The History of the United States Part 2

1776-1789

The Battle of Trenton in New George Washington was a These are British
Jersey was one of the most Freemason, a General, a veteran of
the French and Indian War, the warships on the Hudson.
important battles of the first American President, and a
Revolutionary War. slave-owner.
Almost 250 years after the Declaration of Independence was signed, we see monumental changes and
challenges (especially after Justice Anthony Kennedy resigning) in the United States of America
simultaneously. During that era of time, which was from 1776-1789, one occurrence has caused one of the
most important events of world history. In essence, that event was the formation of the American nation.
During that time, constitutional law developed, infrastructure grew, and slavery continued to oppress African
Americans unjustly. Debates relating to Native American land rights persisted and well known figures among
many backgrounds would rise up in the grand scale of history. The Revolutionary War was miraculous in the
sense that the Patriots were almost totally defeated on numerous occasions, but assistance from France plus
Spain (along with the Patriots’ persistence) made victory for America a reality. This is 150 years after the 14th
Amendment. We must defend our rights. On this day of July 4, 2018, we understand the imperfections of
America and we recognize the audacious heroes who are Americans as well from Frederick Douglass to
Harriet Tubman. Now, this part of this series will explain the origins of the United States of America.
 Contents
The Second Continental Congress
The Battle of Trenton
The British New Strategy
The Dunmore Declaration
The Revolutionary War in the Frontier &
the South
The end of the Revolutionary War
1783-1789
New Realities
The Modern United States Constitution
The Bill of Rights and the First President

Appendix A: African Americans during the

Colonial and American Revolution Periods
The Second Continental Congress
On July 2, 1776, the Second Continental Congress was still meeting in Philadelphia. They voted unanimously
to declare the independence of “the thirteen United States of America.” This was part of the Lee
Resolution. Two days later, on July 4, 1776, the Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. With
the signing of that document, it officially started the birth of the United States of America as we know it.
The drafting of the Declaration came about by a group of people called the Committee of Five. It was made
up of John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and others. It was drafted by Thomas Jefferson and revised by the
others and the Congress as a whole. It mentioned that, “all men are created equal" with "certain
unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness", and that "to secure
these rights governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the
governed", as well as listing the main colonial grievances against the crown. Many people love the
eloquence of the words. Other people would criticize the Declaration as hypocritical (like British
abolitionists) since it talked about equality, but many of its supporters owned slaves. July 4th would be
celebrated as the birthday of the United States.

The British returned in force in August 1776. The Redcoats landed in New York City. They started to defeat
the fledgling Continental Army at the Battle of Long Island. During this time of September 1776 was the
great fire of New York City where fire destroyed about one third of New York City (especially at the
southern end of Manhattan). Major General James Robertson confiscated surviving uninhabited homes of
known Patriots and assigned them to British officers. Churches, other than the state churches (i.e. The
Church of England) were converted into prisons, infirmaries, or barracks. Some of the common soldiers
were billeted with civilian families. There was a great influx of Loyalist refugees into the city resulting in
further overcrowding, and many of these returning and additional Loyalists from Patriot-controlled areas
encamped in squalid tent cities on the charred ruins. The Battle of Long Island was one of the largest
engagements of the Revolutionary war. The Redcoats almost captured General Washington and his army.
The British made NYC their main political and military base of operations in North America. They held it
until November 25, 1783 (which is also known as Evacuation Day).
The Battle of Trenton
The Patriot evacuation and British military occupation made the city of NYC the destination for Loyalist
refugees and a focal point of Washington’s intelligence network. The British soon seized New Jersey and
American fortunes looked dim during that time. Thomas Paine mentioned that, “these are the times that
try men’s souls.” Yet, Washington struck back in a surprise attack. He and his troops crossed the icy
Delaware River into New Jersey. They defeated the British and Hessian armies at Trenton and Princeton (in
New Jersey on January 3, 1777) at the Battle of Trenton (on December 26, 1776). After a brief battle, nearly
the entire Hessian force was captured, with negligible losses to the Americans. The Battle of Trenton
significantly boosted the Continental Army's flagging morale, and inspired re-enlistments. So, the Patriots
regained New Jersey. These victories gave a big boast to the Patriots at a time when morale was low and
that image of Washington crossing the Delaware has been the iconic images of the war. The Battle of the
Assunpink Creek, also known as the Second Battle of Trenton, was a battle between American and British
troops that took place in and around Trenton, New Jersey, on January 2, 1777, during the American
Revolutionary War. That battle resulted in an American victory.
 EVENTS LEADING UP TO THE
REVOLUTION
As late as 1765, most colonists didn’t want explicit independence from Great Britain. Yet, many of the
policies of the UK not only galvanized more anti-British sentiment, but these British acts ultimately led
into the American Revolution. The Sons and Daughters of Liberty fought against these laws in order for
them to promote their rights as colonists. Samuel Adams created committees of correspondence in
Massachusetts to send information about these events in Boston. The American Revolution wasn’t just
about battles. It was about the spread of Enlightenment plus pro-independence ideals across the thirteen
colonies.

The Sugar Act The Stamp Act
It existed on April 5, It taxed printed items and
1764 and it lowered the it was the first direct tax
tax on molasses, but on the colonists. March
increased penalties for 25, 1765 was the date of
smuggling, denying a its passage. It added a fee
jury trial to accused to printed materials like
smugglers. Colonists legal documents plus
ended up paying more newspapers. Riots existed
taxes. because of this including
the creation of the Sons of
Liberty.
The Quartering Act Declaratory Act
It allowed British It existed by 1766. It repealed
armies to go into the Stamp Act, but asserts
people’s homes to the Parliament’s right to rule
force colonists to the colonies as it saw fit.
house them after the
French and Indian War.
It came about in 1765.

