AR6303

CLIMATOLOGY

UNIT – NO: 1

BY

B.HARIHARAN
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
MEASI ACADEMY OF ARCHITECTURE
 INTRODUCTION
DEFINITIONS:

● Climate can be defined as ‘ region with certain conditions of temperature, dryness,

wind, light etc.’
● Scientific definition is: ‘ An integration in time of the physical states of the atmospheric
environment, characteristic of a certain geographical location’.
● Weather is the momentary state of the atmospheric environment at a certain location.

● Climate is defined as ‘ the integration in time of weather conditions’.

Climate has 4 major elements:-

EARTH – soil
WATER – humidity
FIRE – sun and temperature
AIR – wind

Climatology is all about the study of these elements

ARCHITECTURAL CLIMATOLOGY
Architecture is all about ART and TECHNOLOGY.
It includes public services, water supply and drainage, air conditioning,
ventilation, lighting, etc.

it is the basic science a designer is concerned about.

It involves majorly on:-

climatic elements how they are behaving on us how to be benefited by these
climatic elements how to protect ourselves from the adverse effect of climatic
elements

The major steps in architectural climatology are:-

climatology-study of climatic elements
biology-study of human comfort level with respect to climatology
technology-creating of built environment architecture
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE CLIMATE OF A PLACE:

Solar radiation quality:

● The earth receives almost all its energy from sun in the form of radiation, thus the sun
is the dominating influence on climates. The spectrum of solar radiation extends from
290 to 2300 nano metre.
● According to human means of perception we can distinguish:

A. ultra- violet radiation – 290 to 380 nm

B. visible light – 380 to 700 nm
C. Short infra red radiation – 700 to 2300 nm.
Solar radiation quantity:
● The intensity of radiation reaching the upper surface of the atmosphere is taken as the
solar constant 1395 W/m2. It may vary due to variations in the output of the sun itself
and changes in the earth- sun distance.
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE CLIMATE OF A PLACE:

Tilt of the earth’s axis:

● The earth rotates around its own axis, each rotation making 24 hour day.

The axis of this rotation is tilted to the plane of the elliptical orbit, at an angle of 23.5
from normal.
Maximum intensity is received on a plane normal to the direction of radiation. Due to
the tilted position, however, the area receiving the maximum intensity moves north
and south, between the tropic of cancer and the tropic of capricorn. This is the main
cause of seasonal changes.
 The Solstice occurs twice each year (around June 21 and December 22) as the Sun
reaches its most northerly or southerly excursion relative to the celestial equator on the
celestial sphere.

An equinox is the moment in which the plane of Earth's equator passes through the center
of the Sun, which occurs twice each year, around 20 March and 23 September.
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE CLIMATE OF A PLACE:

Radiation of the earth’s surface:

● The earth – sun relationship affects the amount of radiation received at a particular

point on the earth’s surface three ways:

● The cosine law: The intensity on a tilted surface equals the normal intensity times the

cosine of the angle of incidence.

● Atmospheric depletion: The absorption of radiation by ozone, vapours and dust

particles in the atmosphere. The lower the solar altitude angle, the longer the path of

radiation through the atmosphere, thus a smaller part reaches the earth’s surface.

● Duration of sunshine, i.e. The length of the daylight period.

Radiation of the earth’s surface
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE CLIMATE OF A PLACE:

The earth’s thermal balance:

● The total amount of heat absorbed by the earth each year is balanced by a
corresponding heat loss, without this cooling the thermal balance of the earth could
not be maintained, the temperature of the earth and its atmosphere would increase.
Out of the total radiation that is received, 50% is either absorbed, diffused, reflected
or hit direct on ground, remaining 50% is released from ground to atmosphere as
heat by,
● Long wave radiation to cold outer space( some 84% of this reradiation is absorbed in
the atmosphere, only 16% escapes to space)
● Evaporation: the earth’s surface is cooled, as liquid water changes into vapour and
mixes with air.
● Convection: air heated by contact with the warm earth surface becomes lighter and
rises to the upper atmosphere, where it dissipates its heat to space.
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE CLIMATE OF A PLACE:

Winds thermal forces:

● Winds are basically convection currents in the atmosphere, tending to even out the
differential heating of various zones. The pattern of movements is modified by the
earth’s rotation. At the maximum heating zone, the air is heated by the hot surface, it
expands, its pressure is decreased it becomes lighter, it rises vertically and flows off at
a high level towards colder regions. Part of this air, having cooled down at the high
level, descends to the surface in the subtropic regions, from where the cooler, heavier
air is drawn in towards the equator from both north and south.
● The area where the air rises, where these northerly and southerly winds meet, where
the tropical front is formed, is referred as the inter- tropical convergence zone. This
area experiences either completely calm conditions or only very light breezes of
irregular directions is referred as ‘doldrums’
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE CLIMATE OF A PLACE:

