i

Hybridization of Conventional Automobiles

Group Members

Atta Ullah 11ABELT0447

Adnan khan 11ABELT0417
Muhammad Zahid 11ABELT0453
Ijaz Ahmad 11ABELT0422

Project Supervisor
Engr. Yasir Malik

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY PESHAWAR
ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
August, 2015
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Abstract
This thesis is concerned with hybridization of conventional automobiles. Hybridization is a

decade older concept to boost up fuel efficiency of internal combustion engine, to tie down

increased pollution because of carbon dioxide emission and to use low carbon dioxide

emission source to budge the vehicle. The advancement we have brought here is that we

applied this concept to already available vehicles, to us they are conventional.

The implementation of such scenario is possible for vehicles driving with front wheel, their

rare wheels are free, and an additional mechanical differential is installed to rare wheels, a

power DC motor is then used to drive differential shaft. This needs a sophisticated

synchronized mechanism for synchronizing motor and internal combustion engine speed, any

miss matching of their speed can lead to a serious problem, called ‘reverse loading’, in such

case either motor or engine acts as load for other, consequently we may have worst

efficiency.

The motor which is coupled to rare differential is powered with batteries, batteries can be

recharged everywhere or some time when needed, from engine itself. Solar panel,

regenerative breaking etc can be used to recharge the battery to reduce cost. The problem

with battery size, weight and recharging time is crucial, however advancements in battery

technology give us hop for improvement.

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UNDERTAKING
We certify that the research work title “Hybridization of Conventional automobile” is our own work.
Where material has been used from other sources, it has been properly acknowledged.

Attaullah (11ABELT0447) _________________________

Adnan khan (11ABELT0447) _________________________

Muhammad Zahid (11ABELT0453) ___________________________

Ijaz Ahmad (11ABELT0447) _________________________

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We have taken efforts in our project, but it was difficult for us without the kind support and help
of many individuals who help us throughout the academic years of UET Abbottabad therefore we
would like to extend our sincere thanks to all of them. We are very thankful to Engr.Yasir Malik,
Project supervisor for their valuable guidance, keen interest, encouragement and cooperation
whenever needed. We thanks sincerely to Dr.Syed Riaz-ul-Hassnain chairman of Electronic
Engineering Department for their time guidance, encouragement and understanding spirit in
explaining and carrying out this project work. We also deeply appreciate the motivation for the
project work, by Madam Qurat-ulain who did their best to bring improvements through their
suggestions.

Finally thanks to Great Almighty Allah who provided us the ability to achieve this goal.
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Contents
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... ii
UNDERTAKING ............................................................................................................................................. iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................................................. iv
Contents ........................................................................................................................................................ v
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................................. VII
Chapter 1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1
History ........................................................................................................................................... 1
Steam Engine ................................................................................................................................ 2
History of electric vehicles ............................................................................................................ 2
Chapter 2 Hybridization ............................................................................................................................. 1
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 1
Hybrid Vehicles ............................................................................................................................. 1
Performance Issues of Fuel Engines.............................................................................................. 2
Performance Issues of EV ............................................................................................................. 4
Why Hybridization?....................................................................................................................... 6
Series and Parallel Hybridization .................................................................................................. 7
Batteries ...................................................................................................................................... 10
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 13
Chapter 3 Direct Current Motors............................................................................................................. 15
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 15
Angular Dynamics Preliminaries ................................................................................................. 15
Angular Displacement ......................................................................................................... 15
Angular Velocity .................................................................................................................. 16
Angular Acceleration ........................................................................................................... 17
Torque ................................................................................................................................. 17
Newton’s 2nd Law ................................................................................................................ 18
Work W ............................................................................................................................... 19
Power p ............................................................................................................................... 20
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Direct Current Motors................................................................................................................. 21

Derivation of Induced EMF in a DC Motor .................................................................................. 21
Derivation of Induced Torque ..................................................................................................... 26
The Equivalent Circuit of a DC Motor ......................................................................................... 29
Types of DC Motors..................................................................................................................... 31
Shunt DC Motor .................................................................................................................. 31
Permanent Magnet DC (PMDC) Motor ............................................................................... 33
Series DC Motor .................................................................................................................. 34
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 37
Chapter 4 Measurements and Analysis ................................................................................................... 38
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 38
Characteristics of motor used in this project .............................................................................. 38
Measurements Taken on Prototype ........................................................................................... 40
Simple Buck Converter ................................................................................................................ 44
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 46
Chapter 5 Conclusion and future work .................................................................................................... 47
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 47
Suggestion for Future work......................................................................................................... 49
References .................................................................................................................................................. 50
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List of Figures
Figure 2- 1 :Fuel Efficieny vs Speed (MPH) ................................................................................................... 3
Figure 2- 2: MPG vs MPH for different vehicles. .......................................................................................... 4
Figure 2- 3: Series Hybride ........................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 2- 4: Parallel Hybrid............................................................................................................................ 9
Figure 2- 5: Specifications of different batteries. ....................................................................................... 13
Figure 2- 6: Cost of different batteries. ...................................................................................................... 13
Figure 3- 1: Simple motor. .......................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 3- 2: Simple DC motor. ..................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 3- 3: Circuit diagram of dc motor. .................................................................................................... 29
Figure 3- 4: Shunt DC motor. ...................................................................................................................... 31
Figure 3- 5: Series DC motor. ...................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 4- 1: Torque vs Angular speed. ........................................................................................................ 39
Figure 4- 2: Discharge time vs battery capacity. ......................................................................................... 40
Figure 4- 3: Mass vs Current ....................................................................................................................... 41
Figure 4- 4: Current vs Distance .................................................................................................................. 42
Figure 4- 5: Velocity vs Mass ....................................................................................................................... 43
Figure 4- 6: Buck Converter ........................................................................................................................ 45
Figure 4- 7: Results of Buck Converter ........................................................................................................ 45
Figure 5- 1: ppm vs time. ............................................................................................................................ 48
 1

Chapter 1 Introduction

History

Since Adam has come to this mortal planet, we have faced several cruel situations for survival.