Townshend Acts The Boston Massacre The Tea Act Intolerable Acts
This existed on June 29, On March 5, 1770, April 27, 1773 was the date April 1, 1774 was the time of its passage. It
1767. They created colonists were when Parliament passed is also known as the Coercive Act. It was
import taxes on many murdered by British this act. It was used to save used to make Massachusetts to pay for the
goods. It ended the forces in Boston. One the East India Tea tea destroyed after the Boston Tea Party.
responsibility from the of the people killed Company. It lowered the These laws closed the Boston Harbor and
colonial assemblies. Their was Crispus Attucks, price of tea, but it gave the forced colonists to house British soldiers in
taxes were later ended who was a man of company a monopoly. It their homes. These laws ultimately caused
the First Continental Congress and the
except the one on tea. African descent. threatened the businesses
Revolutionary War itself.
of colonial importers.
The British New Strategy
People in London by early 1777 organized the grand British strategic plan of the Saratoga Campaign. The
plan wanted 2 British armies to converge at Albany, New York from the north and south. This would divide
the colonies in two and separating New England from the rest. Failed communications and poor planning
resulted in the army descending from Canada. It was commanded by General Burgoyne and the British
army was bogged down in the dense forest north of Albany. The British Army was supposed to advance up
the Hudson River to meet Burgoyne went instead to Philadelphia in a vain attempt to end the war by
capturing the American capital city (which was Philadelphia at that time). Burgoyne’s British army was
defeated at Saratoga by the U.S. local militia (it was led by a cadre of American regulars). The battle showed
the British that the Americans had the strength and determination to fight on. Previously, the Redcoats
thought that the Americans were a group of ragtag mob that could be easily dispersed. One British officer
mentioned that, “…The courage and obstinacy with which the Americans fought were the astonishment of
everyone, and we now became fully convinced that they are not that contemptible enemy we had hitherto
imagined them, incapable of standing a regular engagement, and that they would only fight behind strong
and powerful works…”

The American victory at Saratoga caused the French into open military alliance with America via the Treaty
of Alliance (1778). Spain and the Netherlands also allied with the United States. Spain and the Netherlands
had powerful navies who desired to undermine the British strength. Britain was in a European major war
too. The French navy neutralized their previous dominance in the war involving the seas. Britain didn’t have
major allies and faced the prospect of invasion from across the English Channel. The Second Continental
Congress agreed to allow Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation on November 15, 1777. By June
1778, the British ended its occupation of Philadelphia. It started on September 26, 1777.
The Dunmore Proclamation
Thousands of enslaved African Americans in the South escaped to British lines during the Revolutionary
War, as they were promised freedom to fight with the British. There was the Dunmore Proclamation. It was
a historical document signed on November 7, 1775, by John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, royal governor of
the British Colony of Virginia. The proclamation declared martial law in Virginia and promised freedom for
slaves of American revolutionaries who left their owners and joined the royal forces. Many Loyalists and
black people joined the Redcoat cause. In South Carolina, 25,000 enslaved African Americans, one-quarter
of those held, escaped to the British or otherwise leave their plantations. After the war, many African
Americans are evacuated with the British for England; more than 3,000 Black Loyalists are transported with
other Loyalists to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, where they are granted land. Still, others went to
Jamaica and the West Indies. An estimated 8-10,000 were evacuated from the colonies in these years as
free people, about 50 percent of those slaves who defected to the British and about 80 percent of those
who survived. Many free black human beings in the North would fight with the colonists for the rebellion.
*I recently saw some of the episodes of the Book of Negroes series. Honestly, it is one of the most
touching, emotional slavery films that I have seen in my life. It's that good. It is in the category of Roots in
my opinion. The lead actress is Aunjanue Ellis and she did her thing. She expressed a lot of strength,
emotion, and realism in all of the episodes of that grandiose miniseries. The Book of Negroes is about black
people who were captured from Africa as slaves, they were forcibly sent into America, and some of them
fought on the British side during the Revolutionary War (as being promised their freedom by the Redcoats).
Later, some of them traveled into Nova Scotia plus Africa in order to achieve their freedom. Aunjanue Ellis
plays Aminata Diallo who fights for the abolitionist cause after the Revolutionary War. She lived in England
by the end of the ministries with her daughter May. The miniseries has an ensemble cast of Lyriq Bent,
Cuba Gooding Jr., Louis Gossett, Jr., Ben Chaplin, and other actors and actresses. The film resonates with all
of us since it showed the power of the human spirit, the glory of Black Love, and the importance to fight
against any injustice. On July 8, 1777, The Vermont Republic (a sovereign nation at the time) abolished
slavery, the first future state to do so. No slaves were held in Vermont. By 1781, in challenges by Elizabeth
Freeman and Quock Walker, two independent county courts in Massachusetts found slavery illegal under
its state constitution and declared each to be free persons. In 1783, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial
Court affirmed that Massachusetts state constitution had abolished slavery. It ruled that "the granting of
rights and privileges [was] wholly incompatible and repugnant to" slavery, in an appeal case arising from
the escape of former slave Quock Walker. When the British left New York and Charleston in 1783, they took
the last of 5,500 Loyalists to the Caribbean, along with some 15,000 slaves.

We know that slavery hasn't ended in 1865. It continues to day which is why modern abolitionist
movements are in existence currently to end slavery once and for all. Also, it is important to recognize the
strength of black people and resiliency. Today, tons of black people are lawyers, doctors, teachers, athletes,
IT specialists, politicians, theologians, dentists, fitness experts (like people who I know in Facebook. They
know who they are), and other great people. I will have a great love for my black people. The Book of
Negroes miniseries is based on the novel of the same name by Lawrence Hill. Once black people are free
and filled with justice, the rest of the human family is subsequently free. That is real talk.
The Revolutionary War in the Frontier & the South
By this time (of the late 1770's), the British controlled most of the northern coastal cities and the Patriot
forces controlled the hinterlands (like the Midwest and other rural locations). The war in the frontier (or in
the Midwest) was about many settlers opposing the Proclamation of 1763 that banned settlers to travel
west of the Appalachian Mountains. The colonists and the British fought each other brutally in the
Midwest. The settlers wanted to claim more Native American lands. Native Americans allied with the British
heavily during the Revolutionary War, because they didn’t want settlers encroaching on their lands. The
frontier war was bloody. Native Americans increased the attacks on colonial settlements as promoted by
the British. White settlers also attacked and killed even neutral Native Americans and they didn’t respect
truces. This caused revenge spanning years. One Patriot leader of the Midwest was Colonel George Rogers
Clark. He led the Patriot militia against the British. He and his forces took the settlements of Kaskaskia and
Cahokia during the spring of 1778. During the summer of 1778, Clark and his French allies controlled all
British ports in the areas of Indiana and Illinois. The British and the Native Americans responded. They
recaptured a fort at Vincennes, Indiana. Clark gathered volunteers to march from their winter quarters on
the Mississippi River to fight back. In late February 1779, they came into Vincennes. They convinced many
Native Americans to ally with them. This caused the Patriots to get the fort. After the war, Patriot outposts
allowed Americans to travel in the Ohio River valley. In upstate New York, Native Americans and British
forces attacked many frontier outposts in 1779. Patriot troops responded by viciously burning down 40
Iroquois towns. This harmed the power of the Iroquois Federation. The Native Americans attacked the
settlers again and many settlers traveled back to the east.