Trade winds: the coriolis force:

● The atmosphere rotates with the earth. As it is light in weight and behaves as fluid,
held against the earth’s surface only by gravity and friction, it has a tendency to lag
behind the earth’s rate of rotation where this rotation is the fastest, i.e. at the equator.
There is a slippage at the boundary layer between the earth and its atmosphere
caused by what is known as the ‘ coriolis force’. The effect is experienced as a wind
blowing in a direction opposite to that of the earth’s rotation. The actual wind is the
resultant of thermal forces and the coriolis force.
Mid- latitude westerlies:
● Around 30 deg north and south there are two bands of continually high barometric
pressure. Winds in these zones are typically light and variable. Between 30 and 60
deg north and south., however strong westerly winds prevail, blowing in the same
direction as the earth surface.
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE CLIMATE OF A PLACE:

● The total angular momentum of the earth atmospheric system must remain constant.
If it is reduced at the equator by easterly winds, this must be compensated for by
westerly winds elsewhere
Polar winds:
● Towards the poles from latitudes 60 deg north and south, the air flow patterns come
once more under the influence of thermal factors. The pattern is similar to that near
the equator. At the meeting point of cold polar winds and the mid-latitude westerlies, a
band of low pressure- a subpolar front- is formed with highly variable and strong
winds.
Annual wind shifts:
● During the course of each year the global wind pattern shifts from north to south and
back again, remaining broadly symmetrical about the inter tropical convergence zone.
As a consequence of this annual shift most regions of the earth experience seasonal
changes not only in the temperature but also in wind directions and in rainfall.
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE CLIMATE OF A PLACE:

Influence of topography:

● On a continental scale, wind and weather are the result of an interaction between

broad global flow patterns and regional pressure and temperature patterns are

created by the sun’s differential heating effect on land, forest and water.

● The force, direction and moisture content of air flows are strongly influenced by

topography. Air can be diverted or funnelled by mountain ranges. Air deflected

upwards, as it cools, releases its moisture content. A descending air mass will very

rarely give any precipitation, therefore rainfall characteristics vary sharply between

locations on windward and leeward slopes of mountain ranges.

COMPONENTS OF CLIMATE:

Climatic information:

● The designer is interested specifically in those aspects of climate which affect human

comfort and the use of buildings. They include averages, changes and extremes of

temperature, the temperature differences between day and night and its distribution,

air movements and special features, such as trade winds, thunder storms and

hurricanes.

● Climatic records as gathered at airports and meteorological stations are not primarily

intended for the use of designers. It’s their task to analyze climatic information and

present it in a form that allows him to identify features that are beneficial or harmful to

the future occupants of his building.

COMPONENTS OF CLIMATE:

Temperature measurements:
● The temperature of the air is measured in degree Celsius, most often with a mercury
thermometer. The dry bulb or true air temperature is a value taken in the shade, the
thermometer being mounted inside a louvered wooden box, known as the Stevenson
screen at a height of 1.2 to 1.8 m above ground.
Temperature data:
● These are five values that are assimilated for each of the 12 months, that gives a
reasonably accurate picture of temperature conditions, on which the design work can be
based. The values are,
● Monthly mean temperature

● Monthly mean maxima and minima- diurnal variations

● Monthly mean range of temperature

● Monthly extreme maxima and minima

● Monthly extreme range of temperatures.

STEVENSON SCREEN
COMPONENTS OF CLIMATE:

Humidity measurement:
● Humidity is the amount of moisture actually present in unit mass or unit volume of air, in
terms of g/kg or g/m3.
● The relative humidity is the ratio of the actual amount of moisture present, to the amount
of moisture the air could hold at the given temperature expressed as a percentage.
● RH=AH X 100(%)

SH
Humidity is usually measured in the wet and dry bulb hygrometer. This consists of two
ordinary mercury thermometers mounted side by side. The first one measures the air dry
bulb temperature. The bulb of the second one is covered with a gauze and is kept wet.
Moisture evaporating gives a cooling effect, thus the reading of wet bulb temperature will
be less than the DBT
Hygrometer
COMPONENTS OF CLIMATE:

Vapour pressure:
● Another indication of atmospheric humidity is vapour pressure, i.e. the partial pressure
of water vapour present in air. The atmospheric pressure(P) is the sum of the partial
pressure of dry air (Pa) and the partial vapour pressure (Pv):
● P=Pa+Pv

● The air is saturated when the vapour pressure is equal to the pressure of saturated
vapour of the same temperature (Pvs).
● RH=AHx100=PVx100 (%)
SH Pvs
Vapour pressure is measured in the standard SI pressure unit, the Newton per meter
square (N/m2)
COMPONENTS OF CLIMATE:

Precipitation:
● Precipitation is the collective term used for rain, snow, hail, dew and frost, that is for all
forms of water deposited from the atmosphere. It is measured by rain-gauges and
expressed in millimeter per a time unit.
● Values indicating the total precipitation for each month of the year would show the
pattern of dry and wet seasons.

Driving rain:
● Driving rain index is the product of annual rainfall and the annual average wind
velocity.( in metres per second)
● 1m2 /s to 3m2 /s– sheltered.
● 3m2 /s to 7m2 /s– moderate.
● Above 7m2 /s – severe.
Rain gauge Anemometer

Sunshine
recorder

Wind vane
COMPONENTS OF CLIMATE:

Sky conditions:
● Sky conditions are usually described in terms of presence or absence of clouds. On
average, two observations are made per day, when the proportion of sky covered by
cloud is expressed as a percentage.
● It is useful for the designers to know the time of the day and frequency of
observations. A single average figure giving the sky conditions for a typical day a given
month may conceal significant differences, eg. Between morning and afternoon
conditions, which may affect the design of roofs, overhangs and shading devices.

Solar radiation measurement:

● Sunshine recorder will register the duration of sunshine, which can be expressed in
number of hours per day, as an average for each month.
COMPONENTS OF CLIMATE:

Wind measurement:

● Wind velocity is measured by a cup-type or propeller anemometer, or by a pitot tube, and its
direction is measured by a wind vane. An anemograph can produce continuous recordings
of wind velocity and directional changes.
● The designer must try to determine whether there is a prevailing direction of winds, whether
predictable daily or seasonal shifts occur and whether there is a recognizable pattern of
daily or seasonal velocities. It is also important to note the calm periods in each month.

Special characteristics:

● Most regions experience conditions which are particularly unfavorable such as hail and
thunder storms, earthquakes, tornadoes and dust-storms. Although such events are rare, it
is important to extract from meteorological data their frequency, likely duration and nature.

● The designer must classify rare events into those which affect human comfort and those
which may endanger the safety of buildings and the lives of inhabitants.
COMPONENTS OF CLIMATE:

● Discomfort- even if it impedes work or sleep – can be accepted if it is rare enough and
lasts only for a few hours. Structural safety, on the other hand, must be guaranteed
however infrequent the danger.
Vegetation:
● The picture of climate is incomplete without some notes on the character and
abundance of plant life. Vegetation can turn its influence on the local or site climate.
Graphic representation:
● It is necessary to sort, summarize and simplify available data with reference to the
objectives and requirements of climatic design.
CLASSIFICATION OF TROPICAL CLIMATES

● The classification given below was suggested by G A Atkinson in 1953. The basis of

this classification is given by the two atmospheric factors which dominantly influence

human comfort: air temperature and humidity.

● The tropical regions of earth are divided into three major climatic zones and three sub

groups:

● 1. Warm humid equatorial climate – sub group: warm humid island or trade wind

climate

● 2. Hot dry desert, or semi desert climate- sub group: hot dry maritime desert climate

● 3. Composite or monsoon climate – subgroup: tropical upland climate

 S.NO DESCRIPTION WARM-HUMID CLIMATE WARM- HUMID ISLAND CLIMATE

1. Location Belt near the equator extending to Islands within the equatorial belt and
about 15 deg N and S. in the trade- winds zone.
Eg. Colombo, Singapore. Eg. The Caribbeans, The Philippines
2. Air temperature Mean maximum Mean maximum
During day- 27 and 32 deg. C During day- 29 and 32 deg. C
During night – 21 and 27 deg. C During night – 18 and 24 deg. C
3. Humidity 75%, may vary from 55% to 100% Varies between 55 and 100%.
Vapour pressure- 2500 to 3000 N/m2 Vapour pressure- 1750 and 2500N/m2

4. Precipitation High annual rainfall- 200 to 5000 mm. High, 1250 to 1800 mm per annum
Wettest month – 500mm
Wettest month- 200 to 250mm
5. Sky conditions Fairly cloudy . Normally clear or filled with white
Cloud cover- varies between 60 and broken clouds of high brightness,
90%. except during storms.