Scavenging things among the rubbish, fighting to achieve objectives necessary for living,

finding and evaluating new communities and societies, migrating across the deserts etc. The

last one however is the most common in every race and every generation. Not an individual

person is nomadic rather the entire communities are vagrant. The first person who ever

migrated was Adam himself and so did Hawa (Eva). They migrated just because of not having

any for partnership. Very early, no animals were available for transportation and hence they

had energy which was only one fifth of the horse power (here the horsepower is being used

as traditional the actual unit of the energy is joule). They had only one resource of energy,

their muscles. For them, migration was very difficult. This difficulty has tied them down to

short distance migrations though they need to go even beyond. About ten thousand-year ago

[1], we discovered agriculture domesticated animals, especially horse, increasing our energy

output to one or two horsepower. A single person could travel ten miles a day riding a horse

and so nomads has found a new way for migration. Now they could move grains and baggage

very easily. For nomads, finding developed communities were easy. In short they had a
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surplus of energy. Access energy means that a society could afford a class of technician,

architects and builders, and thus a civilization could flourish.

Steam Engine

The demonstration has been made in 1551 by Taqi-al-Din and Giovanni Brance in 1629 that

the power of steam should not be underestimated [2]. The engine made by them was small

steam leaving devices. The first steam engine was design in 1698 by an English engineer

Thomas Savery and was used for pumping water and this process was based on steam under

pressure. In 1712 steam engine was improved by Thomas Newcomen and he did this by

atmospheric pressure method where steam was produced in a closed cylinder and then

condensed by cold water which produced vacuum inside the cylinder, so atmospheric

pressure decreased on cylinder by this method which operated a piston, creating a downward

strokes [3].

In 1769 James Watt a Scottish mechanical engineer design the best steam engine of that

time. He used a separate condenser for Newman’s steam engine and Watt’s engine brought

an industrial revolution and also became a base for modern steam engines [4].

History of electric vehicles

The first electric vehicle (EV) was3 built between 1830 and 1840.In 1828 Annoys Jetlik a

Hungarian who made a small car mode which was3powered by motor. Then in 1832 Robert

Anderson also made an electric carriage [5].Then in 1834 Vermont black smith made the same
 3

arrangement which worked on a circular electric field track [6]. In 1835 Sibrandus Stratingh

made a small scale electrical car, powered by a non-rechargeable primary battery [7].one

more famous car was made in 1837 by Robert Davidson powered by galvanic batteries

[8].Robert Davidson also made another car by name of Galvani showed at the Royal Scottish

Society of arts exhibition in 1841,that was seven ton heavy and that had two motors with

fixed electromagnets acting on iron bars attached to a wooden cylinder on each axel with

comutator.It can take a load of six tons at four miles per hour for a distance of one and a half

miles.it was tested on the Glasgow railway but it had limited batteries and then It was

destroyed by railway workers. Rechargeable batteries did not come up to 1859.So the

invention of rechargeable batteries by two scientists Gaston Plant and Alphonse in 1859 and

1881 from lead acid so they focus the people make EV’s. An early electric powered two wheel

cycle was built and showed at the 1867 World exposition in Paris by Franz Kravoglbut, it was

thought as unfit to drive in streets etc. [9]. Three wheels cycle was made and showed in

November 1881 by inventor Gustavo .English inventor Thomas Parker who invented four

wheels car in 1884 using his own designed high capacity rechargeable batteries. Elwell Parker

Company, established in 1882 then take the responsibility for the construction and sales of

those cars so this company had monopoly on the British electric car market in the 1890s. The

first electric car in Germany was built by the engineer Andreas Flocken in 1888. Immisch and

company built a four passenger carriage powered by a one horsepower motor and 24cell

battery for the Sultan of Ottoman Empire. In the same year Magnus Volk in Brighton, England

made a three wheeled electric car [10]. Elwell-Parker Company also manufactured the first
 4

electric 'dog cart in 1896.The first electric car in Germany was built by the engineer Andreas

Flocken in 1888.The first American electric car was made in1890 to 91 by William Morrison it

was six passengers capacity and had a speed of 23 km h. So in 1895 that Americans began to

devote attention to electric vehicles and A.L. Ryker introduced the first electric tricycles to

the U.S. After 1890 interest in EV’s increased by the availability of batteries so electric battery-

powered taxis became available at the end of the 19th century. In London Walter Bersey

designed a fleet of taxis with nickname Hummingbirds and introduced to the streets of

London in 1897 [11].In New York City the Samuel's Electric Carriage and Wagon Company

began running 12 electric taxis and they made 62 cabs. In 1911 the first gasoline-electric

hybrid car was released by the Woods Motor Vehicle Company of Chicago. The hybrid was a

commercial failure, proving to be too slow for its price, and too difficult to service. Due to

technological limitations and the lack of transistor-based electric technology, the top speed

of these early electric vehicles was limited to about 32 kmh. Despite of this slow speed,

electric vehicles had a number of advantages over their early-1900s competitors. But by 1912,

many homes were wired for electricity, enabling a surge in the popularity of the cars. At the

turn of the century, 40 percent of American automobiles were powered by steam, 38 percent

by electricity, and 22 percent by gasoline. 33,842 electric cars were registered in the United

States. Most electric car makers stopped production at some point in the 1910s. According

to the History of Electric Vehicles, “In 1912, an electric roadster sold for $1,750, while a

gasoline car sold for $650.

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Electric vehicles became popular for certain applications where their limited range did not

pose major problems. Three popular electric vehicles were built Forklift trucks were

introduced by Yale in 1923.By the 1920s, the early operation of electric cars had passed, and

a decade later, the electric automobile industry had effectively disappeared. Michael Brian

examines the social and reasons for the failure of electric cars in his book taking charge “the

electric automobile in America”. In order to overcome the limited operating range of

batteries an exchangeable battery service was first proposed in 1896.The concept was first

put into practice by Hartford Electric Light Company through the GeVeCo battery service and

initially available for electric trucks [12]. The owner paid a variable per-mile charge and a

monthly service fee to cover maintenance and storage of the truck in 1910 to 1924. In 1902

Wood created the Electric Phaeton, which was more than an electrified horseless carriage

and surrey. “The Phaeton had a range of 18 miles, a top speed of 14 mph and cost $2,000

[13].By 1935, electric vehicles completely disappeared. Years passed without a major revival

in the use of electric cars. Fuel-starved European countries fighting in World War II

experimented with electric cars (such as the British milk floats and the French Breguet

Aviation car) but overall In the late 1950s, Haney Coach works and the National Union Electric

Company produce a new electric car, the hennery Kilowatt,. The car was produced in 38-volt

and 72-volt configurations; the 72-volt models had a top speed approaching 96 km h and

could travel for nearly an hour on a single charge. Despite the Kilowatt's improved

performance with respect to previous electric cars, consumers found it too expensive

compared to equivalent gasoline cars of the time, and production in 1961. In 1959, American
 6

Motors Corporation (AMC) and Sonotone Corporation planned a car to be powered by a "self-

charging" battery. It was plate nickel.

