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ABSTRACT
Microbial iron reduction plays an significant role in the cycling of iron and organic
matter in natural environment. Soluble and insoluble ions as well as the metallic
K e y w o r d s forms frequently exhibit toxicity. Suitable remediation is required for the heavy
metal contamination in soil especially ferric form of iron since it is highly toxic. In
the present study, bioremediation process was applied because of its low cost,
Amorphous
iron; efficient and ecofriendly in nature. Iron resistant bacterial strains were isolated
from soil samples obtained from various areas located in Salem district of Tamil
Humic acid;
AQS; Nadu. Among the iron resistant bacterial strains SK-PS13 was selected as potential
Mineral salts Fe (III) reducer. It was selected by screening of amorphous Fe (III) reduction test in
medium; synthetic medium amended with acetate as a sole carbon source. Subsequently Fe
(III) reduction was carried out in the medium enriched with humic acid and AQS.
acetate.
This was helped to lead 54 and 56 fold increased level of Fe(III) biosolubilization.
The present study would be a lime light for further exploration of eco-friendly
bioremediation of iron contaminated soil in Salem district in turn enhances the
benefits for the human welfare.
Introduction
Fe (III) appears in the environment in a Fe (III) oxide (Fe(OH)3, goethite ( -
multiplicity of states such as oxides, FeOOH), akaganetite -FeOOH),
hydroxides and oxyhydroxides; all these maghemite ( -Fe2O3) and magnetite
different forms are chiefly referred to as (Fe3O4) those had been reported by
Fe (III) oxides . Fe oxides are the most previous studies (Wilkins et al., 2006;
metallic oxides in soils, it constitute a Li et al., 2012; Bae and Lee, 2013). The
great interest in soil chemistry and reactivity of a Fe oxide depends on
importance of plant nutrition but their low mineralogy, elemental composition,
solubility is the main cause of Fe crystal size and surface area. Two main
deficiency. Iron oxide like amorphous parameters must be considered in order to
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min at 15 lbs (Wu et al., 2010). To this CFU/g respectively in each sites. The P
0.5% of synthetic amorphous ferric oxide, value was 0.0, F-ratio was 103.40, since the
1 mg/l synthetic electron mediators such P-value of the F-test is less than 0.05, there
as humic acid and 9,10-anthraquinone-2- is a statistically significant difference
sulfonate (AQS) were added respectively. between the mean bacterial populations
Further, about 1% (v v) of screened (CFU/g) from one level of sampling
efficient acetate oxidizing Fe (III)- location to another at the 95.0% confidence
reducing isolate SK-PS13 (107 CFU/ml of level (Figure 1). Ayyasamy et al., (2009)
the cells) were aseptically inoculated. reported that the soil samples from a
Strict anaerobic conditions were mountain slope was found to be neutral
maintained by flushing N2 (99.99%) gas and rich in heavy metals predominantly,
for 15 min, sealed with butyl-rubber iron concentration was higher as 73,996
stoppers and crimped with aluminum caps mg/kg. Mohamed et al., (2012) noted that
and keeping the test materials in a shaker the soil samples from different places at
(120 rpm) at 30°C for 30 days. Samples roadsides had high prevalence of heavy
were withdrawn aseptically at the time metal resistant microbes its potential as
intervals of 24 hours and analyzed ferrous bioremediation agents.
ion by 1,10- phenanthroline method.
Primary screening of Fe (III) resistant
Statistical analysis bacteria by spot assay
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15.5% in 1000ppm
Fe(III)
22.2% in 900 ppm
27.7%
in
800 ppm
Fe(III)
30% in 700 ppm
Fe(III)
90% in 100 ppm
Fe(III)
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Nutrient Agar (NAT) media, showed only results suggest that this group of
15.55% of Fe(III) resistant bacterial organisms is important in iron reduction
isolates and they were selected and coupled to acetate oxidation and hence to
identified upto generic level. Based on dissimilatory iron reduction in general
gram staining and biochemical tests the because acetate is believed to be a major
genera were identified as Bacillus, electron donor for this process. Most of
Micrococcus, Acinetobacter, the iron reducers were not the main
Pseudomonas, Alkaligenes, Arthrobacter, contributors to acetate oxidation
Flavobacterium, Vibrio, Enterobacter, (Vandieken et al., 2013). Fermentative and
Aeromonas and Corynebacterium. The terminal electron-accepting processes
bacterial isolates identified in this study interact very closely so that the products of
were mostly represented by gram- fermentation do not accumulate but are
negative, and also few gram-positive used immediately as substrates for
bacteria are believed to be tolerant to a respiration, with typical acetate
Fe(III) stress environment. Despite the concentrations in the micromolar range
apparent diversity of Fe(III)-reducing and turnover rates of 10-1200 nmol cm-3
bacteria, microbial community analysis of day-1 for marine sediments (Finke et al.,
subsurface environments where Fe(III) 2007) and also he reported that acetate is
reduction occurs has suggested that in an important substrate for anaerobic
many cases, so the efficient Fe(III) respiratory organisms like iron and sulfate
reducing bacterial isolation from place rich reducers. Iron reduction was active and
in Fe(III) and its reduction was focused. also stimulated by the addition of acetate
Scala et al. (2006) reported that the (Achtnich et al., 1995). Lovely (1992)
bacterial species mediate Fe(III) reduction reported that Fe(III) reduction could be a
are phylogenetically diverse, include both significant process for organic matter
facultative and obligate anaerobes, these mineralization, in addition to that iron
can be categorized as fermentative, sulfur- reduction which occurs during
oxidizing, hydrogen oxidizing or organic- fermentation, the products of fermentation
acid-oxidizing organisms. Dissimilatory particularly acetate could also be linked
Fe(III)-reducing microorganisms can be with Fe(III) reduction.