Thin overcast – skies bright with Clear blue skies – low luminance,
luminance of 7000 cd/m2 between 1700 and 2500 cd/m2

Heavily overcast – sky dull, 850 cd/m2

S.NO DESCRIPTION WARM-HUMID CLIMATE WARM- HUMID ISLAND CLIMATE

6. Solar radiation Partly reflected and partly scattered. Strong and mainly direct
Radiation reaching ground is diffuse, but
strong and cause glare
7. Wind velocities Low, calm periods are frequent but Trade- winds blows at a steady 6 to 7
strong winds can occur during rain m/s and provides relief from heat and
squalls. humidity.
8. Vegetation Grow easily due to frequent rain and high Less luxuriant and of a lighter green
temperature. colour. It varies with rainfall.

Red or brown laterite soil- agriculture
Subsoil water table is high.
Light is reflected from ground.
9. Special characteristics High humidity- accelerates algae growth,
rusting and rotting.
Organic building materials tend to decay
rapidly.
Thunder storms are accompanied by
frequent air- to-air electrical discharges.
Sunlight reflected from light coloured
coral, sand and rock can be very bright.
The soil is often dry with a fairly low
water table.
Tropical cyclones or hurricanes with
wind velocities from 45 to 70 m/s, which
constitute a serious hazard.
The high salt content of the atmosphere
encourages corrosion in coastal areas.
S.N DESCRIPTION HOT DRY DESERT CLIMATE HOT DRY MARITIME DESERT CLIMATE
O

1. Location It occurs in two belts at latitudes between Same as hot dry desert climates, where
approximately 15 and 30 deg north and south of the sea adjoins a large land mass. Most
equator. unfavourable climates of the earth. Eg.
Eg. Baghdad, Alice springs Kuwait, Karachi
2. Air temperature Mean maximum Mean maximum
During day- 43 and 49 deg. C During day- 38 deg. C
During cool season– 27 and 32 deg.C During cool season– 21and 26 deg.C
During night – During night –
24 and 30 deg.C in the hot season 24 and 30 deg.C in the hot season
10 and 18 deg. C in the cool season 10 and 18 deg. C in the cool season

3. Humidity Varies from 10 to 55% 50 and 90%

Vapour pressure- 750 and 1500 N/m2 Vapour pressure – 1500 to 2500 N/m2 .
Moisture is suspended in air creating
uncomfortable conditions.
4. Precipitation Slight and variable from 50 to 155 per annum. Very low
Flash storms may occur over limited areas with as
much as 50mm .
Some regions may not have any rain for several
years.
5. Sky conditions Normally clear. Clouds are few due to low humidity Little more cloud may occur in the form
of the air. The sky is usually dark blue, with the of a thin, transparent haze, which is
luminance of 1700 to 2500 cd/m2 and further likely to cause glare.
darkened during dust or sand storms to 850 cd/m2
End of hot period, dust suspended in the air may
create a white haze, with a luminance of 3500 to
10000 cd/m2 , which produce a diffuse light and a
S.NO DESCRIPTION HOT DRY DESERT CLIMATE
6. Solar radiation Direct and strong during the day, but the
absence of cloud permits easy release of the
heat stored during the day time in the form of
long- wave radiation towards the cold night
sky. Diffuse radiation is only present during
dust haze periods
7. Wind velocities The heating of air over the hot ground causes a
temperature inversion, and as the lower warm
air mass breaks through the higher cooler air,
local whirl winds are often created.
Winds are hot, carrying dust and sand- and
often develop into dust storms.
8. Vegetation Sparse and difficult to maintain because of the
lack of rain and low humidities.
Soil is dusty and dry. Soils dry quickly after rain
and would generally be fertile if irrigated. The
sub soil water-table is very low.
9. Special During certain months dust and sand storms
characteristics may be frequent. The high day- time
temperatures and rapid cooling at night may
cause materials to crack and break up.
HOT DRY MARITIME DESERT CLIMATE
Strong with a higher diffuse component
than in desert climates due to thin
clouds and suspended moisture.
Local, coastal winds, are caused by the
unequal heating and cooling of land and
sea surfaces. These tend to blow off the
sea towards the land during the day and
in reverse during night.
Sparse , not more than some dry grass.
The ground and rocks are brown or red;
it is dry and dusty throughout the year.
Ground glare can be intense.
Dust and sand storms may occur. The
salt laden atmosphere accelerates
corrosion.
S.N DESCRIPTION COMPOSITE OR MONSOON CLIMATE TROPICAL UPLAND CLIMATE
O

