BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES

Bulk Deformation
IN METALWORKING
• Rolling Metal forming operations which cause significant shape
• Other Deformation Processes Related to Rolling change by deformation in metal parts whose initial
form is bulk rather than sheet
• Forging
• Starting forms: cylindrical bars and billets, rectangular
• Other Deformation Processes Related to Forging
billets and slabs, and similar shapes
• Extrusion
• These processes work by stressing metal sufficiently
• Wire and Bar Drawing to cause plastic flow into desired shape
• Performed as cold, warm, and hot working operations

Importance of Bulk Deformation Four Basic Bulk Deformation Processes

• In hot working, significant shape change can be
accomplished
• In cold working, strength can be increased during
shape change
• Little or no waste - some operations are near net
shape or net shape processes
 The parts require little or no subsequent
machining
1. Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed between
opposing rolls
2. Forging – work is squeezed and shaped between
between opposing dies
3. Extrusion – work is squeezed through a die opening,
thereby taking the shape of the opening
4. Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire or bar is
reduced by pulling it through a die opening

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1
 ROLLING ROLLING
(HADDELEME) Deformation process in which work thickness is reduced
by compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls

The rolling process

(specifically, flat rolling)

The rotating rolls perform two main functions:

• Pull the work into the gap between them by friction between
workpart and rolls
• Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce cross section

Types of Rolling
• By geometry of work:
 Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a
rectangular cross-section
 Shape rolling - a square cross-section is formed
into a shape such as an I-beam
• By temperature of work:
 Hot Rolling – most common due to the large
amount of deformation required
 Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and plate
stock
Figure 19.2 - Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill

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2
 Flat Rolling & its analysis Flat Rolling & its analysis..

Spreading: in addition to thickness reduction, rolling

Draft (d) = amount of thickness reduction
usually increases work width (low w/t and low μ increases
d t o t f spreading).
Conservation of matter is preserved, so volume of metal
Where to = starting thickness; and tf = final thickness exiting the rolls equals the volume entering:
Reduction (r) = draft expressed as a fraction of
starting stock thickness:
Similarly, before and after volume rates of material flow
d
r must be the same, so before and after velocities can be
to related:

9 10

Flat Rolling & its analysis... Flat Rolling & its analysis...
Gradual change in velocity:
v0 < vr < vf
• The true strain in rolling:
Roll velocity = work velocity @ neutral
point (no-slip point) • The true strain can be used to determine the average
flow stress applied to the work material in flat rolling.
On eather side of this point, slipping
and friction occur between roll and
work.

The amount of the slip between the • The average flow stress is used to compute
rolls and the work can be measured estimates of force and power in rolling
by means of the forward slip: 

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3
 Flat Rolling & its analysis...
• On the entrance side of the no-slip point, friction force is in
one direction, and on the other side it is in the opposite
direction. However, the two forces are not equal. The
friction force on the entrance side is greater, so that the net
force pulls the work through the rolls.
• If this were not the case rolling would not be possible.
• There is a limit to the maximum possible draft that can be
accomplished in flat rolling with a given coefficient of
friction, given by:
d maks   2 .R
Flat Rolling & its analysis...
• Variation in roll pressure along the contact
length is significant.
• As friction increases, the neutral point shifts
away from the entrance and toward the exit in
order to maintain a net pull force in the
direction of rolling.
• Otherwise, with low friction, the work would
slip rather than pass between the rolls.
L  R.(t 0  t f )

Typical values of coefficient of friction: 0.1 (cold), 0.2 (warm), 0.4 (hot)  F  Y f .w.L

13 14

Flat Rolling & its analysis...