Additionally, the British decided to attempt to seize the southern states. There were limited British forces in
the South. So, the British commanders wanted to mobilize Loyalists (like among farmers and artisans) in the
South in order for the campaign to be successful. By late December of 1778, the British forces captured
Savannah, Georgia. In 1780, they launched a fresh invasion and took Charleston too. There was a big
Redcoat victory at the Battle of Camden during the summer of 1780, which meant that the British invaders
controlled most of Georgia and South Carolina.
As for Spain, the Spanish forces in the South under Bearnardo de Galvez attacked the British forts in the
Gulf Coast region. By 1780, the Spanish captured the British fort a Mobile, Alabama. By 1781, they took
over Pensacola or the capital of the British West Florida. Spanish power in America remained while the
British troops came from their offensive against the Patriots to fight the Spanish. Patriot and Loyalists
militias fought each other in the South via a civil war.

The British created a network of forts inland. They hoped the Loyalists would rally to the flag. After the
British were defeated at the Battle at Kings Mountain in October of 1780, more Patriots had support among
those in South Carolina. Even some of the Loyalists in the South started to accuse the British of causing
chaos in South Carolina. The Continental Army in the South had the leaders of Nathanael Greene and Daniel
Morgan. In 1781, the Continental Army inflicted large casualties against the British in Cowpens, South
Carolina and Guilford Courthouse, North Carolina. Not enough Loyalists turned out, however, and the
British had to move out. They fought their way north into North Carolina and Virginia, with a severely
weakened army. Behind them, much of the territory they left dissolved into a chaotic guerrilla war, as the
bands of Loyalists, one by one, were overwhelmed by the Patriots. George Washington sent a large number
of his troops into the South by the summer of 1781. He wanted to trap Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia.
The British army under Lord Cornwallis marched into Yorktown, Virginia. They expected to be rescued by a
British fleet. When that fleet was defeated by a French fleet (General Lafayette allied with Washington), the
British forces were trapped. They were surrounded by a stronger force of Americans and French under
Washington’s command.

On October 19, 1781, Cornwallis surrendered with his 8,000 troops. George Washington mentioned the
following words on the defeat of Cornwallis on October 19, 1781:

“…I have the Honor to inform Congress, that a reduction of the British Army
under the Command of Lord Cornwallis, is most happily effected. The
unremitting ardor which actuated every Officer and soldier in the combined
Army on this occasion, has principally led to this important event, at an earlier
period than my most sanguine hopes had induced me to expect.”
 The United States delegation at the Treaty of Paris (as shown in the image of the top right) included John
Jay, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Henry Laurens, and William Temple Franklin. Here they are depicted
by Benjamin West in his American Commissioners of the Preliminary Peace Agreement with Great Britain.
The British delegation refused to pose, and the painting was never completed.

The end of the Revolutionary War

The news of the defeat ended the fighting in America. The naval war continued for a time. Support for the
conflict was never strong in Britain. Many British people in the UK sympathized with the Patriots, but British
support for the war reached a new low by 1781. King George III wanted to fight on personally, but he lost
control of the Parliament and had to agree to peace negotiations. By 1782, the new British government
desired peace with the Americans. Long negotiations resulted in the Treaty of Paris (1783). This provided
highly favorable boundaries for the United States. It included nearly all land east of the Mississippi River
and south of Canada except British West Florida (which was awarded to Spain). The western territories
were about the size of nearly Western Europe. It had a few thousands of American pioneers and tens of
thousands of Native Americans (who were mostly allied to the British, but were abandoned by London).
The treaties of Fort Sanwix in 1784 and Hopewell in 1785 force Native Americans to give up more land
(settlers traveled westward). More than 100,000 Americans lived in Tennessee and Kentucky by 1790.
Native American suffered a great deal as a product of the Revolutionary War. Many slaves who allied with
the British were moved into Nova Scotia. Some became free and traveled into Canada and Africa. Some
were re-enslaved in the Caribbean by the British. Many Loyalists came into Canada and Britain. Loyalists
and British critics said that the Patriots are hypocrites to talk about liberty and had slavery. Even the Patriot
governor of New Jersey back in 1778 admitted that slavery was “utterly inconsistent with the principles of
Christianity and humanity; and in Americans, who have idolized liberty; peculiarity odious and disgraceful.”
Wealthy white women had some rights, but all women didn’t have true equality back then. The most
people who benefited from the Revolutionary War were upper middle class and rich property owning white
men. African Americans continued to fight for justice. Many black Americans sued in court for
emancipation and equal rights. Many black institutions grew in colonial America and early America after
the Revolutionary War. Many slaves were liberated. Most black people were still enslaved in America by
1790. Soon, the North would free slaves by legislation and the South had many free slaves, but the South
wouldn’t legislate an end to slavery until after the American Civil War. The American Revolution did change
the world. It motivated other movements from the French Revolution to other events. The concepts of
equality, liberty, and justice were used by so many afterwards in creating social change against oppression.

Nations are known to honor the memory of its founding. People talk about patriotism and identity, but the
new American nation was created by contradictions and the injustices of slavery including the genocide of
the indigenous peoples continued. The Redcoats shouldn’t be sympathized with because of their advocacy
of monarchy, imperialism worldwide, and other forms of oppression. Also, America’s imperfections
shouldn’t be glamorized either. The American Revolution was made up of a diversity of Patriot
personalities (like George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, Alexander Hamilton, James
Madison, Nathan Hale, Benjamin Franklin, etc.) who differed on the role of government, religion, and
other issues. Yet, they were unified in their goal of establishing independence among the United States
of America. By 1783, the American Revolutionary War would be over. This new existence was radical.
Back in those days, it was rare for colonies to have independence from the large British Empire. Now, the
Patriots defeated the largest empire of the world during that time. The British lost because of: French &
Spanish assistance to the Patriots, the British underestimation of the Patriots, the British extended
resources worldwide, the leadership of the American armies, and the British people soon distancing
themselves from King George III’s policies.
1783-1789

From 1783 to 1789 was the crucial period of early American history. It was a time of massive changes and
the debates about the roles of the federal and state governments. It represented the transformation of the
existence of states from a confederation into a true federal government system. Back during the 1780’s,
the United States of America was a loose confederation of 13 states. It was filled with foreign and domestic
problems. The states executed small trade wars with each other. The nation had difficulty in suppressing
insurrections like the Shays Rebellion in Massachusetts. The Treasury was empty because of the war and
there was no way to pay the war debts. There was no national executive authority. The world experienced
an end to the war and the economy started to flourish. Some historians described this period as a bleak
challenging time for the new nation. Economic growth existed and political maturation developed
according to Merrill Jensen and others. The Treaty of Paris caused the United States to be completely
independent and peaceful from British attacks. Yet, there was an unsettled governmental structure. The
Second Continental Congress created the Articles of Confederation on November 15, 1777 to regularize its
own status. The Articles of Confederation made a permanent confederation and it granted the Congress (or
the only federal institution) little power to finance itself or to ensure that its resolutions were enforced.