The energy crises of the 1970s and 80s brought about renewed interest in the perceived

independence that electric cars had from the fluctuations of the hydrocarbon energy market.

In the early 1990s, the California Air Resources Board (CARB) began a push for more fuel-

efficient, lower-emissions vehicles, with the ultimate goal being a move to zero-emissions

vehicles such as electric vehicles. In response, automakers developed electric models,

including the Chrysler TEVan, Ford Ranger EV pickup truck, GM EV1, and S10 EV pickup, Honda

hatchback, Nissan Altra EV mini wagon, and Toyota RAV4 EV. These cars were eventually

withdrawn from the U.S. market.

At the 1990 Los Angeles Auto Show General Motors President Roger Smith unveiled the GM

electric concept car along with the announcement that GM would build electric cars for to

the public.in the early 1990 the California Air Resources Board (CARB), the government of

California clean air agency began a push for more fuel efficient lower emission vehicles with

goal being a move to zero emission vehicles such as electric vehicles. In response developed

electric models including Chrysler, Ford Ranger EV pickup truck. GM EV1 S10 EV pickup,

Honda EV Plus hatchback, Nissan lithium battery Altar EV mini wagon and Toyota RAV4 EV

[14].

Tesla Motors began development in 2004 on the Tesla Roadster, which was first delivered

to customers in 2008. As of March 2012, Tesla had sold more than 2,250 Roadsters in at least
 7

31 countries. The Mitsubishi I MiEV was launched for fleet customers in Japan in July 2009,

retail customer deliveries of the Nissan Leaf in Japan and the United States began in

December 2010, BMW Active field testing program for the development of the BMW I3.

In the 2011 State of the Union address, U.S. President Barack Obama expressed an ambitious

goal of putting 1 million plug-in electric vehicles on the roads in the U.S. by 2015[15]. The

objectives include "reducing dependence on oil and ensuring that America leads in the

growing electric vehicle manufacturing industry.”

The Smart electric drive, Wheego Whip Life, Mia electric, Volvo C30 Electric, and the Ford

Focus Electric were launched for retail customers during 2011. The BYD e6, released initially

for fleet customers in 2010, began retail sales in Shenzhen, China in October, 2011.
 1

Chapter 2 Hybridization

Introduction

A brief history of electric vehicles and some other types of locomotives have been

mentioned in the previous chapter. Some rudiments are required to initialize the ideas of

hybridization which we are concerned with. This chapter is aimed to sum up some basic

concepts of hybridization and illuminate some technologies already available in the market

being used as hybridization. At the end of this chapter, different specifications of batteries

will be discussed, then on the basis of their specification a best selection will be made for our

progress.

The first few topics are aimed to build up answers to some basic questions “what is

hybridization and why do we need it?” Issues of ICE vehicles and EVs have been discussed

explicitly.

Hybrid Vehicles

In your local town, you might have heard about Hybrid cars, probably Toyota Prius which is

common now a days. Why do they say the word ‘hybrid’, and what does this name implies?
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The word hybrid means, inherited by two or more races. By a hybrid vehicle someone means

that the care is being powered up by different energy sources.

These sources may be two, three or even more. For example, petrol and CNG, petrol

electricity and CNG etc, hence number of combinations are possible. In the market the most

prominent one is the combination of electricity and fuel (CNG, petrol and diesel), a common

person will consider only this combination a hybrid because some vehicles drive with both

CNG and petrol though no person called them hybrid vehicles, so in our entire project, fuel

and electricity are considered.

Performance Issues of Fuel Engines

Regardless of other issues that add formidable impacts to the environments [16], which are

consequently affecting animal and plant lives, there are certain performance issues that

degrade those vehicles which run through Internal Combustion Engines. The first problem

that has been pretentious so for as fuel consumption at various speed. Figure 2- 1 is given

below which depicts fuels consumption.

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Figure 2- 1 :Fuel Efficieny vs Speed (MPH)

Where MPG is called fuel efficiency of the vehicles (Miles per gallon, which means how many

miles are traveled per gallon) [17]. As depicted by the plot, MPG has its maximum value at

round about 45 MPH. if the vehicle is driven at this speed, it will be more economical. Lower

speed and extreme high speed decreases economic efficiency.

In a populated city, the speed is very low, below 30 MPH, while driving on high-ways the

speed is very high, 120MPH at average. Thus normally we have a very poor fuel efficiency. To

elaborate the same point another plot Figure 2- 2 is shown below for different cars.

Moreover, the fuel chemical efficiency is very low [18], round about 20% which is very poor

in contrast to electrical batteries efficiency, which is almost 90-92%.

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Figure 2- 2: MPG vs MPH for different vehicles.

However, there `are some other issues associated with such vehicles, their smoke is

hazardous for plants and animals. Secondly, as compared to electric vehicles, they are noisy

and sometimes stinky as well.

Performance Issues of EV

The essential part of EV is battery. Some other ways are possible and have been tried like

supply rails, fuel cells etc, but till now they are not so practical especially for personal use.

The battery is dominant option for EV but this adds problems to the performance and

suitability of EV. Some highlighting issues have been mentioned below.

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The very first thing that differentiate EV and ICV is the energy availability. This can be seen

by the prospective of specific energies of IC engine and batteries. The specific energy of fuels

is round about 9000Wh/kg while that of lead acid battery is just 30Wh/kg [19] which is very

small as compared to that of fuels however the efficiency of fuels is very worst which is 20%

of the total energy available, efficiency of electric power is about 90%. Suppose a petrol

engine with 4.5 liters fuel which is round about 4kg will drive a certain vehicle for 60km

distance, if the same vehicles is driven with battery, a battery of 267kg will be required (this

distance may even less than 60km as extra weight of 262kg associates with battery). An

average car has 30-liters fuel tank which gives energy of 47988Wh, instead of this if we use a

battery, a lead acid battery of 1777kg will be required which is too heavy as compared to 30-

liter which is round about 26.66kg. This issue is crucial however some latest technologies

have been introduced which give more specific energy as compared to lead acid batteries.