Shape Rolling

Torque for each roll Work is deformed into a contoured

cross-section rather than flat (rectangular)
• Accomplished by passing work through rolls that
Total Power have the reverse of desired shape
• Products include:
 Construction shapes such as I-beams, L-beams,
Where P = power, J/s or W; and U-channels
N = rotational speed, 1/s;
F = rolling force, N; and  Rails for railroad tracks
L = contact length, m.  Round and square bars and rods

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4
 Rolling Mills

• Equipment is massive and expensive

• Rolling mill configurations:
 Two-high – two opposing large diameter rolls
 Three-high – work passes through both directions
 Four-high – backing rolls support smaller work
rolls
 Cluster mill – multiple backing rolls on smaller rolls
 Tandem rolling mill – sequence of two-high mills Various configurations of rolling mills:
(a) 2-high rolling mill (b) 3-high rolling mill (c) four-high rolling mill
(d) cluster mill (e) tandem rolling mill

17 18

OTHER DEFORMATION PROCESSES

RELATED TO ROLLING Thread Rolling
Bulk deformation process used to form threads on
cylindrical parts by rolling them between two dies
Other bulk deformation process use rolls
to form the workparts. • Most important commercial process for mass
producing bolts and screws
• Performed by cold working in thread rolling machines
• Thread rolling
• Advantages over thread cutting (machining):
• Ring rolling
 Higher production rates
• Gear rolling
 Better material utilization
• Roll piercing
 Stronger threads due to work hardening
 Better fatigue resistance due to compressive
stresses introduced by rolling

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5
 Ring Rolling

Deformation process in which a thick-walled ring of smaller

diameter is rolled into a thin-walled ring of larger
diameter
• As thick-walled ring is compressed, deformed metal
elongates, causing diameter of ring to be enlarged
• Hot working process for large rings and cold working
process for smaller rings
• Applications: ball and roller bearing races, steel tires for
railroad wheels, and rings for pipes, pressure vessels,
and rotating machinery
• Advantages: material savings, ideal grain orientation,
strengthening through cold working
21 22

Gear Rolling
• A cold working process to
produce certain gears.
• The setup in gear rolling is
similar to thread rolling
• Advantages of gear rolling
compared to machining are
similar to thread rolling:
 Higher production rates
 Better strength
 Better fatigue resistance
Figure 19.8 - Ring rolling used to reduce the wall thickness and  Less material waste
increase the diameter of a ring:
(1) start, and (2) completion of process

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 Roll Piercing (Rotary Piercing, Mannesmann Process)
FORGING
• A hot metalworking process for forming
thick-walled seamless tubing.
(DÖVME)
• A heated cylindrical billet is fed between
two convex-tapered rollers, which are
rotating in the same direction.
• Comressive stresses on a solid cylindrical
billet are applied by the two rolls, whose
Basic Principle: axes are oriented at slight angles (about
When a solid cylinder is 6°) from the axis of the billet, so that their
compressed on its rotation tends to pull the billet through the
circumference, high rolls.
tensile stresses are • A mandrel is used to control the size and
developed at its center. finish of the hole created by the action.

25

Forging (Dövme)
Deformation process in which work is Classification of Forging Operations
compressed between two dies
• Oldest of the metal forming operations, • Cold vs. hot forging:
dating from about 5000 B C  Hot or warm forging – most common, due to the
• Components: engine crankshafts, significant deformation and the need to reduce
connecting rods, gears, aircraft strength and increase ductility of work metal
structural components, jet engine  Cold forging - advantage is increased strength that
turbine parts results from strain hardening
• In addition, basic metals industries use • Impact vs. press forging:
forging to establish basic form of large  Forge hammer - applies an impact load
components that are subsequently  Forge press - applies gradual pressure
machined to final shape and size

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7
 Types of Forging Dies
• Open-die forging (açık kalıpta dövme) Open-Die Forging (Açık kalıpta Dövme)
- work is compressed between two flat
dies, allowing metal to flow laterally
without constraint Compression of workpart with cylindrical cross-section
between two flat dies
• Impression-die forging (kapalı kalıpta
dövme) - die surfaces contain a cavity • Similar to compression test
or impression that is imparted to • Deformation operation reduces height and increases
workpart, thus constraining metal flow diameter of work
- flash is created • Common names include upsetting or upset forging
• Flashless forging (Çapaksız dövme)-
workpart is completely constrained in
die and no excess flash is produced

29 30

Open-Die Forging with No Friction..