1. Location Land mass near the tropics of cancer and Mountainous regions and plateaux more
capricorn, which are sufficiently far from the than 900 to 1200 m above sea level
equator to experience marked seasonal changes. experience such climates, between the
Eg. Lahore, Newdelhi. two 20 deg C isotherms. Eg. Mexico city
and Nairobi
2. Air temperature Two seasons occur normally. 2/3rd of the year is Day time mean max.- 24 to 30 deg C
hot dry and the other 1/3rd is warm humid. Night time mean min– 10 to 13 deg C
Localities further from north and south often have At some locations it may fall below 4
a third season, described as cool-dry. deg C and ground frost is not un
common.
Seasons Hot dry Warm- Cool dry
humid
Day-time mean 32-43 27-32 Up to 27
max. deg.C deg C deg C
Night time 21-27 24-27 4-10
mean min. deg.C deg C deg C
Diurnal mean 11-22 3-6 11-22
range deg.C deg C deg C

3. Humidity 20 to 55% 45 to 99%

Vapour pressure – 2000 to 2500 N/m2 Vapour pressure- 800-1600 N/m2

4. Precipitation Monsoon rains are intense and prolonged . Variable, but rarely less than 1000 mm.
Annual rainfall – 500 – 1300mm Rain often falls in heavy concentrated
showers, reaching an intensity of 80mm
per hour.
5. Sky conditions Monsoon – sky is heavily overcast and dull. Dry Normally clear or partly cloudy.
season – clear and dark blue colour. During monsoon- sky overcast, clouds
S.NO DESCRIPTION COMPOSITE OR MONSOON CLIMATE TROPICAL UPLAND CLIMATE

6. Solar radiation Alternates conditions found in the warm Strong and direct during clear periods.
humid and hot- dry desert climates UV rays radiation is stronger at higher
altitudes. It becomes diffuse as cloud
cover increases

7. Wind velocities Hot and dusty during the dry period. Variable, predominantly north-east
Monsoon winds are fairly strong and steady. and south- easterlies. Wind velocity
rarely exceeds 15 m/s

8. Vegetation Hot dry region- brown and red barren ground Green , although not very luxuriant
changes to green rapidly and dramatically and it may wither in the dry season.
with the rain. Soil may be damp in the rains but dries
Cooler period – vegetations covers the quickly.
ground and diminishes as the temperature
increases.
Dry season – strong glare may be
experienced.

9. Special Seasonal changes in relative humidity cause Heavy dew at night. Strong radiation
characteristics rapid weakening of building materials. Dust loss at night during the dry season,
and sand storms may occur. Termites are which may lead to the formation of
common. radiation fog. Thunder storms with a
fair proportion of electric discharges-
air to ground. Hail may also occur.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CLIMATE

● Every city, town or village and even a precinct in a town may have its own climate,
slightly different from the climate described for the region- the Macro climate.

Site climate:
● Site climate establish the scale : whatever the size of the project, it implies the climate
of the area available and is to be used for the given purpose, both in horizontal extent
and in height.
Designer’s task if the site is given:
● Identify the area most suitable for habitation.

● Take advantage of the favourable characteristics and mitigate the adverse

characteristics of the site
● The nature and extent of climatic deviations
CHARACTERISTICS OF CLIMATE

Local factors:
The factors which may cause local deviation,
● Topography: slope, orientation, exposure, elevation, hills or valleys, at or near the site.

● Ground surface: natural or man made, its reflectance, permeability and the soil
temperature, as these affect vegetation and this turn affects the climate
● Three-dimensional objects: trees or tree- belts, fences, walls and buildings, as these
may influence air movement, may cast a shadow.
Air temperature:
● The air temperature is dependent upon the amount of heat gained or lost at the
earth’s surface and any other surfaces with which the air recently been in contact.
● During the day, as surface are heated by solar radiation, the air nearest to the ground
acquires the highest temperature. In calm conditions the air within 2 m of the ground
remains stratified in layers of differing temperatures.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CLIMATE

● Mixing of the hotter and cooler layers takes place as the heat build-up of the lowest
layer becomes great enough to cause an upward eddy of warmer, lighter air.

● At night, particularly on clear nights, the ground loses much heat by radiation and
soon after sunset its temperature falls below that of the air. The direction of heat flow
is reversed.
● This phenomenon is called as temperature inversion, as the day time situation of
decreasing temperature with increase of height is taken as normal.