The second land marking issue is its recharging time. A normal lead acid battery takes 8-

hours to be fully recharged. In contrast to this, a petrol tank of 30-liters will take one mint.

However, new batteries have been introduced which can be recharged in lesser time as

compare to lead acid. In future we expect a better batteries technology which will reduce this

time to mints and hence this will be a wining step of EV.

Third problem is its life time, typically 5-years, also batteries are expensive. This makes EV a

bit unattractive as EV is not only worst in performance but also they are expensive.
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Why Hybridization?

The question that why we need hybridization is debating one, and for a common man it must

be often his/her headache. The answer to this question is that, we don’t have any source

(either fuel or electricity) which is economical, best in performance and has zero emission.

These three factors dictate in field of automobiles.

As we have seen above that internal combustion engines are polluting which is a big problem

for present civilization. Their efficiency degrade them and become unattractive. On other

side, the problem with pure electric vehicles is, they are expensive, poor in performance and

needs plenty of time to be recharged.

Hence looking from this perspective, hybridization is possible solution. When moving in

populated city, the vehicle should use battery only so that fuel efficiency is maximum and

pollution is minimum in the population. When driving at moderate speed (40-70 MPH), the

vehicle should be driven solely through IC engine, as from the graphs we saw that, in this

range fuel efficiency is maximum.

However moving at high speed, both sources should power up the vehicles so that engine

speed remains in the same range i.e. (40-70 MPH) the remaining boost comes from electric

source, but this needs care. To do this, both motor and engine should operate at the same

angular speed. Any mismatching can cause reverse loading (reverse loading means that if

motor is moving with low speed, then it becomes as load for IC engines and vice versa).
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Series and Parallel Hybridization

So for the concept of hybridization has been built. A hybrid vehicle consists of internal

combustion engine and electric motor(s). Their arrangement can lead to different

configurations like series, parallel and compound, which is mostly used in new vehicles

available in the market [20].

In series combination (series hybridization), an internal combustion engine is intended to

generate electric power, the electric power is then given to one or more electric motors (AC

or DC depending upon the application). These motors then power off the wheels of the

vehicle. Example of such automobiles are very popular to us like train. In train, the steam

engine produces electric power thereby powering the electric motors that are coupled to the

wheels separately. In order to keep the submarine balanced, the same configuration is

applied to different fanes for moving it.

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Figure 2- 3: Series Hybride

This may not always be the case to power the motor with engine, the motor can be operated

only by internal combustion engine, battery or sometimes from both. This is advantageous

because the battery can be recharged by the combustion engine also, hence a large battery

is not required in such scenarios (battery is recharged when power requirement of the motor

is minimum, sometimes the battery is recharged at any occasion).

The main disadvantage of this configuration is its efficiency, the power that is being

produced passes through generator and motor hence both steps introduces losses to the

original power.

In parallel combination (parallel hybridization), a shaft is powered by electric motor,

combustion engine or both. The power that is available at the shaft is then transmitted to
 9

wheels by transmission system like gear box etc. The electric motor is energized either by a

battery or combustion engine or both depending upon the situation.

This is advantageous because of its compactness as all the energy has not to be converted

into electricity that is being produced by IC engine (in some cases the engine energy is never

converted into electricity). Secondly this configuration allows us to minimize pollution in large

population

Figure 2- 4: Parallel Hybrid.

In such type of hybridization it is useful to define a ratio variable, called as Degree of

Hybridization which is given below mathematically.

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Power by Electric Motor

DOH 
Power by IC Engine  Power by Electric Motor

Pm
DOH 
PIC  Pm

Which shows the ratio of electric power to the total power available at transmission box.

Greater is the value of DOH, lesser is gases emission. For most cases, especially at high speed,

it is good to have high value of DOH.

Batteries

It is obvious that battery is essential part of an EV or hybrid vehicle. In the market variety of

battery technologies are available like lead acid, NiMH and li-ion. However there are few

parameters which decide its usability in vehicles. Some of those parameters are given below

[21].

Specific Energy is the energy stored in the battery per unit mass. This parameter is declared

to show the potential of a specific technology and tells that how much energy is stored in a

unit mass of materials being used. Batteries with high value of specific energy is required

because its mass contributes to the total mass of the vehicle that is to be moved.

Specific Power is the power stored per unit mass of the battery. It is different form specific

energy, sometimes storage medium may have high specific power but low specific energy,
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example of such storage is fly wheel and supper capacitor. They can give high power but they

can’t store high energy. While sometimes storage medium may have enough energy per unit

mass but it can’t give it to the load instantly and hence we have low power output. Hence we

need batteries with high specific power as during starting high thrust is needed for vehicles.

Energy Density is the energy stored per cubic unit of battery volume. Since size matters in

automobiles thus we need batteries having greater value of energy density. There are some

other battery parameters that should be taken into consideration like ‘ampere hour

efficiency’, power density, cell voltage etc.

There are several technologies in the market. Lead Acid is the oldest one and is cheaper than

other batteries. Its nominal voltage is 2V per cell, one feature of these batteries is that, it has

low internal resistance and thus the total available voltage appears at the output terminal.

Internal resistance is inversely proportional to plate area and hence maximum area means

maximum capacitance, thus as its capacitance increases, its internal resistance decreases.

Nickel Metal Hydride batteries are also very popular, it was developed in last decades of 20th

century. It has maximum specific power which is round about 1000W/kg and has a nominal

voltage of 1.2V which less than that of lead acid. It has greater specific energy than lead acid

butt less than li-ion.

Lithium Ion batteries are also very popular now a days, because of its compact size, they are

widely used in smartphones, laptops and other portable accessories. It has greater value of
 12

specific energy than all other technologies. Some important parameter are shown below in

the table Figure 2- 5 for different batteries.