Open-Die Forging with No Friction
Figure 19.11 - Homogeneous
deformation of a cylindrical
workpart under ideal
If no friction occurs between work and die surfaces, conditions in an open-die
forging operation:
then homogeneous deformation occurs, so that radial (1) start of process with
flow is uniform throughout workpart height and true workpiece at its original
length and diameter,
strain is given by: (2) partial compression, and
ho
  ln (3) final size
h
where ho= starting height; and h = height at some The force required to continue the
point during compression compression at any given height F  Yf A
• At h = final value hf, true strain is maximum value (h) during the process:

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8
 Open-Die Forging with Friction Figure 19.12 - Actual deformation
of a cylindrical workpart in
open-die forging, showing
pronounced barreling:
• Friction between work and (1) start of process, (2) partial
deformation, and (3) final
die surfaces constrains
shape
lateral flow of work,
resulting in barreling effect
• In hot open-die forging, F  K f Yf A
effect is even more
pronounced due to heat
transfer at and near die 0.4 D
surfaces, which cools the K f  1 Forging shape factor
(to account for D/h ratio and friction)
metal and increases its h
resistance to deformation

33 34

Open-die forging practice

• Simple shapes
• The dies may have slightly
countered surfaces
• Work must often be
manipulated (rotating in steps)
• Skill of the human operator is a
factor
• Produce rough forms
• Creates a favorable grain flow
Figure 19.13 -Several open die forging operations
and metallurgical structure in a) Fullering b) Edging c) Cogging
the metal

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Impression-Die Forging (Kapalı kalıpta dövme)
Compression of workpart by dies with inverse of desired
part shape
• Flash is formed by metal that flows beyond die cavity Figure 19.15 - Sequence in impression-die forging:
(1) just prior to initial contact with raw workpiece,
into small gap between die plates
(2) partial compression, and
• Flash must be later trimmed from part, but it serves (3) final die closure, causing flash to form in gap
an important function during compression: between die plates

 As flash forms, friction resists continued metal flow

into gap, constraining material to fill die cavity
 In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted by
cooling against die plates

37 38

Impression-Die Forging Practice Impression-Die Forging

• Several forming steps often
Advantages and Limitations
required, with separate die • Advantages compared to machining from solid stock:
cavities for each step
 Beginning steps redistribute
 Higher production rates
metal for more uniform  Conservation of metal (less waste)
deformation and desired  Greater strength
metallurgical structure in
subsequent steps  Favorable grain orientation in the metal
 Final steps bring the part to its • Limitations:
final geometry
 Not capable of close tolerances
 Impression-die forging is often
performed manually by skilled  Machining often required to achieve accuracies
operator under adverse and features needed, such as holes, threads, and
conditions mating surfaces that fit with other components
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10
 Figure 19.18 - Flashless forging:
(1) just before initial contact
Flashless Forging (Çapaksız Dövme) with workpiece,
(2) partial compression, and
(3) final punch and die closure
Compression of work in punch and die tooling.
No flash is formed.
• Starting workpart volume must equal die cavity
volume within very close tolerance
• Process control more demanding than impression-die
forging
• Best suited to part geometries that are simple and
symmetrical
• Often classified as a precision forging process

41 42

Forging Hammers (Drop Hammers)

Forging Machines
(Şahmerdan)
• Forging Hammers (drop hammers) (Şahmerdanlar) • Apply an impact load against work part - two types:
 Gravity drop hammer  Gravity drop hammers - impact energy from falling
 Power drop hammers weight of a heavy ram
 Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram by
• Forging Presses (Dövme Presleri) pressurized air or steam
 Mechanical presses (eccentrics, cranks, or knuckle joints) • Disadvantage: impact energy transmitted through
anvil into floor of building
 Hydraulic presses
• Most commonly used for impression-die forging
 Screw presses

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11
Figure 19.20 - Drop forging hammer, fed by conveyor and heating
units at the right of the scene
Figure 19.21 - Diagram showing details of a drop hammer for
(photo courtesy of Chambersburg Engineering Company) impression-die forging

45 46

Forging Dies (Dövme Kalıpları)