categorized into two major groups: those
that support growth by conserve energy Effect of biosolubulisation of Fe(III) in
during the electron transfer to Fe(III) and the presence of electron mediators
those that do not in that fermentative
bacteria belongs to this latter group The biosolubulisation of Fe(III) by using
(Balboa et al., 2010). acetate oxidizing bacterial isolate SK-
PS13 isolate was examined over a period
Acetate oxidizing Fe (III) reducing of 30 days using MSM with 1% acetate
isolate with synthetic electron mediators like
humic acid and AQS separately. Every 24
Isolate PS13 from SK site-1, was efficient h, the reduced Fe(II) in each set of sample
acetate oxidizing and Fe(III) reducing were analyzed. In this study, the given
isolate selected based on the Fe (II) isolate reduced the maximum level of Fe
production was measured (II) during 2nd to 3rd week in MSM
spectrophotometrically using the 1,10 - containing 1% acetate and 1 mg/l
phenanthroline method (Figure 3). These concentration of redox elements like
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Figure.4 Effect of acetate in the presence of electron mediators for biosolubulisation study
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humic acid and AQS (Figure 4). The continuous electron shuttling by the redox
higher reduction rate of Fe(II) measured as couples can significantly enhanced
7,494.77 mg/kg was recorded on the 12th bioreduction of lepidocrocite in the
day of the acetate with AQS added presence of different ETMs. Wilkins et al.,
experiment. In the case of acetate (2006) explained that generally, the most
incorporated with humic acid, the level of obvious mechanism in some bacteria are
reduced Fe(II) was 7,245.54 mg/kg, in the able to access the iron oxides directly, by
absence of synthetic electron mediators using outer membrane bound c-type
acetate itself reduced 4,017.37 mg/kg of cytochromes transfer of electrons from the
Fe(II) at on 14th and 16th day, respectively. cell onto the Fe(III) oxide surface in iron
In all test carried out with the acetate as a reduction process. In the given study, the
carbon source, the biosolubulisation of SK-PS13 isolate was motile, in the
Fe(III) increased rapidly up to the 3rd week absence of acetate and synthetic electron
and then decreased thereafter. The mediators the organism alone able to
reduction of synthetic amorphous Fe(III) reduce in 1,211.06 mg/kg of reduced
oxide was negligible when the mineral salt Fe(II) as a higher rate at the end of 2nd
medium did not contain any carbon source week in biotic control. Childers et al.,
or bacterial inoculum. (2002) reported that the flagellated G.
metallireducens enable to move towards
The rate of microbial dissolution of iron Fe(III) minerals during reduction study.
oxide can vary significantly depends on Electron-shuttling compounds found in the
different environmental conditions (Zhang environment afford another mechanism by
et al., 2007; Salas et al., 2010; Ayyasamy which bacteria can reduce Fe(III) oxides
et al., 2012), the bacterial specificity/ lacking the need for direct contact with the
capability of reduction process and nature mineral phase. In this report, from 4th day
of iron oxides (Li et al., 2012), the onwards swiftly increase in reduction
presence of electron mediators (Ayyasamy occurs particularly in the presence of
and Lee, 2009), and the interaction humic acid and AQS. Lovley et al., (1998,
between iron oxides and bacteria. The 1999) experiments using G.
given purified SK-PS13 enrichment metallireducens and S. alga have
isolates, can derive energy for growth by demonstrated that respiration on humic
coupling the reduction of Fe(III) to the acid as the sole electron acceptor can yield
oxidation of organic carbon source acetate, energy to support cell growth. The
which is a key fermentation end products reduction of structural Fe(III) present in
in such metabolism and also, given their clays such as smectite was also stimulated
abundance and ubiquity, acetate as by the addition of humic acids and the
formerly evident electron acceptor for iron humic analogue 2,6-anthraquinone
reduction. Bae and Lee (2013) reported disulfonate (AQDS) (Lovley et al., 1998)
that the 59% as a highest concentration of and also the dissolution and redox
0.5 M HCl extractable Fe(II) was obtained transformation of heavy metals in the soil
in the presence of AQS (23.4 mM) from a mountain slope in the Bucheon
compared with other ETMs like AQC area, South Korea by using Shewanella sp.
(49%), riboflavin (33%), FMN (36%), and (HN-41) influenced by the carbon source,
FAD (32%) by using S. putrefaciens CN32 humic acid and ADQS able to reduce
able to reduced 40 mM lepidocrocite in 25.6% of iron reduction (Ayyasamy and
deaerated deionized water, and also the Lee, 2009). Carbon source-mediated and
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