There was no President and no judiciary back then. Historians generally agree that the Articles were too
weak to hold the fast growing nation together, they gave Congress credit for resolving the conflict between
the states over ownership of the western territories (yet, these policies violated the sovereignty and human
rights of Native Americans who lived in those territories). The states voluntarily turned over their lands to
national control. The Land Ordinance of 1785 and Northwest Ordinance created territorial government. It
set up protocols for admission of new states, the division of land into units, and set aside land in each
township for public use. The system was a sharp break from the old school imperial colonization in Europe
and it was the basis for the rest of the American continental expansion through the 19th century. The
British blockade ended in 1783.
New Realities
So, America started to have economic prosperity. Yet, trade opportunities were restricted. The reason was
the existence of mercantilist policies of the European powers. Before the war, Americans shipped food and
other products to the British colonies in the Caribbean. By the 1780’s, those ports were closed. Only British
ships could trade there. France and Spain had similar policies for their empires. Spain imposed restrictions
on imports of New England fish and Chesapeake tobacco. New Orleans was closed by the Spanish and that
hampered settlement of the West. Yet, this didn’t stop frontiersmen from pouring west in in large
numbers. Simultaneously, American manufacturers faced sharp competition from British products. These
products were suddenly available again. There was the inability of Congress to redeem currency or public
debts incurred during the Revolutionary War (or to facilitate trade and financial links among states. This
aggravated a gloomy situation). The 1786-1787 Shay’s Rebellion was about an uprising of farmers in
western Massachusetts against the state court system. This threatened the stability of state government
and Congress was powerless to help. The Shay’s Rebellion was also about farmers who wanted a more
democratic impulse to benefit their areas. They desired fairness involving taxation.

The Continental Congress did have power to print paper money back then. It printed so much that its value
plunged until the expression “not worth a continental” was used for some worthless item. Congress
couldn’t levy taxes and could not only make requisitions upon the states. The states didn’t respond
generously. Less than a million and a half dollars came into the Treasury between 1781 and 1784. Yet, the
states have been asked for 2 million in 1783 alone. In 1785, Alexander Hamilton issued a court statement
that the Treasury had received absolutely no taxes from New York for the year. Many states handled their
debts in many levels of success. The South for the most part refused to pay off its debts since they feared
that it harmed its local banks. Yet, Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia fared well due to their production
of cash crops like cotton and tobacco. South Carolina would have done the same, but they had many crop
failures. Maryland had financial chaos and political infighting. New York and Pennsylvania fared well,
although, Pennsylvania had also political quarrels. New Jersey, New Hampshire, Delaware, and Connecticut
struggled. Massachusetts was in a state of virtual civil war and suffered from high taxes and the decline of
its economy. Rhode Island alone among the New England states prospered and mostly because of its
notorious harboring of pirates and smugglers. John Adams came into London in 1785 as the first
representative of the United States. He found it impossible to get a treaty for unrestricted commerce.
Demands were made for favors and there was no assurance that individual states would agree to a treaty.
Adams wanted the states to confer the power of passing navigation laws to Congress or the states pass
retaliatory acts against Great Britain. Congress had already requested and failed to get power over
navigation laws. During this time, each state acted individually against Great Britain to little effect. When
other New England states closed their ports to British shipping, Connecticut hastened to profit by opening
its ports. By 1787, Congress was unable to protect manufacturing and shipping. State legislatures were
unable or unwilling to resist attacks upon private contracts and public credit. Land speculators had no rise
in values when the government couldn’t defend its borders or protect its frontier population. The idea of a
convention to revise the Articles of Confederation grew in favor. Alexander Hamilton realized while serving
as Washington’s top aide that a strong central government was necessary to avoid foreign intervention and
allay the frustrations due to an ineffectual Congress. Hamilton led a group of like-minded nationalists to
win Washington’s endorsement. They convened the Annapolis Convention in 1786 to petition Congress to
call a convention to meet in Philadelphia to remedy the long term crisis.
The Modern United States Constitution
The Congress met in New York City. The Congress called on each state to send delegates to a Constitution
Convention meeting in Philadelphia. The stated purpose of the convention was to amend the Articles of
Confederation. Many delegates like James Madison and George Washington wanted to use the convention
to create a new constitution for the United States of America. The Convention convened on May of 1787
(with 12 of the 13 states sending delegates to the Convention. Rhode Island declined to participate). It
started in the Pennsylvania State House of Independence Hall on May 25, 1787. The delegates selected
George Washington to preside over them. James Madison was the driving force behind the Convention.
The now elder Benjamin Franklin was there to give his experience and prestige. Other leaders in the
Convention included: Roger Sherman, Gouverneur Morris, James Wilson, Elbridge Gerry, William Paterson,
John Dickinson, Charles Pinckney, Edmund Randolph, Alexander Hamilton, and George Mason. Alexander
Hamilton was right that a powerful central government was necessary to promote a stable society, he was
right to desire a balanced government, and some accused him of expressing some sympathy with
aristocracy and monarchy. Morris was definitely wrong to advocate a President ruling for life. James
Madison didn’t agree with democracy, but he favored republicanism (filled with diverse interests) without a
constitution modeled by the British system.

Me personally, I believe in democracy represented fairly among the people. The Constitutional Convention
dealt with the compromises to cause a government that was strong and acceptable to all of the states. The
Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan were 2 different plans for the future U.S. Constitutional government.
The Virginia Plan was proposed by James Madison. It wanted a government among 3 branches (legislature,
executive, and judicial). For the legislature, he wanted the House and the Senate to be represented based
upon population, so states with the greatest population would have the greatest representation. It
promoted the interests of the most populous states in America. Madison via his plan wanted Congress to
veto any plan of the states similar to the Parliament in dealing with colonial laws. The Virginia Plan wanted
a strong President being in office for seven years. The President would command the armed forces, manage
foreign relations, and appoint all executive plus judicial officers subject to the Senate. Patrick Henry didn’t
like this plan as the President would have kingly powers. This plan was extreme to put it lightly.

