CORSO DI MOTORI A COMBUSTIONE INTERNA

Anno Accademico: 2017-2018

Prof. Enrico Mattarelli

Parametri motoristici e cicli

termodinamici

Dept. of Eng. «Enzo Ferrari», February 28, 2018

 OUTLINES
• Geometric parameters, mean piston speed, inertia pressure
• Operating parameters
• Performance parameters: brake and indicated quantities
• Heat released and transferred
• Efficiency parameters, specific fuel consumption
• Downsizing
• Ideal Thermodynamic Cycles
• Analysis of the brake power formula
• Influence of combustion on brake power
• Influence of combustion on cylinder temperature and pressure
• The stoichiometric approach
• Main combustion modes

Engine Parameters – Prof. E. Mattarelli 2

 Main geometric Parameters
Combustion chamber
Volume, Vcc S  2R
Top dead center (TDC)
Bore, B X(q) 
Vd  B2S Displacement, or capacity
4

Vd  Vcc V
rc   1  d Compression Ratio
Vcc Vcc
connecting rod length, LCR
R
 Typical values: 0.25-0.30
LCR

q Crank radius, R
Stroke, S

S 1 1 
x    1   cos   1   2 sin 2  
2   

S 1 2 2 sin  cos 
uP   sin     Piston speed
up/Up a/(w^2 R)
2   2 1   2 sin 2  
2

UP  2  n  S Mean Piston Speed

1.5

0.5
   
0
u P    U P sin   sin  2   Simplified Piston Speed
-0.5 2  2 
-1
S
-1.5 aP     2 cos   cos  2   Simplified piston acceleration
-2 2
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

Engine Parameters – Prof. E. Mattarelli 3

 Mean Piston speed and Inertia
• Inertia pressure is the main mechanical stress indicator for the cranking system:
 S 
malt  2 1    
pi 
Fi ,max
  2 
AP AP
malt: reciprocating mass, Ap: piston area
• For similar engines (same stroke-to-bore, same conrod length-stroke ratio) inertia
pressure is proportional to squared mean piston speed
mean piston speed may be also assumed as an indicator of mechanical stress
maximum values of mean piston speed are: 25-27 m/s (reached on SBK, F1, MotoGP
engines)
 Maximum values of mean piston speed on production engines are typically: 10-15
m/s

Engine Parameters – Prof. E. Mattarelli 4

 Main operating parameters
Define the conditions at which the engine operates:
• Engine speed, n
• Engine load: position of the accelerator pedal (from 0=idle, to 100=full load);
independent on speed!
• Air-to-fuel ratio, AFR or a
• Ambient conditions: pressure, temperature, humidity
• Coolant and/or lubricant oil temperature

Engine Parameters – Prof. E. Mattarelli 5

 Engine speed and load
• Minimum engine speed depends on combustion regularity, which in turn depends
on mean piston speed (difficult combustion below 2 m/s )
• Maximum engine speed depends on project targets, or constraints on valves, or on
maximum mean piston speed
• Engine load: on Spark Ignition (SI) engine it’s controlled by throttling the air flow,
keeping AFR about constant; on Compression Ignition (CI) engines (Diesel), it’s
controlled by the amount of injected fuel, then AFR changes widely (low load, very
high AFR, full load typically AFR=15-25)
• Load may be defined also in terms of torque/torque_max at each given engine
speed
• Idle conditions: when the work done by the charge on the pistons is balanced by
the energy spent to overcome the mechanical and fluid-dynamic losses

Engine Parameters – Prof. E. Mattarelli 6

 Air-fuel ratio
• SI engines: they can operate over a tight range of values
• CI engines: the lower limit is given by the production of soot in the exhaust gas, no
upper limit
• Stoichiometric AFR, AFRs (as): proportion between air and fuel in an ideal
combustion, it depends only on the fuel composition (*). Gasoline: 14.65, diesel
fuel: 14.5; methane: 17.1
• Relative AFR, l=AFR/AFRs
• Equivalence ratio, F=AFRs/AFR=1/l
• For SI engines, the typical operating range is 0.7<l<1.2

 b
 a    32  3.773  28 
as  
 b b  b 4
(*) Ca H b   a    O2  3.773 N 2  
 a CO2  H 2O   a    3.773 N 2
 4 2  4 a  12  b  1.008