Specifications Lead Acid NiMH Lithium ions

Specific energy 20-35Wh/kg 50Wh/kg 90Wh/kg

Energy density 54-95Wh/L 153Wh/L

Specific Power 250W/kg 1000W/kg 300W/kg

Cell voltage 2V 1.2V 3.5V

AmpH efficiency 80% Very good

Internal 0.022ohm/cell 0.002-0.003 0.25-0.75

resistance ohms for a 6V ohms/cell

pack

Availability Readily available Available Available in small

cells, not for EV

Operating Ambient, poor Very good Ambient

Temperature performance at typically

low temperature -20 to 60

degree

centigrade

Self-discharge 5%/month 30%/month 10%/month

No. of life cycles Up to 800 1000 1000

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Recharge time 8h(but 90% in 2-4h 2-3h

1hr)

Figure 2- 5: Specifications of different batteries.

Battery Cost in U.S.D Cost in PKR

Technology

Lead Acid 0.17$/Wh 17.34PKR/Wh

NiMH 0.99$/Wh 118.8PKR/Wh

Li-ion 0.47$/Wh 47.94PKR/Wh

Figure 2- 6: Cost of different batteries.

Conclusion

Since we have seen above that hybridization is need of today civilization because of different

constraints on automobile systems. Pure electrical vehicles are not economical and have poor

performance, while pure IC engine vehicle are good in performance but have emissions which

are formidable to us. Thus the current work can play better in field of locomotives.

As long as batteries are concerned. We can see from the table that li-ion batteries are best

performance wise but they are not available for traction purposes. Next choice is lead acid

batteries but they take much time to be recharged, normally 8-hours are required. Though

NiMH batteries are expensive but they are not bulky, secondly, they have greater value of
 14

specific power. They can be recharged up to 1,000 times. Hence this technology is more

preferable over other.

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Chapter 3 Direct Current Motors

Introduction

Now we are going to build our own technical approach. Our current step is towards the study

of motors. The first few topics explain some preliminaries topics related to basics of angular

dynamics. Next in the same chapter we will explore direct current motors and their different

types. Then on the basis of their specifications, we would make a conclusion and a suitable

selection of motor type for our project. The selected motor specification will be studied

further in coming chapter.

Angular Dynamics Preliminaries

In the underlining section some basic physical quantities are being explained that will be

used very frequently in the entire project such as angular displacement, angular velocity,

angular acceleration, mechanical power, electrical power, work done and torque.

Angular Displacement
 16

As studied in old text books, the angular displacement “ϴ” of a circle with radius “ r ” is the

angle subtended by an arc of length “S” at its center.

Mathematically,

s  r

s (3.1)
r

Where "𝜽"called angular displacement. Notice that it is a unit less as both quantities are

having the same dimension so it’s a dimensionless quantity. However, this is often expressed

in radians. Angular displacement is taken positive for anticlockwise rotation and is negative

for clockwise rotation.

Angular Velocity

In linear motions, the linear velocity is the rate of change of displacement i.e. any change in

the displacement “S” with respect to time interval is called linear velocity. i.e.

ds
v
dt

Similarly, the angular velocity “ω” is the time rate of change of angular displacement “𝜽”.

i.e.

  d
dt
 17

 v  r (3.2)

Where “w” denotes angular velocity in radians/seconds. While, equation(3.3) is showing the

relation between angular and linear velocities. Here V is being linear velocity and is measured

in m/sec.

Angular Acceleration

Same as linear acceleration “a”, angular acceleration “  ” is the time rate of change of

angular velocity “  ”. i.e.

  d
dt

 a  r (3.4)

 is called angular acceleration with dimension of meter per second square. Equation (3.5)

is showing the relationship between both types of accelerations.

Torque

In linear motions dynamics, force F is called an agent that produces some linear acceleration

in a boy, similarly, torque T can be called an agent that produces some angular acceleration

in a body. Hence a torque is actually an angular force. Like other quantities discussed above,
 18

each linear quantities equals corresponding quantity times radius. Thus, torque will be equal

to radius time’s linear force. i.e.

  rxF

Where radius r is called the moment arm and F is the force measured in newton. The above

notation is a vector notation of torque and can be simplified for a special case where the

angle between moment arm and force is equal to 90 degree i.e. when they are perpendicular.

   rF sin 
   rF sin(90 )

   rF (3.6)

The dimension of torque is N-m. Equation (3.7) depicts that torque is proportional to

moment arm and the applied force F.

Newton’s 2nd Law

This law states that whenever an external force F acts on a body, it produces some

acceleration in that body, the amount of this acceleration is directly proportional to the

magnitude of the force and inversely proportional to the mass of the body. i.e.

F  ma

This equation is known as newton’s second law. If look from this prospective than in angular

motion dynamics the law can be expressed as below.

 19

  J (3.8)

This is also newton’s 2nd law but this time we have shown it in angular form. In

equitation(3.9), “J” is called moment of inertia equivalent to mass in linear motion, while “a”

is called angular acceleration discussed above. The equation tells us that whenever some

torque is applied to a body, it produces some angular acceleration in it, this acceleration is

proportional to the applied torque and is inversely proportional to its moment of inertia.

Work W

In linear motion, whenever some force is applied to an object, the object undergoes some

displacement, the dot product of this displacement and force that is being applied is called

work done. i.e.

W   Fds

For a special case, when the force is constant and is parallel or anti-parallel to the

displacement, the equation can reduced to the following form.

W  Fs (3.10)

Where W is called the work done and its unit is same is that of energy i.e. N-m. But this IS

measured in joules.

In the same way, the work done in terms of angular quantities can be found, it is as follows

below.
 20

W   (3.11)

This is the work done by an angular agent T through an angular displacement of  .

Power p

The time rate of change of work or energy is called power, that is, the power shows us how

fast the energy is being consumed or produced. i.e.

dW
p (3.12)
dt

Note that it’s a physical quantity and it’s measured in watts and horsepower. For linear

quantities, the above equation can be expressed in more convenient way, as given below.

p  Fv (3.13)

Which is the linear mechanical power being expressed in terms of linear quantities force F

and velocity v. The corresponding form of the power in terms of angular quantities can be

found as below.

p   (3.14)

Where the last equation is the mechanical power in terms of torque and angular velocity.
 21

Direct Current Motors

Before 1890s, dc power system was commonly used in the United States. But later on the

ac power was truly winning the game because of its extreme advantages over the dc power

system. The main advantages were its production and distribution. But the importance of dc

motor cannot be ignored because of several reasons. First, mobile plants and devices are

often having dc source hence dc motor is the appropriate choice for this kind of situations,

secondly, the speed control of ac machines requires some solid states drives and third, a dc

motors are having large torque for the same size of construction. The upcoming topics covers

production of induced e.m.f and induced force on a conductor inside a magnetic field.