The New Jersey Plan was the opposite of the Virginia Plan which represented states with smaller
populations. It was introduced by William Peterson of New Jersey. His plan wanted Congress to regulate
commerce, to tax, and to keep many of the powers of the Articles of Confederation. It had one unicameral
legislature with the same representative regardless of population size. It had an executive committee not a
President. The states were sovereign except for a few powers mentioned by the federal government. The
problem with the Virginian Plan was that it went too far in expanding executive power and the problem
with the New Jersey Plan was that it didn’t go far enough in strengthening federal government power. So, a
compromise was achieved. Roger Sherman of Connecticut led the compromise. The Great Compromise
made 3 branches of government (executive, legislative, and judicial branches). The House would be
represented by population while the Senate had 2 representatives for each state regardless of size.
Madison abandoned national veto over state laws. This compromise is about federalism or the divided
governmental power between federal and state governments. One of the biggest mistakes of this
Convention was the Three fifths compromise, which counted slaves as 3/5 of a person. That was disgrace.
Cowardly delegates feared southern resistance, so they enacted that nefarious policy. People like Madison,
Jefferson, etc. knew that slavery and racism were immoral, but they supported that wicked 3/5
compromise anyway. The slave trade was banned by 1808. The Constitutional Convention ended by
September 17, 1787. Edmund Randolph of Virginia, George Mason of Virginia, and Elbridge Gerry of
Massachusetts didn’t sign the document since they viewed it as not perfect.

The Constitution, as proposed by the Convention (which lasted from May 25 – September 17, 1787),
wanted a federal government which was limited in scope but independent of plus superior to the states. It
wanted give Congress the role to tax and equipped with both Executive and Judicial branches as well as a
two house legislature. The national legislature or Congress envisioned by the Convention embodied the key
compromise of the Convention between the small states which wanted to retain the power they had under
the one state/one vote Congress of the Articles of Confederation and the large states which wanted the
weight of their larger populations and wealth to have a proportionate share of power. The upper House or
the Senator would represent the states equally while the House of Representatives would be elected from
districts of approximately equal populations. The Constitution itself called for ratification by state
conventions specially elected for the purpose. The Confederation Congress recommended the Constitution
to the states. They asked that ratification conventions to be called. Many smaller stated led by Delaware
embraced the Constitution with little reservations. The two most populous states of New York and Virginia
had controversies. Virginia had been the first successful British colony in North America. It has a large
population and its political leadership had prominent roles in the Revolution. New York State was large and
populous. It had ports on the coast and it was essential for the success of the United States. Local New York
politics was controlled by a parochial elite led by Governor George Clinton and local political leaders.
These people don’t want to share their power with the national politicians. The New York ratification
convention became the focus for a struggle over the wisdom of adopting the Constitution. The process for
ratification continued and it was a long process. From December 7-18, 1787, Delaware, Pennsylvania and
New Jersey ratified the Constitution. Those, who advocated the Constitution, became the Federalists and
quickly gained supported nationwide. The most influential Federalists were Alexander Hamilton, and James
Madison. Many Federalists included business leaders, those who lived in urban communities, and other
people. These were the anonymous authors of The Federalist Papers or a series of 85 essays published in
New York. They were created under the pen name “Publius.” John Jay also wrote some of the Federalist
Papers too. These papers became seminal documents for the new United States and have often cited by
jurists. These were written to sway the closely divided New York legislature. The opponents of the plan for
a stronger federal government were called the Anti-Federalists. They feared that a government with the
power to tax would soon become as despotic and corrupt as Great Britain had been only decades earlier.
The Anti-Federalists included many farmers. The most famous Anti-Federalist writers were Patrick Henry
and George Mason, who demanded a Bill of Rights to be included in the Constitution. The Federalists had
approval from George Washington. Washington chaired the Constitutional Convention.
 Key Individuals of the American Revolutionary Period
George Washington was the
commander of the Continental
Army. He was a soldier, a farmer,
a politician, and he was the
President of the United States
from 1789 to 1797.
Patrick Henry was another early
proponent of American
independence. He was the
member of the Virginia House of
Burgesses. He gave his famous
“Give me Liberty or Give me
Death” speech.
John Adams was an Thomas Jefferson was the Benjamin Franklin was an
American statesman. He principal author of the American polymath who was an
was the first Vice Declaration of author, a printer, and a politician.
President and second Independence. He was an He was a member of the
President of America. He Anti-Federalist and would Continental Congress, helped to
was an early advocate for become the third create the Declaration of
U.S. independence. President of the United Independence, and helped to get
States. French support for American
independence. He was a
scientist and he later opposed
slavery before he passed away.
He lived to be 84 years old.
Lord Charles Cornwallis King George III was the Phillis Wheatley was an African
was the British Army British King during the American poet. She was once
general who surrendered Revolutionary War. He enslaved and was free later on.
at Yorktown, Virginia. was forced to end the war She wrote poems and plays on
because of the defeat at many subjects. She also
Yorktown and opposition advocated for the equality of
to the war increasingly black people.
from members of the
British Parliament.
Thomas Jefferson was the Minister of France at that time. He had reservations about the proposed
Constitution. He wanted to remain neutral in the debate and to accept either outcome. Promises of a Bill of
Rights form Madison secured ratification in Virginia. Yet, New York had the Clintons (who controlled New
York politics) found themselves outmaneuvered as Hamilton secured ratification by a 30-27 vote. The
Federalists had a much more powerful infrastructure to allow many states to ratify the Constitution. North
Carolina and Rhode Island eventually signed on to make it unanimous among the 13 states. The old Articles
of Confederation government of America ended to be replaced by a democratic republican form of
government. The Anti-Federalists were right to promote a Bill of Rights addendum to the Constitution and
they were wrong to abhor a strong federal government. The Constitution then and now advances popular
sovereignty or the people are the only source of the government’s power.