Engine Parameters – Prof. E. Mattarelli 7

 Ambient conditions and oil/coolant temperature

• Ambient pressure, temperature and humidity affect engine performance,

expecially on SI engines  empirical corrections used to pass from general
ambient conditions to standard conditions
• Oil/coolant temperature: when the engine is started with all its liquids at ambient
temperature, its power ouput is much lower than at stable, hot conditions, due to:
- higher mechanical friction (higher viscosity of the lubricant);
- higher heat losses (higher temperature gradient between gas and walls).
Moreover, the efficiency of the after-treatment systems (3-way catalyst, particulate
filter, de-NOx) is very poor It is always crucial to reduce the warm-up time

Engine Parameters – Prof. E. Mattarelli 8

 Brake Torque, Power and Mean Effective Pressure

• «Brake» quantities are measured by coupling the engine to a brake, in the testing
cell
• Brake power, P, and brake torque,T are related by: P  T  2 n
• Brake power can be expressed also as: P=W n’ (W: work done over the engine
cycle, measured at the brake; n’ number of cycles per time unit= n/(t/2), being t
the number of strokes per cycle)
W
• Brake Mean Effective Pressure: BMEP 
Vd

bmep  Vd  n n
P  T  2 n  W 
t t 
 
2 2

Engine Parameters – Prof. E. Mattarelli 9

 Indicated and Friction Mean Effective Pressure
• «Indicated» quantities are calculated by measuring the instantaneous cylinder
pressure, as a function of crank angle, then of cylinder volume, V
• The indicated work, Wi, is the work transferred from gas to pistons, during the
whole engine cycle, it can be expressed as the integral of the pressure-volume
trace Wi  Ñ  p   dV
• The work done during an ideal thermodynamic cycle, Wth,id>Wi
W
• The Indicated Mean Effective Pressure, IMEP, is: IMEP  i
Vd
• The difference between the indicated and the brake work is due to the mechanical
losses within the cylinder and the crankcase , as well as to the energy required to
drive the ancillaries (pumps, valvetrain, alternator, …): Wf
W f Wi  W
• Friction mean effective pressure (FMEP) FMEP  IMEP  BMEP  
Vd Vd

Engine Parameters – Prof. E. Mattarelli 10

 Pumping and Gross Indicated Mean Effective Pressure
• In 4-stroke engines, the cycle may be split in two different parts: 1) exhaust- intake
strokes (gas exchange process, low cylinder pressure); 2) compression-expansion
strokes (combustion process, high cylinder pressure)
• The work done by the gas on the piston in the first part, Wp, represents the energy
spent by the engine to remove the exhaust gas and «pump» fresh charge into the
cylinder; a pumping mean effective pressure (PMEP) may be defined as:
 pdV
asp  sca
PMEP 
Vd  pdV
• Similarly, the Gross Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (GIMEP) is: GIMEP  comp  esp
Vd
• Obviously: IMEP=GIMEP+PMEP
• PMEP is normally a negative term, but there are some exceptions (supercharged
engines, when the average pressure during the intake stroke is higher than the
average pressure during exhaust)

Engine Parameters – Prof. E. Mattarelli 11

 Released and transferred heats
• Fuel energy: (mass of injected fuel, mf) x (fuel lower heating value Ki)=Q
• Heat released by combustion, Qc
• Heat losses, gas to cylinder walls, Qht
• Useful heat for the thermodynamic cycle, Q1
• Qc<Q: some fuel may not find Oxygen, or hydrocarbon oxidation may be
uncompleted (formation of CO, HC, H2)
• Q1<Qc, combustion chamber walls are cooled by coolant and oil
• Qht mainly depends on the combustion chamber surface area, on the temperature
gradient between gas and walls, on the level of turbulence in the charge, and on
engine speed (the lower, the longer is the duration of the cycle)