Forging Presses
(Dövme Presleri)
• Apply gradual pressure to accomplish compression
operation - types:
 Mechanical presses - converts rotation of drive
motor into linear motion of ram
 Hydraulic presses - hydraulic piston actuates ram
 Screw presses - screw mechanism drives ram
Parting line: the plane that divides the upper die from the lower die.
Draft: amount of taper on the sides of the part required to remove it from the die.
Webs anb Ribs: A web/rib is a thin portion of the forging that is parallel/ perpendicular
to the parting line. They cause difficulty in metal flow as they become thinner.
Fillet and corner radii: Small radii tend to limit metal flow and increases stresses on
the die surfaces during forging.
Flash: plays a critical role in impression die forging by causing pressure buildup inside
47 the die to promote filling of the cavity.
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 OTHER DEFORMATION PROCESSES
RELATED TO FORGING
Upsetting and Heading (Yığma- Kafa Şişirme)
Forging process used to form heads on nails, bolts, and
similar hardware products
• More parts produced by upsetting than any other
forging operation
• Performed cold, warm, or hot on machines called
Figure 19.23 - An upset forging operation to form a head on a bolt
headers or formers or similar hardware item The cycle consists of:
• Wire or bar stock is fed into machine, end is headed, (1) wire stock is fed to the stop
then piece is cut to length (2) gripping dies close on the stock and the stop is retracted
• For bolts and screws, thread rolling is then used to (3) punch moves forward
form threads (4) bottoms to form the head

49 50

Figure 19.24 - Examples of heading (upset forging) operations:

(a) heading a nail using open dies
(b) round head formed by punch
(c) and (d) two common head styles for screws formed by die
(e) carriage bolt head formed by punch and die

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 Swaging and Radial Forging
(Döner Kalıplı ve Sabit kalıplı Radyal Dövme)

Swaging: Accomplished by rotating dies that hammer a

workpiece radially inward to taper it as the piece is fed into
the dies
• Used to reduce diameter of tube or solid rod stock
• Mandrel sometimes required to control shape and size of
internal diameter of tubular parts
Radial Forging: Similar to swaging in its action against the Figure 19.25 - Swaging process to reduce solid rod stock; the dies
work and is used to create similar part shapes rotate as they hammer the work In radial forging, the workpiece
The difference: In radial forging the dies do not rotate around rotates while the dies remain in a fixed orientation as they
hammer the work
the workpiece; instead the work is rotated as it feeds into
the hammering dies.
53 54

Swaging and radial Forging.. Swaging and Radial forging..

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 Roll Forging
(Dövme Haddesi –Haddeyle Dövme) Roll forging..
• Used to reduce the cross section
of a workpiece by passing it
through a set of opposing rolls
that have grooves mathing the
desired shape of the final part.
• The rolls do not turn
continuously in roll forging, but
rotate through only a portion of
one revolution corresponding to
the desired deformation to be
accomplished on the part.

57 58

Orbital Forging (Orbital Dövme) Hubbing (Batma- Istampa ile basma)

• Deformation occurs by means of a
cone-shaped upper die that is
simultaneously rolled and pressed • Often used to make
into the workpiece. mold cavities for plastic
• Lower die has a cavity into which the molding and die
work is compressed. casting.
• Because the axis of the cone is • It is generally easier to
inclined, only a small area of the work machine the positive
surface is compressed at any form than the mating
moment. negative cavity.
• Substantial reduction in press load
required to accomplished
deformation of the work.
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 Isothermal and Hot-Die Forging Trimming (Çapak Kesme)
• Workpart is maintained at or near its Cutting operation to remove
starting elevated temperature during flash from workpart in
deformation, usually by heating the impression-die forging
forging dies to the same elevated • Usually done while work
temperature. is still hot, so a separate
• More expensive than conventional trimming press is included
forging. at the forging station
• For difficult to forge metals, such as • Trimming can also be
titanium and superalloys, and for done by alternative
complex shapes. methods, such as grinding
• Sometimes carried out in vacuum, to or sawing
avoid rapid oxidation of the die material.
61 62

EXTRUSION Extrusion
(EKSTRÜZYON)
Compression forming process in which
the work metal is forced to flow
through a die opening to produce a
desired cross-sectional shape
• Process is similar to squeezing
toothpaste out of a toothpaste tube

In general, extrusion
is used to produce
long parts of uniform
cross-sections

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 Two basic types of extrusion: Comments on
Direct Extrusion

• Also called forward extrusion

• As ram approaches die opening, a small portion of
billet remains that cannot be forced through die
opening
• Starting billet cross section usually round, but final
shape is determined by die opening
• Significant friction exists btw the work surface and the
walls of the container as the billet is forced to slide
toward the die opening

65 66

Comments on Direct Extrusion..