The Constitution advanced limited government making the government limited in what it can or can’t do. It
had the separation of powers, federalism, representative government (or citizens can elect representatives
to the government to make laws), and checks and balances (like the President can veto a law, but Congress
can override the President’s veto with 2/3s majority). Congress then set elections to the new Congress as
well as the first Presidential election. The Anti-Federalists were wrong in saying that the Constitution should
be always narrowly interpreted to limit federal power at every circumstances while the Federalists were
right to say that the expansion of federal power when necessary is important to allow implied, broad
powers to benefit the people. For example, the Internet didn't exist back then. Yet, during the future, the
Internet would exist and federal implied powers can be enacted by Congress to address the Internet in a
fair fashion.

The Constitution is made up of Articles.

Each article has sections in it that deals
with a specific function of the American
government. The Preamble is the
introduction to the purpose of the
government as set up by the Constitution.
Articles I, II, and III deal with the
legislative, executive and judicial branches
of government respectively. Article IV
deals with relations among the states.
Article V outline provisions for
Amendment. Article VI deals with
National debts, the supremacy of national,
and oath. Article VII outlines the process
of the ratification of the Constitution.
Then, you have the Amendments.
The Bill of Rights and the First President
The Electoral College unanimously chose George Washington as the first President. John Adams was the
first Vice President. New York City was designated as the national capital. They (George Washington and
John Adams) were inaugurated in April 1789 at Federal Hall. Madison used leadership to make the first
Congress to set up all of the necessary government agencies. He made good on the Federalist pledge of a
Bill of Rights. The Anti-Federalists promoted the Bill of Rights, as it was a check on the federal government
to protect rights. Madison drafted the Bill of Rights. It promoted the freedom of religion, the right to
assemble, the freedom of speech, the right to a jury, and other rights that we know about today.

Congress passed the Bill of Rights by 1789. Rhode Island, by a margin of 3%, became the thirteenth state to
ratify the Constitution on May 29, 1790. The United States Bill of Rights was ratified on 1791. The Bill of
Rights was one of the most important documents relating to government in human history. The
independent Vermont Republic was admitted to the Union as Vermont, becoming the fourteenth state in
1791 and Kentucky was the 15th state in the same year. The new American government didn’t have
political parties at first. Alexander Hamilton in 1790-1792 created a national network of friends of the
government that became the Federalist Party. It controlled the national government until 1801. There was
still a strong sentiment in favor of states’ rights and a limited federal government. This became the
platform of a new party called the Republican or the Democratic-Republican Party. It was in opposition to
the Federalists. Jefferson and Madison were its founders and leaders. Madison switched from being a
Federalist to being an ally of Jefferson since Madison opposed the pro-national bank views of Alexander
Hamilton.

The Preamble of the Constitution:

“…We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish
Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the
general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do
ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.”
 *Promote Your Rights*
The Bill of Rights
1st Amendment: It guarantees the freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition
2nd Amendment: It guarantees the right to bear arms
3rd Amendment: It prohibits quartering of troops in private homes
4th Amendment: It protects people from unreasonable searches and seizures
5th Amendment: It guarantees the due process for accused persons.
6th Amendment It guarantees the right to a speedy and public trial in the state where the offense was
committed
7th Amendment: It guarantees the right to a jury trial for civil cases tried in federal courts
8th Amendment: It prohibits excessive bail and cruel and unusual punishment
9th Amendment: It mentions that people have rights beyond what is stated in the Constitution
10th Amendment: It provides that powers not granted in the national government belong to the states
or to the people.

The Principles of the Constitution

Popular Sovereignty
Limited government
Separation of Powers
Federalism
Checks and Balances
Representative Government
The people are the only source of the government’s power.
The government has only the powers that the Constitution gives it.
The government’s power is divided among the three branches which are the
legislative, executive, and judicial.
The federal government and the state governments including the local
governments share power.
Each branch of government has the power to limit the actions of the other
two.
The citizens elect representatives in government to make laws.
 The Enlightenment Influences on American
Government
The Enlightenment was a philosophical movement that used human reason, logic,
happiness, scientific inquiry, and individual liberty in order to find the truths found in
Nature and the Universe. The U.S. Constitution and modern American culture take
heavily influence from the ideologies of the Enlightenment.
Enlightenment Leaders and their influences on American society

John Locke believed that Montesquieu was a Voltaire promoted the Beccaria believed in the
the government’s powers Frenchman who believed essence of the freedom of abolishment of torture.
come from the consent of in the separation of thought and expression That concept is found in
the people. He believed powers in that different excluding censorship. the Eighth Amendment
that people are entitled branches of government This is found in the First of the U.S. Bill of Rights.
to life, liberty, and could co-exist with Amendment of the Bill of
property. His words are different powers (and Rights. Voltaire believed
found in the Preamble to checks and balances). in religious toleration
the Constitution. which is part of the
freedom of religion.

Rousseau believed in Mary Wollstonecraft

direct democracy and believed in women’s
that’s found in the equality and giving
election of many political women opportunities in
leaders of America. education and medicine
plus politics. Women
continue to fight for true
equality.
 This image shows George Washington being sworn in for a second time on
March 4, 1793. John Adams was the Vice President. It was the first presidential
inauguration to be held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Jefferson and Madison were the founders and leaders of the Democratic-Republican Party. They opposed
strongly Hamilton’s First Bank of the United States. American foreign policy was dominated by the outbreak
of the French Revolutionary Wars between the United Kingdom and France during the late 1700's. The
Republicans supported France and the French Revolution as a force for democracy. The Washington
administration favored continued peace and commerce with Britain and it signed the Jay Treaty. This
angered the Democratic-Republicans who accused Hamilton and the Federalists of supporting aristocracy
and tyranny (when the French Revolution was right to oppose aristocracy, but many people in the French
Revolution went too far with the Reign of Terror that had acts of murder against even innocent people in
France. These events were occurring after the short lived Enlightenment-era Bavarian Illuminati). People
during that time were diverse. George Washington was a planter and the commander of the Continental
Army during the American Revolution. James Madison was a legislator from Virginia. Benjamin Franklin was
a writer, inventor, printer, legislator, and diplomat (he lived in Philadelphia). Gouverneur Morris was a
lawyer, merchant, and legislator from Pennsylvania. Alexander Hamilton was a lawyer and champion of a
strong central government. Roger Sherman was merchant, mayor of New Haven (in Connecticut), legislator,
and judge. John Dickenson of Delaware was a lawyer, historian, and independence advocate. John Adams
succeeded Washington as President in 1797 and continued the policies of his administration. So, these
individuals had experience in judicial affairs, government, and other aspects of human living. George
Washington would die by the year of 1799. The Jeffersonian Republicans took control of the Federal
government in 1801 and the Federalists never returned to power. The beginnings of the United States of
America started with controversies, conflicts, disputes, debates, and the development of a new nation. As
time would show, America's events would be dynamic and Earth changing indeed.
Appendix A: African Americans
during the Colonial and
American Revolution Periods
The first African slaves brought to
the British thirteen colonies came
about in 1619. This was when
black people were sent to Point
Comfort, or today’s Fort Monroe
in Hampton, Virginia. This was
30 miles downstream from
Jamestown, Virginia. The English
settlers mistreated them. Later,
slavery was more rigid in America
and became more race-based
slavery. Many black people back
then were indentured servants and
some were free. So, black people
included both free and enslaved
peoples. Massachusetts was the
first colony to legalize slavery in
1641.
Other colonies did the same
thing that allowed slavery onto
the children of slaves and
making non-Christian imported
black people slaves for life.
There were about 10-12 million
Africans were transported into
the Western Hemisphere via
the Maafa. Most of these
human beings were from the
stretch of the West African
coast extending from present-day
Senegal to Angola; a small
percentage came from
Madagascar and East Africa.
Only 5% (about 500,000)
went to the American colonies.