Engine Parameters – Prof. E. Mattarelli 12

 Efficiencies
• Mechanical (organic) efficiency: o  BMEP
IMEP

P W
• Brake (global, fuel conversion) efficiency:  g  
m&f  Ki m f  Ki

• Indicated efficiency: i 
Pi

 pdV
Ñ
m&f  K i m f  K i

IMEP PMEP
• Pumping efficiency:  p   1
GIMEP GIMEP

Q1
• Adiabatic efficiency:  ad 
Qc
Q Qc
• Combustion efficiency: c  Qc 
m f Ki

Wth ,id
• Thermodynamic (ideal cycle) efficiency: th ,id 
Q1

Engine Parameters – Prof. E. Mattarelli 13

 …other efficiencies

• Indicated cycle efficiency:

 pdV GIMEP  Vd
ic  comp  exp 
Wth ,id Wth ,id

• Thermal efficiency

 pdV
th  comp  exp  th ,id  c  ad ic
Q

 g   o i   o  p th   o  p th ,id ic  c  ad

Engine Parameters – Prof. E. Mattarelli 14

 General comments on efficiency parameters

 g   o i   o  p th   o  p th ,id ic  c  ad

• Mechanical efficiency: it depends on both load and speed; for a constant IMEP, it
decreases as engine speed increases; for a constant engine speed, it decreases
with load at idle it’s zero!!
• Pumping efficiency, SI engines: it depends on both speed and load; for a constant
IMEP, it decreases as engine speed increases; for a constant engine speed, it
decreases with load (throttling) ; valves design and actuation very important too.
• Pumping efficiency, Diesel: it depends mainly on engine speed and on valve design
• Thermodynamic (ideal cycle) efficiency: at full load it’s the weakest ring of the
chain, it depends on the compression ratio
• Indicated cycle efficiency: it depends on valve timings, in particular on the exhaust
valve opening advance (larger advance less work during the expansion stroke)

Engine Parameters – Prof. E. Mattarelli 15

 General comments on efficiency parameters

 g   o i   o  p th   o  p th ,id ic  c  ad

Combustion efficiency, SI engines: it depends on:
a) Relative AFR (Lambda), efficiency generally close to 1, for stoichiometric or slightly
lean mixtures (up to l=1.1); for rich mixtures  c  l
b) Load: at low loads, combustion may be uncompleted for the high amount of
residuals
c) Spark ignition advance: retarded ignition may cause uncompleted combustion
d) Loss of fuel through the exhaust valves/ports
e) Speed, combustion chamber design, turbulence (weak dependence)
Combustion efficiency, Diesel engines: it depends on:
a) Relative AFR (Lambda), for values higher than 1.2 it’s generally close to 1 (the
higher, the better)
b) Speed: more difficult to get good efficiency at high speed, assistance of turbulence

Engine Parameters – Prof. E. Mattarelli 16

 General comments on efficiency parameters

 g   o i   o  p th   o  p th ,id ic  c  ad

Adiabatic efficiency, SI engines: it depends on:
a) Walls temperature: the higher, the better
b) Surface to volume ratio of the combustion chamber: the lower, the better
c) In-cylinder turbulence during combustion: the lower, the better
d) Speed: lower speed longer cycle duration more heat losses
e) Load: at low load, the relative weight of heat losses increases
Adiabatic efficiency, Diesel engines: it depends on:
a), b), c) d) as on SI engines
e) load: the lower, the better (because of lower combustion temperature)

Engine Parameters – Prof. E. Mattarelli 17

 Specific fuel consumption

• Brake Specific Fuel Consumption:

mf 1
bsfc  
P  g Ki

• Indicated Specific fuel consumption

mf 1
isfc  
Pi i K i

• Best bsfc values for SI engines: 240 g/kWh

• Best bsfc values for automotive CI (Diesel) engines: 200 g/kWh
• Best bsfc values for Diesel industrial 4-S engines: 190 g/kWh
• Best bsfc values for large marine and stationary 2-S Diesel engines: 165 g/kWh