• This friction causes a substantial increase in the ram

force in direct extrusion.
• In hot extrusion, the friction problem is aggravated by the
presence of an oxide layer on the surface of the billet.
• This oxide layer can cause defects in the extruded
product.
• A dummy block, slightly smaller than the billet diameter,
is often used to address these problems. (a narrow ring
of work metal-mostly the oxide layer- is left in the
container, leaving the final product free of oxides.) Figure 19.32 - (a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi-hollow
cross-section; (b) hollow and (c) semi-hollow cross- sections

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 Comments on Indirect Extrusion
General Advantages of Extrusion

• Variety of shapes possible, especially in hot extrusion

– Limitation: part cross-section must be uniform
throughout length
• Grain structure and strength enhanced in cold and
• Also called backward extrusion and reverse extrusion warm extrusion
• The metal is forced to flow in a direction opposite to the • Close tolerances possible, especially in cold
motion of the ram. extrusion
• No friction at the container walls (ram force is lower).
• In some operations, little or no waste of material
• Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by the
lower rigidity of hollow ram and difficulty in supporting
extruded product as it exits die
69 70

Hot vs. Cold Extrusion Analysis of Extrusion

(Continuous vs. Discrete Processing)
Extrusion Ratio (reduction ratio)
• Hot extrusion - prior heating of billet to above its
recrystallization temperature
 This reduces strength and increases ductility of
the metal, permitting more size reductions and
more complex shapes where
• Cold extrusion - generally used to produce discrete rx = extrusion ratio;
parts Ao = cross-sectional area of the starting billet; and
 The term impact extrusion is used to indicate high Af = final cross-sectional area of the extruded section
speed cold extrusion • Applies to both direct and indirect extrusion

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 p f . .D02
A   . p c . .Do .L Comments on Die Angle
  ln rx  ln 0 4
Af  . p c . .Do .L  Ys . .Do .L • Low die angle - surface area is large, leading to
Ys  Y f / 2 increased friction at die-billet interface
p  Y f ln rx  Higher friction results in larger ram force
2 .L • Large die angle - more turbulence in metal flow
Johnson’s
p f  Yf .
D0 during reduction
 x  a  b. ln rx
equation
 Turbulence increases ram force required
2 .L
p  Y f ( x  )
a  0.8 D0 For direct • Optimum angle depends on work material, billet
ext. temperature, and lubrication
b  1.2  1.5
p  Y f . x F  p. A0
For indirect P  F .v
ext.
73
74

Comments on Orifice Shape

of Extrusion Die SHAPE FACTOR

• Simplest cross section shape = circular die orifice 2.25 Kx: die shape factor in ext.
• Shape of die orifice affects ram pressure
C 
K x  0.98  0.02 x  Cx: perimeter of the extruded cross

 Cc 
section
• As cross-section becomes more complex, higher
Cc: perimeter of the circle of the same
pressure and greater force are required area as the extruded cross section

p  K x .Y f . x For shapes other than

round (INDIRECT)
2.L
p  K x .Y f .( x  )
D0 (DIRECT)

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 Impact Extrusion
Extrusion Presses

• Either horizontal or vertical

 Horizontal more common
• Extrusion presses - usually hydraulically driven,
which is especially suited to semi-continuous direct
extrusion of long sections
• Mechanical drives - often used for cold extrusion of
individual parts

77
78

Defects in Extrusion
Hydrostatic Extrusion Centerburst (arrowhead fracture, center cracking, chevron
cracking)

An internal crack that develops as a result of tensile stresses

along the centerline of the workpart during extrusion.
• Tensile stresses may seem unlikely in a compression process such as
extrusion, but they tend to occur under conditions that cause large
deformation in the regions of the work away from the central axis.
• The significant material movement in these outer regions stretches the
material along the center of the work.
• If these stresses are great enough, bursting occurs.
• Conditions that promote centerburst are; high die angles, low extrusion
ratios, and impurities in the work metal that serve as starting points for crack
defects.
• The difficult aspect of centerburst is its detection. It is an internal defect that
is usually not noticeable by visual observation.

