enters the ground.
6. Effect of the implement upon the tractive ability of the tractor (transfer weight).
7. Effect of the raised implement upon the transport stability of the tractor.

PLANTERS

A. Methods of Direct Seeding:

1. Broadcasting - random scattering of seeds over the surface of the field.
2. Drill seeding - random dropping and covering of seeds in furrows to give definite rows.
3. Precision planting - planting of single seeds at about equal intervals in rows.
4. Hill dropping - placing group of seeds at about equal intervals in rows
5. Minimum tillage planting - lister planting, till-and-plant combinations following plowing or
other primary tillage.

B. Function of a seeder/planter:
1. Open the seed furrow to the proper depth.
2. Meter the seed.
3. Deposit the seed in the furrow in an acceptable pattern.

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4. Lower the seed and compact the soil around the seed to the proper degree for the type
of crop involved.

FARM MECHANIZATION INFOS

1. Methods of rice crop establishment

a. direct seeding – raw or pre-germinated seeds planted directly into the production field
either in random (“sabog tanim”) or sown in line using grain drills
b. transplanting – grown seedlings are transferred from the seedbeds to the field.

NOTES:
Rice is transplanted for the pest and weed control purposes. The golden snail no longer
eats a 20-day old rice seedling.

A transplanted rice plant have a head start over the weeds and with proper management
can develop canopy and eventually outgrow the weeds.

Direct seeding has the advantage of reducing labor requirements and cost. However the
rice seeds are exposed to pests such as birds, rats, and could be eaten by the golden
snails as it germinates. Normally weed control is difficult in direct-seeded rice, thus
forcing farmers to use herbicides.

2. 4 major rice ecosystems:

a. Irrigated or lowland ecosystem - with irrigation system and available water supply
b. Rainfed lowland ecosystem - depend on the rain for irrigation water which is not readily
available depending on the climate.
c. Upland ecosystem – rice production system in hilly lands with rolling terrains
d. Flood-prone rice ecosystem – rice production in waterlogged conditions

3. Precision Farming - a modern farming technique to attain optimum output or yield with
minimum input possible utilizing geographical information system (GIS), data base, and
decision support system with the aid of computers.

4. Sustainable farming system - farming practice aimed to increase productivity while

preserving the natural resources for future generations.
5. Organic farming - a sustainable farming system that seeks to eliminate the use of
chemicals (fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, etc.) to avoid hazardous residues.
6. Integrated pest management (IPM) - part of the sustainable farming system that seeks to
minimize and eliminate the use of pesticides in controlling pests. It is based o the principle
that some insect pest are actually beneficial to the crop as they biologically control other
harmful organisms, and that harmful organisms are only destructive when they reach the
critical level. It is only at this time that the chemical control must be used.

7. Crop simulation and modeling - first put into use by engineers to simulate and test the
behavior of new design concepts such as airplanes in wind tunnels. Simulation and
modeling is now being used by crop and other scientist to study and predict crop yields as
affected by environmental forces, soil properties pest and diseases, etc.

8. Robots/ Robotics - been intensively used in car manufacturing assembly lines to the jobs,
which are routine and hazardous to human workers such as painting, spot welding, etc. It is

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now being used in agricultural production such as remote controlled tractors, sprayers, etc.
It’s a substitute to humans in highly hazardous jobs. It is predicted that in the future robots
will also work as house helpers to cook foods, prepare coffee, clean the comfort rooms, etc.

9. Global warming - a universal concern of increasing temperature attribute to ozone

destruction due to methane emissions, etc.

10. Transgenic rice - Genetically engineered rice where in good varietal traits are integrated
such as high yield, disease resistance, etc.

11. Dead furrow - the canal or trench formed by plowing away from the furrow in both
directions.

12. Headland - strip of untilled land at the end of a field.

13. Draft control - hydraulic implement hitch system that maintains a constant draft on the
implement.

14. Combine harvester - a self-propelled farm machine that harvest, thresh, and clean a grain
crop in one simultaneous operation

15. Thresher – a farm implement used to separate the grains from the plant materials. Some
threshers have grain cleaning system, other don’t have. Axial flow thresher is one good
example of a mechanical thresher. Threshing could also be done manually by foot threshing
complemented with a piece of wood for beating the grains.

16. Factor of safety - the excess amount of material's strength designed into a machine so that
it will not break down even beyond normal load.

17. Automatic draft control - automatically raises or lowers a soil-engaging implement to

maintain the draft at a pre-determined value.