Engine Parameters – Prof. E. Mattarelli 18

 Bsfc/brake efficiency maps

Brake efficiency is generally decreasing as load decreases

Operating range of a small engine

Operating range of a big engine

Engine Parameters – Prof. E. Mattarelli 19

 The downsizing concept

• Downsizing means to reduce the engine capacity without decreasing its full load
output
• The main advantage is the higher fuel efficiency at low load operations (higher
bmep for the same brake torque, thus higher brake efficiency)
• Another advantage is the reduced warm-up time  lower pollutant emissions and
fuel consumption
• Technology must be upgraded to compensate the displacement reduction, the
main enablers are:
1) Supercharging
2) Variable valve actuation
3) Electrical assistance (electric motor, and/or electric supercharger/turbocharger)
4) 2-stroke cycle

Engine Parameters – Prof. E. Mattarelli 20

 The brake power formula

• Brake power may be expressed as:

m&a
P   g  m&f  K i  o  i  m&f  K i  o  i   Ki
a
m&a Ki Ki a
P   o  i  as  Ki   s
a as as a

• The air flow rate may be related to engine displacement and speed through the
volumetric efficiency:
m&a ma
lv  
ra  Vd 
n ra  Vd
t / 2 
ra is the ambient air density.
• Volumetric efficiency is not a true efficiency, in supercharged engines it’s generally
higher than 1; it may be >1 also in tuned naturally aspirated engines

Thermodynamic cycles - Prof. E. Mattarelli 21

 The brake power formula

n
P  o i    Ki  lv  ra  Vd 
t / 2
For supercharged engines, it may be convenient to define a «manifold» volumetric
efficiency, considering the air density after supercharging, in the intake manifold
instead of the ambient
m&a
lv 
n
r s  Vd 
t / 2 
Combining the previous parameters:

n
P   o  p th    K  l  r s  Vd * '

t 2
i v

Thermodynamic cycles - Prof. E. Mattarelli 22

 Ideal Thermodynamic cycle
Otto Cycle, rc=10, K=1.3, p1=1bar, T1=300K
6

5
3
Combustion
4
ln (p/p1)

v=cost Q1
Expansion, pv^k=cost
3
2
2
4
1 Q2
Compression, pv^k=cost Exhaust+
0
Heat losses
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1
v/v_max
1
th ,id  1  k 1
The efficiency of the «Otto» cycle depends only on Compression Ratio!!!!
r c

Thermodynamic cycles - Prof. E. Mattarelli 23

 Analysis of the brake power formula: load control

n
P   o  p th    K  l  r s  Vd 
* '

t 2
i v
SI engines:
• Throttling to reduce load  reduction of relative volumetric efficiency
• Mechanical and pumping efficiencies are also negatively affected
• Thermal efficiency slightly worse
• Equivalence ratio almost constant

Diesel engines:
• Less injected fuel to reduce load  reduction of the equivalence ratio
• Relative volumetric efficiency is constant, manifold density is constant in naturally
aspirated engines, it is generally reduced on turbocharged engines
• Thermal and pumping efficiencies are slightly better

LOAD CONTROL IS MORE EFFICIENT IN DIESEL ENGINES

Thermodynamic cycles - Prof. E. Mattarelli 24

Analysis of the brake power formula: CI vs. SI (full load)

n
P   o  p th    K  l  r s  Vd * '

t 2
i v
Same total displacement, stroke<150 mm:
• SI engines can reach higher maximum speeds (Direct injected Diesels limited to 4000 rpm) higher peak
power
• Diesel engines cannot operate with F>0.8-0.9 at high speedsfurther penalization on peak power
• The gap may be reduced or canceled by increasing the manifold charge pressure (supercharging)

Large unit displacement (>1 liter)

• SI engines are normally not employed, because large bores (>130 mm) bring severe combustion problems
(knocking); the use of natural gas allows slightly larger unit displacement
• Moreover, Diesel engines have higher brake efficiencies because: higher compression ratiohigher
thermodynamic efficiency; lower combustion temperatures higher adiabatic efficiency; less penalization
at partial loads

BIG ENGINES MUST BE COMPRESSION IGNITION

Thermodynamic cycles - Prof. E. Mattarelli 25

 Analysis of the brake power formula: racing engines

n
P   o  p th    K  l  r s  Vd  * '

t
i v
For increasing power, with the same total displacement:
2
1) Increase charge density, same maximum speed supercharging
2) Increase maximum speed, same values of brake and volumetric efficiency
(increasing bore-to-stroke ratio (*) and number of cylinders, difficult)
3) Same charge density and maximum speed, increase brake efficiency
(enhancing the efficiency of thermodynamic processes, more difficult)