● Cold air tends to settle in the deepest depressions and behaves as liquid. If it flows
down the hill and along the floor of a long, sloping valley it can add up to a ‘Katabatic
wind’: a concentrated and accelerating flow of a cold mass of air.
● Topography can strongly influence air temperature, a difference of 7 to 8 m in height
can cause a difference of 5 to 6 deg c in air temperature, under still air conditions.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CLIMATE

Humidity:
● During the day, as the lowest layer of air is being heated by the ground surface, its RH
is rapidly decreased. Low RH increase the rate of evaporation.
● The following situation is likely to arise, if the air is still:

At ground At 2m
Temperature High Lower
Relative humidity Low Higher
Absolute humidity High Lower

● At night, the situation is reversed. Lowest layer cools, it RH increases. Further cooling
the excess moisture condenses out in the form of dew after which fog will start.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CLIMATE

Precipitation:
● When the ground level changes by more than 300m, the windward slope can be
expected to receive a rainfall more than the leeward slope.
● Similar situation can develop over towns, where the more absorbent surface reach a
high temperature and can produce an upward air movement. Such an upward current
may divert any horizontal air movement in an upward direction, with similar effects to a
hill slope.
Solar radiation:
● The intensity on a theoretical horizontal plane above the ground is affected by local
variations in the transparency of the atmosphere.
● The intensity on the actual ground surface is influenced by the slope and orientation of
the site, which is negligible around the equator.
● The daily total amount of radiation may also be influenced by the slope but also near
by hills or even trees and existing buildings, which may cast long shadows.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CLIMATE:

● Radiation on a vertical building surface will be affected by its orientation.

Air movement:
● Near ground wind speed is always less than higher up, but with uneven ground cover
the rate of increase in speed with height is much more than with an unbroken smooth
surface, such as water.
● On a hilly site, the greater wind speeds will be experienced at the crests of hills.

● The day time heating of air over barren ground often gives rise to local thermal winds.
Large stretches of water can give rise to local coastal cool breezes but increases the
humidity.
Special characteristics:
● Thunder storms are macro climatic phenomena, but local topography can influence
their path, their intensity and even their frequency.
● Hill top are mostly subjected to lightning strikes and a tall building, which is the highest
object of large area even on level ground, is an attractive target for lightning.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CLIMATE:

● Dust and sand storms are influenced by local factors, both by the ground surface
providing sand and dust to be carried by the wind, and by topography in funnelling or
diverting the wind.
● Earthquake risk should also be considered. If the site lies in major seismic zone,
expert advice should be sort regarding the least risky part of a large site.
Vegetation:
● Trees and vegetation form an intermediate layer between the earth’s surface and the
atmosphere. By covering the ground with vegetation, the surface of contact is
transferred to a higher layer. In hot dry regions of the earth, even lightest plant cover is
quite considerable.
Urban climate:
● Man made environments can create microclimate of their own, deviating from the
macroclimate of the region to a degree depending on the extent of man’s intervention.
Such interventions can be greatest in large towns or cities that can be called as
‘URBAN CLIMATE’
CHARACTERISTICS OF CLIMATE:

The factors causing the deviations of the urban climate are,

● Changed surface qualities- pavements, buildings
● Buildings- casting shadows and barrier to winds, sometimes channelizing
● the wind flow, heat absorbed and released in their mass.
● Energy seepage- through walls of heated buildings, the output of refrigeration plants
and air conditioning, heat loss from industries, furnaces
● Atmospheric pollution- waste products of boilers, industrial chimneys, exhaust from
motors- cars.
● Air temperature in a city can be 8 deg C higher than in the surrounding countryside.
● Relative humidity is reduced by 5 to 10% due to quick run-off of rain water from paved
areas, absence of vegetation.
● Wind velocity can be reduced to less than half of that in the adjoining open country,
but the funnelling effect can double the wind velocity.
Site climatic data:
● Summarizing all the above data’s that is more related to the site conditions.
HUMAN BODY HEAT BALANCE