18. Dynamometer - an instrument used to measure horsepower.

19. Side draft - the lateral or sideward force acting on a soil-engaging implement such as plow.

20. Universal joint - a mechanism used to transmit power between two intersecting shafts,
where the angle between them is variable.

21. chain and sprocket transmission system – power transmission system in agricultural
implements using steel chain instead of rubber belt and toothed sprocket instead of rubber
belts. The system guarantees zero slippage thus very good power transmission efficiency.

Advantages:
1. It's relatively lightweight compared to gear transmission system.
2. It's cheaper.
3. It's easy to repair and maintain.
4. Has no slippage compared to belt and pulley transmission system.

Disadvantages:
1. It's noisy

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2. It cannot operate well if there is excessive misalignment.

Drying systems:

General classification based on energy source: solar drying and mechanical drying

1. Solar drying: Solar drying performance is affected by the following factors: intensity of solar
radiation, grain thickness, moisture content of the grain, prevailing air movement/velocity, and
the frequency of mixing the grain. When drying on cemented pavement the recommended grain
thickness is 5 cm, and grain mixing every 30 minutes.
 Use solar energy to remove moisture from the materials being dried such as paddy.
 Is unreliable during the rainy season when solar power is not continuously available.
 Drying temperature cannot be controlled/managed properly.
 Materials’ being dried is subject to rewetting due to sudden rains.
 Require more labor for watching possible rains and mixing the grains.

2. Mechanical dryers - performance of a mechanical dryer is also affected by the moisture

content of the product being dried, drying air temperature, prevailing humidity of surrounding air,
grain movement, and air flow across the grain.
 Uses fossil fuel, electrical energy, and agricultural waste as source of energy.
 Drying temperature and drying time can be easily controlled
 No danger of rewetting the materials being dried due to sudden rains.
 Have less labor requirement especially those with automatic controls system.

Mechanical dryers can be further classified based on grain movement as:

 Stationary batch dryer wherein the grains being dried have no movement resulting in
not uniform moisture content in the dried product.

 Recirculating batch dryer where the grains are being continuously recirculated
resulting in uniform moisture content in the dried product.

 Continuous flow dryer used for large volume drying. Materials enter wet and exit
dried already after a certain residence time in the drying chamber.

Mechanical dryers can also be classified based on drying temperature as:

 Low temperature dryers –using low drying air temperature like the in-store-dryer
where the product is slowly dried for 2-4 weeks using low temperature.

 High temperature dryers – using high drying air temperatures such as the fluidized
bed dryer where the grain is subjected to 1500C –3000C to remove surface moisture
of wet grain at very short time (1=3 minutes) resulting in skin dried grains thus
preventing grain quality deterioration. Flash dryer is another example of high
temperature dryer used to dry very wet harvest down to 18%MC in just an hour.

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 Other mechanical dryers such as the batch recirculating dryer, the drying air
temperature can be set at ambient temperature to 650C or more as desired.

Basic components of mechanical dryers and their functions:

 Furnace or burner – depending on the fuel being used, a mechanical dryer must have a
furnace where agricultural waste will be burned and the heat generated will be used to
dry the grain, or a burner where the fossil fuel will be converted into heat energy for
drying.
 Blower = Normally installed just after the furnace or blower and used to push the drying
air across the grain mass so that moisture will be moved out.
 Exhaust blower = used to suck the heated air that passed thru the grain mass thus
removing the moisture from the grain including dusts and dried empty grains
 Drying bin – where the grain being dried is stationed
 Plenum – the hollow space just beside or below the grain mass to be dried. This is
where the drying air passes thru before crossing the grain mass.
 Hopper – in batch recirculating dryers this is where the grain to be dried is loaded either
manually of mechanically.
 Bucket elevator – moves the grain from the hopper up and load them into the holding bin
in batch recirculating dryers.
 Unloader – functions mainly for the recirculation of the grain in tandem with the bucket
elevator. Unloader could either be auger or belt conveyors.
 Control panel – a panel containing the controls of the instrumentation system wherein
the dryer operator can set the parameters of the dryer operation i.e. temperature,
moisture content desired, etc.
 Cyclone – a dust collection system used to prevent the dust, from the product being
dried, form scattering all over the vicinity of the dryer.
 Pre-cleaner – in a bulk handling system, a pre-cleaner is installed just before the dryer
so that the newly harvested grain is cleaned before loading to the dryer.

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