Direct current motors or dc motors work on the principles that whenever a current carrying

conductor is brought to a magnetic field, a force is acting on that conductor. The magnitude

of this force is proportional to its length, current in it and the field density B. i.e.

F  i (l )

F  ilB sin  (3.15)

Here, the direction of current and length is same, where  is the angle between length and

magnetic field density. The force is maximum when both are perpendicular to each other.

Derivation of Induced EMF in a DC Motor

 22

It is known to us from old school text books that a dc motor can be used either a generator

or a motor. Though a motor is aimed to be used for torque and angular speed, but fortunately,

it induces voltage also while when it is being used as a motor, this emf is known back emf.

One would be wondering about that it would cost us as it will oppose the source voltage. But

this is important as it provides natural regulation for speed. In the following few lines the

magnitude of this induced emf is approximated.

It is known to us that induced emf in a conductor under a varying magnetic field is given by.

eind  vBl (3.16)

Where, in equation(3.17), “ v ” is linear velocity of the conductor that passes through the

magnetic field, “ l ” is called the effective length (the length which lies inside the field) and “

B ” is called the magnetic flux density.

 23

Figure 3- 1: Simple motor.

If Z is the total number of conductors and “a” is the number of parallel paths, then the

number of conductors that contributes induced voltage can be found by their ratios.

nc 
Z
a

Thus the total induced voltage is the product of this ratio and the induced emf on a single

loop. i.e.

EA  nceind

Z 
EA    vBl
a
 24

Where the linear velocity can expressed in term of angular velocity m . i.e.

v  rm

Where in this equation r is the radius of the machine. Putting this value into above equation

this becomes.

 E A 
Zrm Bl
(3.18)
a

Equation(3.19) can be used to compute the voltage induced, however this can be expressed

in more convenient way. To do so, a new term, magnetic flux is introduced. Which is given

by.

  Ap (3.20)

Here Ap is the area associated with each pole. The area of the rotor same as the area of a

cylinder, so.

A  2 rl

This is the total area, we are interested in area under each pole, thus.

 Ap  A
p

2 rl
 Ap 
p
 25

Thus equation (3-9) implies that.

B( rl )
  
p

 rlB
  
p

This is the flux under a single pole. Now multiplying and dividing right side of equation (3.21)

by 2 p .

Thus equation (3-8) implies that.

Zrm Bl  2 p 
 E   
A a  2 p 

Zm p
 E 
A  a

 
 E   Z . p   
A   a  m

Here, Z, p and  a are constant can be assigned to another constant, it’s clear from the

equation that this constant depends of the constructional features.

Z. p
K
 a

So, finally we have.

 26

E A  K m (3.22)

Which is the most common form of emf equation. What does this equation means?

Equation(3.23) shows relation of induced emf with angular speed and magnetic flux. One

important thing which can be seen by the prospective of this equation is that, angular speed

that is developed at the shaft of the motor is inversely proportional to the magnetic flux. Later

in this chapter this fact is used to vary the speed of several types of motors. Another thing

that is worth noting is that, the constant “a” which actually denotes numbers of parallel

paths, is equal to “P” in case of lap winding and equals two for wave winding.

Note that direction of this induced voltage is such that to oppose the source voltage, that is

why this term is often called the back emf of the motor.

Derivation of Induced Torque

The magnetic force that acts on current carrying conductor was previously shown in early

topics. We have written down its equation which has shown that the magnitude of magnetic

force is directly proportional to the flux density, effective length and current that flows

through it. i.e.

 27

Figure 3- 2: Simple DC motor.

F  i(l )
F  ilB sin 

For a special case where conductor length is perpendicular to flux density, the equation can

be reduced to the following form.

F  iBl

If I is the current that flows in a conductor and  c is the torque on the conductor because of

the force shown by the above equation, then.

 c  Fr  ( IBl )r (3.24)

Let, if I A is the total armature current, then current through each conductor can be found

as.
 28

IA
I
a

Thus equation(3.25) implies that.

 IA 
c    Blr
a

Since there are Z number of conductors, and each conductor contributes to the total torque,

thus.

 ind  Z ( c )

 I Blr 
  ind  Z  A 
 a 

It was previously shown that,

 rlB

p

Thus, finally we have,

 Z. p 
 ind    I A
  a 

 ind  K I A (3.26)

Equation(3.27) is the final equation for induced torque in a dc machine. This equation claims

that induced torque is directly proportional to the armature current.

 29

The Equivalent Circuit of a DC Motor

The Figure 3- 3 given below depicts the equivalent circuit diagram of a dc motor. Both

armature and field circuits are shown explicitly. The armature circuits shows a motor symbol

and a resistance in series with it. Motor symbol is used to describe back emf that is being

generated in the motor. The resistance RA shows the resistance of armature coil due to its

material being used. It should be noted that sometimes a series resistance is also connected

to the armature, if this is the case then the resistance RA in the figure is sum of external

resistance and coil resistance.

Figure 3- 3: Circuit diagram of dc motor.

Field coil circuit has been shown separately, this shows an inductor L that shows field coil

and a resistor RL that shows the resistance due to coil material. For speed control purpose,
 30

sometimes a series resister is connected to change field current, consequently, it changes flux

and flux changes speed of rotation of the rotor.

From the armature circuit, it can be concluded that the source voltage also known as the

terminal voltage is equal to the sum of cupper drop and counter emf. i.e.

Vt  EA  VR (3.28)

Vt  EA
IA  (3.29)
RA

These equations are frequently used in the analysis of dc motors in this chapter and later

chapter. These equations makes basis for speed and torque relationship for different type dc

motors. These types are discussed and explained in later topics.

While in contrast to this, the field circuit can also be interpreted in this way.

VF  I F RF

Where, VF is showing the voltage of source that is being connected to the field circuits, in

special cases, sometimes this source is same as Vt . Those motors where this type of

configuration is used, are called shunt dc motors which are explained explicitly in later topics.

I F is field current and RF is field winding resistance.

 31

Types of DC Motors

On the basis of flux production and field winding configuration, direct current motors are

divided into many types. Each type has got its own merits and demerits. Some are useful in

situations where heavy torque is required, some are applied to the conditions where high

speed is needed. The tradeoff is made while dealing different applications. These types are

given below.