● Task of designer is to create the best possible indoor climate. The occupants of a
building judge the quality of the design from a physical as well as an emotional point of
view.
Human body’s heat production:
● Heat is continuously produced by the body. Most of the biochemical processes
involved in tissue building, energy conversion and muscular work are exotherm, i.e.
heat producing. The process involved in converting food stuff into living matter and
useful form of energy are known as metabolism.
● The total metabolic heat production can be divided into Basal Metabolism, i.e. the heat
production of vegetative, automatic processes which are continuous, and the
Muscular metabolism, i.e. the heat production of muscles whilst carrying out
consciously controlled work. Of all the energy produced in the body, only about 20% is
utilised, the remaining 80% is ‘surplus’ heat and must be dissipated to the
environment.
THE BODY’S HEAT LOSS:
● The deep body temperature must remain balanced and constant around 37 deg c. in order
to maintain body temperature at this steady level, all surplus heat must be dissipated to the
environment. If there is some form of simultaneous heat gain from the environment that
also must be dissipated.
● The body can release heat to its environment by convection, radiation and evaporation and
to lesser extent by conduction.
● Convection is due to heat transmission from the body to the air in contact with the skin or
clothing which then rises and is replaced by cooler air.
● Radiant heat loss depends on the temperature of the body surface and the temperature of
opposing surfaces.
● Evaporation heat loss is governed by the rate of evaporation, which in turn depends on the
humidity of air and on the amount of moisture available for evaporation. Evaporation takes
place in lungs through breathing, and on the skin as imperceptible perspiration and sweat.
● Conduction depends on the temperature difference between the body surface and the
object the body is in direct contact with.
REGULATORY MECHANISM:

● The thermal balance of the body can be expressed by an equation. If the heat gain
and loss factors are:
● Gain: Met = metabolism(basal and muscular)
Cnd = conduction(contact with warmer bodies)
Cnv = convection(if the air is warmer than the skin)
Rad = radiation(from the sun, the sky and hot bodies)

● Loss: Cnd = conduction(contact with cold bodies)

Cnv = convection(if the air is cooler than the skin)
Rad = radiation(to the night sky and cold surface)
Evp = evaporation(of moisture and sweat)

Then thermal balance exists when, Met-Evp+Cnd+Cnv+Rad = 0

REGULATORY MECHANISM:

● If this sum is more than zero, Vasometer adjustment takes place:

● Blood circulation to the skin surface is increased, more heat is transported to the

surface and the skin temperature is elevated- all forms of heat loss processes are

accelerated.

● If this sum is less than zero, the blood circulation to the skin is reduced, skin

temperature is lowered and the heat loss processes are slowed down

● If the vasometer regulation is insufficient and overheating continues, sweating will

start.

● If under heating continues, violent shivering mat occur, which cause a ten, fold

increase in metabolic heat production for short periods.

EFFECTS OF CLIMATIC FACTORS ON HUMAN BODY HEAT LOSS

Calm, warm air, moderate humidity:

● Air temperature – around 18 deg celsius

● Air calm and when humidity is between 40 – 60%, person engaged in sedentary work will
dissipate the surplus heat without ant difficulty by radiation, convection and evaporation.
Hot air and considerable radiation:
● Skin temperature – between 31 to 34 deg c.

● As the air temperature approaches skin temperature, convective heat loss gradually
decreases. Vasometer regulation will increase the skin temperature to the higher limit.
So there will be no more convective heat loss.
● As long as the average temperature of opposing surfaces is below skin temperature,
there will be some radiation heat loss, but as the temperature increases, radiation losses
are diminished.
EFFECTS OF CLIMATIC FACTORS ON HUMAN BODY HEAT LOSS

● Both convective and radiant elements in heat exchange process are positive, thermal
balance can still be maintained with evaporation, provided the air is sufficiently dry to
permit a high evaporation rate.
Hot air, radiation and appreciable air movement:
● When air is hot and surface temperatures are warm both convection and radiant
elements are positive, the movement of air (with 90% RH)accelerate evaporation, thus
increase heat dissipation, even if its temperature is higher than that of the skin.
Saturated, still air, body temperature:
● The air temperature of surfaces are above the skin temperature, no appreciable air
movement and the relative humidity is near 100%. Sweating would be profuse, but
there would be no evaporation. There will be convective and radiant heat gain;
therefore all the elements in the thermal equation would be positive.
EFFECTS OF CLIMATIC FACTORS ON HUMAN BODY HEAT LOSS

● The body temperature would begin to rise by 4 deg c above normal temp, heat stroke
would occur, followed by a rapid increase in temperature, when the deep body
temperature reaches about 41 deg c, coma sets in and death is imminent.
● Such conditions rarely, if ever, occur in nature, but can quite easily be produced inside
buildings of poor design and with bad management.
Effects of long exposure:
● Any conditions even which are perfectly comfortable, may produce adverse effects if it is
constant and there is no change at all over prolonged periods. One of the basic needs of
human is change and variation.
Subjective variables:
● The sensation of comfort or discomfort depends primarily on the four climatic variables.
Thermal preferences are however influenced by a number of subjective factors like
clothing, acclimatisation, age and sex, body shape, subcutaneous fat, state of health,
food and drink and skin colour.
SEARCH FOR A COMFORT SCALE:

● To assess the effect of climatic conditions on the body’s heat dissipation processes,
handling four independent variables simultaneously was considered difficult and many
experiments was carried out to devise a single scale that combines the effects of these
four factors. Such scales are called as ‘ Thermal indices’ or ‘comfort scales’.
● Special rooms were built and used, in which any set of indoor climatic conditions could
be produced. Experimental subjects were located in the room and they were asked to
record their subjective reactions on a questionnaire after each variation in the conditions,
according to the set scale extending from ‘very hot’ to ‘very cold’. All datas were
evaluated and results plotted on graph, producing a nomogram which defines the
experimentally found relationships.
● Various research workers devised some thirty different thermal indices. Some of the
most important ones are Effective temperature(ET), Corrected effective
temperature(CET), Equivalent Warmth(EW), Operative temperature(OT), Equatorial
comfort index(ECI), Resultant temperature(RT), Predicted four hour sweat rate(P4SR),
Heat stress index(HSI), Bioclimatic chart, Index of thermal stress(ITS).
Effective temperature(ET)

● It was produced by Houghton and yaglou in 1923. It can be defined as the

temperature of a still, saturated atmosphere, which would, in absence of radiation
produce the same effect as the atmosphere in question.
● In 1947 Yaglou slightly revised the scale which is called as corrected effective
temperature.
● Revisions of it includes a nomogram which defines the ET index directly from DBT and
WBT readings.
Corrected effective temperature:
● ET scale integrates the effects of three variables (temperature, humidity and air
movement), the corrected effective temperature scale also includes radiation effects.
This is the same nomogram that defines the ET index from DBT and WBT, where if
globe thermometer readings are used in these nomograms in lieu of the DBT values,
the subjective reactions to radiant heat exchange are adequately allowed for. This is
the widely used one.
MEAN RADIANT TEMPERATURE: (MRT)

● If all surfaces in an environment were uniformly at this temperature, it would produce

the same net radiant heat balance as the given environment with its various surface

temperatures. It can be measured directly with the globe thermometer which consists

of an ordinary mercury thermometer enclosed in a matt black painted copper globe of

150mm dia. After 15 minutes, its reading gives a combination of air temperature and

the effects of any received or emitted radiation. If radiation received the readings will

be higher than the air temperature.

● For the purposes of the CET nomogram the globe thermometer readings can be used

without any corrections.

Finding the CET

● Measure the globe thermometer temperature.

● Measure the WBT.

● Measure the air velocity with an anemometer, or in case of low velocities with a kata
thermometer.
● Locate the GT on the left-hand vertical scale of the nomogram.

● Locate the WBT on the right-hand vertical scale.

● Connect the two points with a line.

● Select the curve appropriate to the air velocity.

● Mark the point where the velocity curve intersects the line drawn.

● Read off the value of the short inclined line going through the same point: this is the
CET value.
Kata thermometer:
● It is an instrument used to measure very low air movements which cannot be
measured using anemometer. It is a glass tube, filled with a colored spirit. The spirit is
heated to expand to the small container at the top, usually by dipping it into hot water.
When taken out, it is wiped dry and hung on a stand. The level of spirit starts dropping
down. There are two markings on the tube. The time it takes for the spirit to drop from
the upper to the lower marking in measured by a stop watch – this is the ‘cooling
factor expressed by a number, the kata factor.

The comfort zone:

● The range of conditions within which at least 80% of the people would feel
comfortbale, can be termed ‘comfort zone’. This has been shown on the bioclimatic
chart and it is shown super imposed on the CET nomogram.
The Mahoney tables:
● When the climatic pattern emerging from the data clearly corresponds to warm humid or hot dry
climatic types. It is relatively easy to arrive at performance specifications. In composite climates the
seasonal requirements may be contradictory. A weighing system must be used to asses the
relative importance of conflicting requirements. The system must take into account the duration
and the severity of the various climatic factors.
● Based on such a system, a series of tables have been devised by C Mahoney.
● Table 1 – used to record the most essential climatic data, directing and defining the extent of data
search.
● Table 2 – facilitates a diagnosis of the climate and develops a series of climatic indicators.

● Table 3 – translates these into performance specifications or sketch design recommendations.

● Table 4 – recommendations for the design of building elements.

● Although the tables have been developed for composite climates, they may be used for the
diagnosis of any climate.
● The method is quick, broad and sketchy. It contains compromises. There may be instances or
periods when the design thus formulated will be less than perfect. This, however does not
invalidate the method.