The vast majority went to the West Indies and
Brazil, where they died quickly. Demographic
conditions were highly favorable in the American
colonies, with less disease, more food, some
medical care, and lighter workloads than prevailed
in the sugar fields. At first, the Africans in the
South were outnumbered by white indentured
servants who voluntarily came from Britain.
Slaves worked for a lifetime on plantations. Slaves
were prevented from escaping on many cases, but
some slaves did escape. Slaves had their own
family systems, religion, and customs. Slavery
increased in America after 1660 when demand for
African slaves grew. By 1700, there were about
25,000 black slaves in the North American
mainland colonies, which was about 10% of the
total population.
Some slaves came from Africa, some came from
the Caribbean, and some were native born in
North America. Direct kidnapping of black
people and sending them into America grew by
the early 1700’s. From about 1700 to 1859, the
majority of slaves imported to the North
American mainland came directly from Africa in
huge cargoes to fill the massive spike in demand
for labor to work the continually expanding
plantations in the Southern colonies (later to be
states), with most heading to Virginia, South
Carolina, and French or Spanish Louisiana.
Northern colonies didn’t have as many black
slaves during the early 1700’s since the North was
heavily urbanized not agricultural. There weren’t
as many imported slaves into the North as
compared to the South. Also, big Northern cities
had large black populations (both slave and free)
in places like New York City, Philadelphia, and
Boston. From the 1750’s onward, American born
slaves of African descent began to outnumber
African-born slaves. During the time of the
American Revolution, some Northern state
started to consider abolishing slavery. Some
Southern states like Virginia had large locally born
slave populations. So, they stopped taking in
direct imports of slaves from Africa altogether but
still had slavery. States like South Carolina and
Georgia had direct imports from Africa until
1808. The continued, direct importation of slaves
from Africa ensured that for most of the
eighteenth century, South Carolina's black
population remained very high, with black people
outnumbering whites three to one, unlike in
Virginia, which had a white majority, despite its
large black slave population. A free black
population existed from Charleston to Boston. In
the year of 1760, Jupiter Hammon had a poem
printed, becoming the first published African-
American poet. The Non-Importation
Agreements lasted from 1765 to 1767. It involved
the First Continental Congress creates a multi-
colony agreement to forbid importation of
anything from British merchants. This implicitly
included slaves, and stopped the slave trade in
Philadelphia. The second similar act explicitly
stopped the slave trade. In 1773, Phillis Wheatley
had her own book entitled, Poems on Various
Subjects, Religious and Moral. By 1774, the first
black Baptist congregations were organized in the
South at: Silver Bluff Baptist Church in South
Carolina, and First African Baptist Church near
Petersburg, Virginia. On April 14, 1775, Society
for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully held in
Bondage holds four meetings. It was re-formed in
1784 as the Pennsylvania Abolition Society, and
Benjamin Franklin would later be its president.
During the days of the American Revolution,
political upheaval existed in America. Many white
settlers talked about relief of British rule and
independence, but some of them hypocritically
owned slaves while demanding freedom. The
Declaration of Independence is a document that
would inspire people in the future to promote
human rights and personal freedom. It was
written by Thomas Jefferson when he owned
more than 200 slaves. Other Southern statesmen
were also major slaveholders. The Second
Continental Congress did consider freeing slaves
to disrupt British commerce. They removed
language from the Declaration of Independence
that included the promotion of slavery amongst escaped in Georgia and Virginia, as well as New
the offenses of King George III. A number of England and New York. Well-known Loyalist
free black people, most notably Prince Hall—the soldiers include Colonel Tye and Boston King.
founder of Prince Hall Freemasonry, submitted Later, the Americans
petitions for the end of slavery. But these won the war. The
petitions were largely ignored. This didn’t deter provisional treaty
black people as black people always fought for outlined the goal of
freedom. Black Americans (both slave and free) many Americans to
served on both sides of the American return slaves. Yet, the
Revolutionary War. Crispus Attucks, a free Black British helped up to
tradesman, was the first casualty of the Boston 4,000 documented
Massacre and of the ensuing American African Americans to
Revolutionary War. 5,000 Blacks, including Prince leave the country for
Hall, fought in the Continental Army. Many Nova Scotia, Jamaica,
fought side by side with White soldiers at the and Britain rather than
battles of Lexington and Concord and at Bunker be returned to slavery.
Hill. Some of the black people involved in the Thomas Peters was Sister Elizabeth Freeman
(ca. 1744-1829) was the
battles of Lexington and Concord plus at Bunker one of the large
first slave to file a lawsuit
Hill included these human beings on the Patriot numbers of African
in court and won her
side: Peter Salem, Salem Poor, Barzillai Lew, Americans who fought
freedom in
Prince Estabrook, etc. Peter Salem is said to have for the British. Peters Massachusetts. She was a
killed Major John Pitcairn at Bunker Hill. James was born in present- great midwife, healer,
Armistead Lafayette was another black man who day Nigeria and and nurse. Her life has
fought for the U.S. during the Revolutionary war belonged to the inspired freedom loving
too. He was a runaway slave who scouted British Yoruba tribe, and people the world over.
encampments in Richmond, VA. ended up being
captured and sold into
When George Washington took command in slavery in French
1775, he barred any further recruitment of black Louisiana. Sold again,
people. About 5,000 free African American men he became a slave in
fought with the Patriots during the American North Carolina and
Revolution. One of these men, Agrippa Hull, escaped his slave-
fought in the American Revolution for over six owner’s farm in order
years. He and the other African-American soldiers to receive Lord
fought in order to improve their white neighbor's Dunmore's promise of
views of them and advance their own fight of freedom. Peters fought
freedom. By contrast, the British and Loyalists for the British
offered emancipation to any slave owned by a throughout the war. Sister Phillis Wheatley
Patriot who was willing to join the Loyalist forces. When the war finally (ca. 1753-1784) was the
Lord Dunmore, the Governor of Virginia, ended, he and other first published African
recruited 300 African-American men into his African Americans American woman poet.
Ethiopian regiment within a month of making this who fought on the She was born in West
proclamation. In South Carolina 25,000 slaves, losing side were taken Africa and her poetry was
more than one-quarter of the total, escaped to join to Nova Scotia. Here, very eloquent and
and fight with the British, or fled for freedom in they were given pieces personal.
the uproar of war. Thousands of slaves also of land that they could not farm.
 Black Loyalists and Black Patriots wanted the same goal, but used different ways to
trying to get freedom.
They also did not receive the same freedoms as
white Englishmen. Peters sailed to London in
order to complain to the government. He arrived
at a momentous time, when English abolitionists
were pushing a bill through Parliament to charter
the Sierra Leone Company and to grant it trading
and settlement rights on the West African coast.
Peters and the other African Americans on Nova
Scotia left for Sierra Leone in 1792. Peters died
soon after they arrived but the other members of
his party lived on in their new home. The
Constitutional Convention of 1787 defined the
early government of the newly formed United
States of America. The constitution related to the
discussions about freedom and equality. Also, it is
important to note that the original Constitution
continued slavery via the fugitive slave clause and
the three-fifths compromise. That compromise is
about counting slaves as three-fifths of a person in
order to increase Southern voting representation
in Congress while denying black people
fundamental human rights in a vicious fashion.
Additionally, free blacks' rights were also
restricted in many places. Most were denied the
right to vote and were excluded from public
schools. Some Blacks sought to fight these
contradictions in court. In 1780, Elizabeth
Freeman and Quock Walker used language from
the new Massachusetts constitution that declared
all men were born free and equal in freedom suits
to gain release from slavery. A free Black
businessman in Boston named Paul Cuffee sought
to be excused from paying taxes since he had no
voting rights. People continued to fight for justice.
Many people fought against slavery in the North
and in the South.
July 8, 1777 was the year when the Vermont
Republic (a sovereign nation at the time)
abolished slavery, the first future state to do so.
No slaves were held in Vermont. Pennsylvania
was the first U.S. state to abolish slavery in 1780.
Northern states passed emancipation acts between
1780 and 1804. In 1787 Congress passed the
Northwest Ordinance and barred slavery from the
large Northwest Territory. In 1790, there were
more than 59,000 free black Americans in the
United States. By 1810, that number had risen to
186,446. Most of these were in the North, but
Revolutionary sentiments also motivated Southern
slaveholders to fight back against freedom loving
movements. Some Southerners freed slaves by
manumission or in wills after the slave-
owners’deaths. In the Upper South, the
percentage of free black human beings rose from
about 1% before the Revolution to more than
10% by 1810. Quakers and Moravians worked to
persuade slaveholders to free families. In Virginia,
the numbers of free black people increased from
10,000 in 1790 to nearly 30,000 in 1810, but 95%
of black people were still enslaved. In Delaware,
three-quarters of all black people were free by
1810. By 1860 just over 91% of Delaware's black
population was free and 49.1% of those in
Maryland. One famous freeman was Benjamin
Banneker. He was a Maryland astronomer,
mathematician, almanac author, surveyor, and
farmer. He assisted in the initial survey of the
boundaries of the future District of Columbia
back in 1791. Some free black people emigrated to
Africa.
Some stayed in America. Black people, who were
enslaved, suffered rape, torture, abuse, family
splitting, and other evils. Many black people back
then were Muslims, Christians, and followers of
traditional African religions. Networks of
churches were formed by both free and enslaved
African Americans. The black church was an
expression of community and a gathering place
for social activist movements. They were
community centers where black people could
celebrate their African heritage without apology.
Many churches were educational centers for black
people. They helped to educate black people
throughout the nation. Richard Allen (who was a
bishop) founded many separate black
denominations. February 12, 1793 was when the
Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 was passed by
President Georgia Washington. It was an evil law
that allowed slave-owners to recover an escaped
slave. The Second Great Awakening would
further develop African-American Christian
circles. By the end of the 1700’s, Toussaint
L’Ouverture (1743-1803), Jean-Jacques Dessalines
(1758-1806), and Henri Christophe (1767-1820)
were heroically fighting the French empire during
the Haitian Revolution. Also, many black people
were Muslims long before 1800. The African
American journey for freedom and justice
continues to this very day in 2018.