Shunt DC Motor

The circuit diagram for this type of motor is given below in the Figure 3- 4.

Figure 3- 4: Shunt DC motor.

 32

Both circuits i.e. armature and field circuits are connected in parallel such that one voltage

source is needed for operation. The total current is divided into two paths. Its characteristics

equation can be found by analyzing equation (3-13). It implies that,

Vt  EA  VR

Vt  Km  I A RA

Since we previously found that,

 ind  K I A

 ind
 I A 
K

Thus,

  ind 
Vt  Km    RA
 K 

Vt  R 
 m    2 A 2  ind (3.30)
K K  

Equation(3.31) relates angular speed and induce torque of the motor. Their relation is a

linear equation in terms of induced torque with negative slop. Note that the slop is negative

and its magnitude decrease very rapidly as the flux increase.

 33

Permanent Magnet DC (PMDC) Motor

The motor is named after the fact that permanent magnet have been used for flux

production. Its advantages are that it does not has cupper losses in field winding. Thus the

power that is being used for flux excitation, is saved. Such motor can be found up to 10

horsepower. However mostly small motors are having permanent magnets. As it does not

need any field winding, because of this fact, these motors have small size and weight. Because

of the latest improvements in permanent magnets technologies, even motor of large rating

can be built. The major types of material being used for magnets production are ceramic

magnetic material and rare-earth magnetic materials.

Its armature circuitry is same as that of shunt dc motor. The same equation like (3-14) can

be derived for this type of motor. Notice that field flux is constant due to permanent magnet,

however, the total flux in the machines may vary because of armature reaction, and this can

distort the shape of the graph.

The main disadvantage of these types of motors is that, there is a risk of complete

demagnetization of the magnets that are being used. This is because, the material have been

magnetized in a proper pattern, since we know that the armature current is in such a direction

to oppose the original flux, sometimes the magneto motive force because of the armature

current is so strong that can completely defy the original flux, consequently completely

demagnetizes the materials of permanent magnets. That is why these materials should have
 34

high residual flux density i.e. wider hysteresis loop, because this cannot be demagnetized by

low magneto motive force.

Second disadvantage of these motor is that, as the flux due to these permanent magnet

materials is not as strong as due to field winding therefore it has lower induced torque in

contrast to shunt dc motors of the same size. Later we will see that its speed can only be

varied by varying the armature voltage i.e. the terminal voltage. This also accounts for its

demerits, as shunt dc motor have a large range of speed variation as compared to PMDC

motors.

Series DC Motor

In such type of motors the field winding is in series with armature winding. It is opposite of

that of shunt configuration where field coil and armature coil was in parallel. It’s known to us

that the magnetic flux of a coil is proportional to the current flowing in it. Thus the flux in a

series dc motor is proportional to armature current as armature current is flowing through

the field windings which is aimed for flux production. These types of motors have some

interesting characteristics which can be seen from its final equation given below.

The figure depicts schematics of series dc motors. From the figure we can easily understand

that the armature is limited not only by armature resistance but also by field winding

resistance. i.e.

Rt  RA  RF
 35

Applying KVL to the circuit, we have.

Vt  EA  VR

Vt  Km  I A Rt

Vt  Km  I A ( RA  RF ) (3.32)

It’s known to us that magnetic flux due to a coil is directly proportional to current in it. i.e.

  cI A (3.33)

Where “c” proportionality constant and depends on the construction materials of the coil.

From the prospective of equation(3.34), the induced torque of the motor can be expressed

as,

 ind  KcI A2 (3.35)

 ind
IA  (3.36)
Kc

Flux can also be written as,

 ind c
 (3.37)
K

Equation(3.38) implies that,

 36

  ind c   ind
Vt  Km   (R  R )
 K  Kc A F

( R  RF )
m  
Vt  1
  A (3.39)
 Kc   ind Kc

Equation(3.40) is the final characteristic equation of series dc motor, which is a nonlinear

equation in terms of induced torque. Notice that angular speed is proportional to the

reciprocal of induced torque before saturation (magnetic saturation of motor).

Equation(3.41) is important, which reveals the fact that induced torque increases

exponentially with armature current, and this makes series motors capable for high torque

application like elevator and lifter.

What2if induced torque in equation(3.42) goes zero. The upshot is clear, angular speed will

be infinity. But in fact the torque is never zero even when the load is zero, this is because of

stray and windage losses, however the speed is very high and the motor can damage itself.

That is why it is precautionary to never unload series dc motor. Extra care should be taken

while installing these motors.

 37

Figure 3- 5: Series DC motor.

Conclusion

As we have discussed all types of dc motors in the above topics so we came to know that in

our project we cannot use series dc motors because they are used for high torque but in

operation series motors varying their torque according to the load. Also when load is

decreased then their speed increase very drastically which does not suites to our project.
 38

Chapter 4 Measurements and Analysis

Introduction

This entire chapter is based on our own measurements and observations, these

measurements were taken on prototype which weighs 40kg including 182W permanent

magnet motor. The motor has two poles coupled with a gear box. The gear box speed ratio

from output to input is 1/29, this means that if the rotor shaft completes 29 rotations, output

completes just one rotation. Moreover, the motor rated voltage is 24V, which draws only

7.5A current while operating on rated load. These ratings play important rule in simulations.

Characteristics of motor used in this project

Plot shown below in the Figure 4- 1 is corresponding to equation, though this equation was

derived for shunt DC motor but it holds true for permanent magnet motor also. Figure shows

plots for different voltages which are plotted for angular speed vs torque. Torque is in

percent, in this case 1% means torque of 1 Nm. If we calculate maximum power from 24V

plot, it can be seen that its value is 444.8W, which is far greater than the motor rated power.

Slopes are not steep and this is because of the motor construction (see chapter 3).

Though, induced torque is proportional to armature current and motor angular speed is

proportional to input voltage but they show very strange behavior, as we have seen that as
 39

torque increases angular speed decreases, but for current and voltage, this is not the case, in

this case as voltage increases so does the current.

160

140

120

100 24v
ω(rpm)

17.8
80
11.9

60 9.24
5.3
40

20

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Torque(%)
Figure 4- 1: Torque vs Angular speed.
 40

Measurements Taken on Prototype

Measurements in this portion were taken on a prototype made specially for this work.