(*) 2nS Up
P   o  p th    K i*  l'v  r s  Ap ,tot    o  p th    K i*  l'v  r s  Ap ,tot 
t t

Ap ,tot  z  B2
4
Up is limited by inertia forces (max. 25-27 m/s), but brake power can be enhanced by increasing the total area
of the pistons, through an increase of B/S or through an increase of the number of cylinders

Thermodynamic cycles - Prof. E. Mattarelli 26

 SI engines, influence of combustion on brake power

n
P   o  p th    K  l  r s  Vd 
* '

t 2
i v

The main parameters controlled by combustion are

1) Thermal efficiency, th   c th ,id  ad ic
2) F, equivalence ratio
LHV
3) K i* 
as

• Combustion does not limit the maximum engine speed, regular

combustion can occur on a wide range of values (100-30,000 rpm)
• Gas exchange processes have a strong influence on combustion, but
combustion does not directly affect volumetric efficiency

Thermodynamic cycles - Prof. E. Mattarelli 27

 Thermal Efficiency
4-cylinder, 2.0 L, 4-Stroke gasoline engine, compression ratio: 9.5

Speed BMEP IMEP PMEP FMEP GIMEP Lambda brake_eff Engine efficiency parameters
rpm bar bar bar bar bar % 100
6000 10.56 12.78 -1.14 2.21 13.92 0.80 24.4 90
5500 11.29 13.39 -1.01 2.10 14.40 0.81 25.4 80
70
5000 11.50 13.47 -0.78 1.97 14.25 0.81 26.3
60
4500 11.72 13.56 -0.61 1.85 14.18 0.82 27.4
50 * Thermal efficiency
4000 11.56 13.28 -0.50 1.72 13.78 0.84 28.2 40
3500 10.67 12.23 -0.33 1.56 12.56 0.84 28.7 30
3000 10.90 12.33 -0.26 1.44 12.59 0.85 29.3 20
2500 10.39 11.67 -0.14 1.28 11.81 0.85 29.5 10
2000 9.67 10.79 -0.07 1.11 10.85 0.86 29.4 0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
1500 9.75 10.72 -0.05 0.97 10.77 0.86 29.0
1000 8.02 8.82 -0.02 0.79 8.84 0.86 27.7 b_eff % m_eff % p_eff % th_eff %

P W IMEP FMEP IMEP PMEP  pdV g

g   m   1 p   1 th  comp exp

m&f  Ki m f  Ki BMEP BMEP GIMEP GIMEP Q  m  p
Brake or global efficiency Mechanical or organic efficiency Pumping efficiency
Thermal efficiency

Thermal efficiency is the weakest link of the efficiency chain !!

Thermodynamic cycles - Prof. E. Mattarelli 28

 Thermal Efficiency
4-cylinder, 2.0 L, 4-Stroke gasoline engine, compression ratio: 9.5

FUEL ENERGY USAGE

Speed th_eff th_id_eff comb_eff ad_eff ic_eff
100
rpm % % % % % Uncompleted combustion
90
6000 32.2 49.1 80.2 88.9 92.0
80
5500 32.4 49.1 80.7 88.6 92.3 Heat Losses
70
5000 32.6 49.1 81.1 88.3 92.7
60
4500 33.2 49.1 82.4 87.7 93.5
4000 33.6 49.1 83.6 86.8 94.4 50 Exhaust gas thermal energy Ideal->Real cycle
3500 33.8 49.1 84.4 85.7 95.2 40

3000 33.9 49.1 85.1 84.6 95.7 30

2500 33.5 49.1 85.4 83.5 95.6 20

1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000
2000 33.0 49.1 85.7 81.9 95.7
1500 32.0 49.1 86.0 79.7 95.2
1000 30.5 49.1 86.2 75.2 95.8 FUEL ENERGY COMB. ENERGY ID. CYCLE ENERGY

IDEAL WORK GROSS INDICATED WORK

The efficiency of the ideal thermodynamic cycle is the weakest link of the chain  compression ratio is the
most important engine parameter for efficiency!!!
Also l plays a key role (=combustion efficiency, for rich mixtures), along with heat losses