This is hallowed ground. This is the Gettysburg

National Cemetery where people acknowledge the
sacrifice of heroes.

Next will be the continuation of the series with Part 3 detailing

the antebellum period and Part 4 dealing with the Civil War.

The struggle continues, but our cause is just and justice is what
we seek for the human race.
 Yes, here is one more reminder below about the importance of
protesting for liberty:
“…Michelle Obama, our beloved first lady
that I care so much about said, 'When they
go low, we go high.' I went as high as I
could…”
-Therese Patricia Okoumou.
By Timothy
Days ago, Sister Therese Patricia Okoumou
climbed up the Statue of Liberty to protest
migrant separation. She made a great point in
her brave action that defending the rights of
migrants is part of promoting human rights. This
is an international issue not just an American
issue. Black migrants suffer in Africa and in
Europe. Latinx migrants suffer in America.
Black undocumented immigrants exist too in
America. She is from the Republic of the Congo
and she is opposing the draconian zero-tolerance
Trump immigration policy. Okoumou is a
known fitness trainer and a 44 year old human
being. She was part of the Rise and Resist protest
group that wants to abolish ICE. ICE only
existed during the early 21st century while others
believe in the myth that ICE was established
decades ago. During this time and generation, we
will continue to defend the rights of the suffering.
She is defending the rights of children being held
in internment camps without their parents. That
reality is the height of cruelty and anti-democratic
values. Fundamentally, immigration rights are
human rights. We always appreciate the strength,
the wisdom, and the insights of this beautiful
black woman.
Therefore, we honor Sister Therese
Patricia Okoumou's sacrifice and heroism.