Measurements involves different variables. Mass of the system is 134kg which includes motor

(8kg), 2-lead acid batteries of mass 12kg each and mass of our colleague which is 71kg. The

distance chosen for observation was 70-ft (21.5-m).

At input voltage of 23.5V, the distance was traveled in 9.6 seconds which yields speed of 7.3

m/s. All readings like voltage, current and time were taken simultaneously by three observer.

Current taken by the motor was 13.2A. Note that the initial current is pretty high, we took

the readings after the vehicle came to continuous motion (continuous current).

20
18
Discharge Time (Hour)

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Battery Capcity (AmpH)

Figure 4- 2: Discharge time vs battery capacity.

 41

A rough estimate is shown above in Figure 4- 2 for battery capacity vs discharging time. Note

that the plot is linear but in real systems it may not be the case, normally batteries with high

capacity have low rate of discharging [26]. This graph is based on the measurements that

motor drags current of 13.2A, both batteries are connected in series with assumption that

both have same capacities.

The mass-fuel consumption (Charge consumption in our case) relation is nearly exponential

[27] but for the sake of simplicity we considered it linear.

450

400

350

300
Mass (Kg)

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Current Drag (Amp/sec)

Figure 4- 3: Mass vs Current

Note that plots shown in Figure 4- 2 and Figure 4- 3 needs the speed to be constant, any

speed variation will violate the validity of these plots. It’s our common observation that as
 42

mass increases, the fuel consumption increases as well i.e. extra effort is needed to budge

the mass.

Now, we keep time, voltage and mass constant and drive an expression for current in terms

of distance which is defined by the following equation.

m 2
 S
t 3V

Where m is vehicle mass (134kg), t is time (9.6 sec) and V is voltage (23.5 V). The plot given

below in the Figure 4- 4 corresponds to above equation. Plot shows that, for constant time

and voltage, current is proportional to the square of distance.

Current in Amp
25

20
Current (Amp)

15

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Distance (m)

Figure 4- 4: Current vs Distance

 43

So far the simulation for different parameters have been discussed through graphs, the last

portion is intended for control circuit simulation.

For constant input energy, when mass increases, velocity decreases exponentially to zero,

in order see this point, their relation is expressed by the following equation for a system with

100%.

IVvol t
m
V2

The graph governed by the above equation is given below in Figure 4- 5.

60

50

40
Velocity (m/s)

30

20

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Mass (kg)

Figure 4- 5: Velocity vs Mass

 44

Simple Buck Converter

In order to operate the motor with various speed, we have chosen buck converter to vary

the voltage [28]. Figure 4. 1 shows basic circuitry. A chopper is given 24V DC as input, pulse

generator is applied to gat terminal and the output is taken across source terminal.

Freewheeling diode is connected in parallel with load so that to prevent chopper from

damaging because of high reverse voltage. This reverse voltage induces because of Ldi/dt

when chopper switches off.

Figure 4- 7 shows results of the circuit in the Figure 4- 6. Clock frequency is 60HZ and duty

cycle is 50%. As the load resistance decreases, the peak of output decreases as well, this

because, some voltage drops across internal resistance of the chopper. However, this circuit

is suitable because it contains pulses, therefore these pluses should be removed using filters

(e.g. parallel capacitor of large size).

Freewheeling diode must have the ability to sustain with high current as the motor

inductance is very high and induces very high voltage.

 45

Figure 4- 6: Buck Converter

Figure 4- 7: Results of Buck Converter

 46

Conclusion
Graphs shown above are valid for any size of motor, though the speed of our prototype

model is very low (7.5 m/s), but the motor installed is just 0.25Hp. The speed can be improved

by installing high power motor with suitable gear ratio. So far the analysis shows a very good

progress and we hope this will be a wining step for all.

Figure-4. 1 reveal very special information which tells us that the current is proportional to

the square of distance in a fixed time, which means to the square of speed. And this true

because as the speed increases, mechanical power also increase. Thus to save the battery for

long time, vehicle should be operated at low or moderate speed.

 47

Chapter 5 Conclusion and future work

Conclusions
The discussion presented in this thesis is based on making conventional-hybrid cars. In our

thesis by hybridization we mean addition of electric motor to internal combustion engine

vehicles. Hybrid cars are already available in many countries but until now no one have

focused attention towards the conventional cars and every new company is in struggle to

make new model cars as hybrid. So in our thesis we have focused on conventional cars so

that we make them hybrid and also the rare wheels of much front wheel cars now days are

free and we brought them in work by coupling a motor with them. By doing this we have two

main advantages, firstly we can drive the car with electric motor and use the IC engine for

charging the batteries, secondly we can drive the car with both IC engine and electric motor

at a time but it will have to be synchronized. The synchronization method will be

advantageous because it will reduce the fuel consumption for example if a car is moving with

a speed of 50km/h so it will consume fuel of 25km/h and fuel consumption is reduce to half.

In our thesis the second main goal is to control carbon dioxide emission, today world is

moving toward renewable energy sources because fuel consumption emits carbon dioxide

and by the world RD&D(research development and demonstration) if we emit carbon dioxide

with this present rate then in the year 2035 the temperature of the world will increase to 4

degree centigrade of the pre-industrial level which is dangerous level and all dangers in the
 48

world will be increased like floods etc. as shown in Figure 5- 1 year vs. carbon dioxide

emission in parts per million.

Figure 5- 1: ppm vs time.

The first set of experiment was about the torque, speed and their characteristics and also

the effect of load on the torque and speed of the motor. Experimentally we have found that

initially more current is needed for the motor because initial torque of the motor is greater.

The second set of experiment is concerned with speed of the car and how much current it

drags and also what effect is there when we increase the weight of the car. So in chapter all
 49

we have shown that what happens when we increase the weight and also how much current

the motor drags?

Suggestion for Future work

 In future we can synchronize the internal combustion engine(IC) with the electric

motor easily by finding the speed of IC engine and then adjusting the current rating of motor

that will adjust the torque and so both IC and electric motor will be synchronized easily.

 We can also replace the batteries with fuel cells.

 We can use the regenerative braking system for recharging of batteries.

 In Suzuki pickups we can fit solar panels in upper side of the body.

 We can also replace the shisha of car with solar panel.

 We can also use the electric motor as a generator for recharging of batteries while

driving the car on IC engine.

 In future the main focus will be towards the speed which is a big problem in electric

hybrid cars.
 50

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