Thermodynamic cycles - Prof. E. Mattarelli 29

 Influence of combustion on cylinder pressure and
temperature
• Simplified analysis: ideal Otto cycle
• Isoentropic exponent: 1.38 (Cp=1 kJ/(kg.K), Cv=0.72 kJ/(kg.K))
• Compression ratio: 11.3
• Pressure at BDC (=intake valve closing): 1 bar
• Temperature at BDC (=intake valve closing): 300 K
• A/F=15.1(stoichiometric), Lower Heating value: 44300 kJ/kg (isoctane, C8H18)

v2  cost.
p T
3 3
p2

v1
2
2
4 patm

4 1

BDC v s

Thermodynamic cycles - Prof. E. Mattarelli 30

 Influence of combustion on cylinder p,T
k k 1
p2  v1   T2   v1 
    rk     r k 1 p2  p1  r k  28.4 bar T2  T1  r k 1  754 K
p1  v2   T1   v2 

mq1  Q1  m f  c  ad  K i  m  cv  T3  T2 

m  ma  m f  mres (mres, residuals and/or recirculated exhaust gas)

mres
Xr 
 ma  m f 
K i  c  ad
m
a  m f  1  X r   q1  Q1  m f  c  ad  K i
q1 
a  1  1  X r 

Thermodynamic cycles - Prof. E. Mattarelli 31

 Influence of combustion on peak temperature

K i  c  ad   K i  c  ad
*
a
T3  T2   T1  r k 1   T3  754  3683  4437 K
cv  a  1  1  X r  cv  1  X r  a  1

The maximum cylinder temperature depends on:

1) Ki* Gasoline, Diesel, Natural Gas, Alcohols have very close values, Hydrogen 20% higher
2) Equivalence ratio x Combustion efficiency  lower temperatures in Diesel engines
3) Adiabatic efficiency
4) Specific heat of the mixture (depending on equivalence ratio, richer mixtures have higher
specific heats)
5) Xr  EGR is an effective technique for lowering combustion temperatures
6) Compression ratio (limited effect)
7) T1 (affected by fuel evaporation), limited effect
8) Stoichiometric A/F values: lower values tends to reduce maximum combustion temperature

Thermodynamic cycles - Prof. E. Mattarelli 32

 Influence of combustion on peak pressure

p3 p2 T     K i*  c  ad a 
  p3  p2  3  p3  p1r  1 
k
 
 cv  1  X r   T1  r a 1
k 1
T3 T2  T2 

The maximum cylinder pressure depends on:

1) Ki*
2) Equivalence ratio x Combustion efficiency  lower pressures in Diesel engines
3) Adiabatic efficiency
4) Specific heat of the mixture
5) Xr  EGR also lowers combustion pressures
6) Compression ratio (strong effect)
7) T1 (affected by fuel evaporation), limited effect
8) Stoichiometric A/F values: lower values tends to reduce maximum combustion pressure
9) P1: at partial loads lower pressures

P3=167.1 bar (not realistic)

Thermodynamic cycles - Prof. E. Mattarelli 33

 Influence of combustion on p,T at BDC

p3 T3
p4   5.89 bar T4   1766 K
rk r k 1

At the end of expansion, pressure and temperature depend on:

1) Peak values of p and T during combustion
2) Compression ratio: with higher compression ratios exhaust gas are colder!!!!

Thermodynamic cycles - Prof. E. Mattarelli 34

 From Otto to Sabathé cycle

p T v2  cost.

3 3 p3
3
3
v1
2
2
4
4 1

v s
• In the Sabathé cycle, combustion occurs at constant volume (2-3’), then at constant pressure (3’-3)
• The efficiency depends on the fraction of heat provided at constant pressure: the smaller, the better for
efficiency  the best thermodynamic cycle is Otto  the most efficient combustion occurs at constant
volume (the faster, the better)
• Peak temperature and pressure are lower, but the considerations made for the Otto cycle still apply
• Due to the lower thermodynamic efficiency, BDC temperature and pressure are slightly higher

Thermodynamic cycles - Prof. E. Mattarelli 35