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 Defects in Extrusion Defects in Extrusion
Piping (tailpipe, fishtailing) Surface cracking

• A defect associated with direct extrusion.
• It is the formation of a sink hole in the end of the billet.
• The use of a dummy block whose diameter is slightly less than that of
the billet heps to avoid piping.
• Results from high workpart temperatures that cause cracks to develop
at the surface.
• They often occur when extrusion speed is too high, leading to high
strain rates and associated heat generation.
• Other factors contributing to surface cracking are high friction and
surface chilling of high temperature billets in hot extrusion.

81 82

WIRE AND BAR DRAWING Wire and Bar Drawing

(ÇUBUK VE TEL ÇEKME) Cross-section of a bar, rod, or wire is reduced by pulling
it through a die opening
• Similar to extrusion except work is pulled through die
in drawing (it is pushed through in extrusion)
• Although drawing applies tensile stress, compression
also plays a significant role since metal is squeezed
as it passes through die opening

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 • Bar drawing is generally accomplished as a single-draft
The basic difference between bar drawing operation-the stock is pulled through one die opening.
Because the beginning stock has a large diameter, it is in
and wire drawing the form of a straight cylindrical piece rather than coiled.
• This limits the length of the work that can be drawn,
• The stock size.
necessitating a batch type operation.
• Bar drawing is the term used for large diameter bar
• By contrast, wire is drawn from coils consisting of several
and rod stock, while wire drawing applies to small
hundred (or even several thousand) feet of wire and is
diameter stock. Wire sizes down to 0.03 mm are
passed through a series of draw dies. The number of dies
possible in wire drawing.
varies typically between 4 and 12. The term continuous
• Although the mechanics of the process are the same drawing is used to describe this type of operation
for the two cases, the methods, equipment, and even because of the long production runs that are achieved
the terminology are somewhat different. with the wire coils, which can be butt-welded each one to
the next to make the operation truly continuous.

85 86

Draft
Area Reduction in Drawing (paso - çap azalması)
(kesit daralması)
• In bar drawing, rod drawing, and in drawing of large
Change in size of work is usually given by area diameter wire for upsetting and heading operations,
reduction: the term draft is used to denote the before and after
Ao  A f difference in size of the processed work. The draft is
r simply the difference between original and final stock
Ao diameters:

where r = area reduction in drawing;

d = Do - Df
where d = draft, mm;
Ao = original area of work; and
Do = original diameter of work, mm; and
Af = final area
Df = final work diameter, mm.

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 ANALYSIS OF DRAWING The stress that results from this ideal deformation is
given by
• If no friction or redundant work occurred in drawing, Because friction is present in
true strain could be determined as follows: drawing and the work metal
A0
A0 1
  Y f .  Y f . ln experiences inhomogeneous

  ln  ln Af deformation, the actual stress

1 r
is larger than provided by this
Af equation.
where
• Ao and Af are the original and final cross-sectional K . n
Yf 
areas of the work, as previously defined; and n 1
• r = drawing reduction

89 90

• In addition to the ratio Ao/ Af, other variables that influence

draw stress are die angle and coefficient of friction at the D
work-die interface.   0,88  0,12
• The equation suggested by Schey [18]: Lc
   A
 d  Y f 1   ln o
 tan   Af D
D0  D f D = average diameter of work during
2 drawing, mm; and
D0  D f Lc = contact length of the work with
σd = draw stress, MPa; Lc  the draw die, mm.
μ = die-work coefficient of friction; 2.Sin 
α = die angle (half angle) and
Φ is a factor that accounts for inhomogeneous deformation..

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Draw force
   A
F  A f . d  A f .Y f 1   . ln 0
 tan   Af
where F = draw force, N; and the other terms are
defined above.
• The power required in a drawing operation is the
draw force multiplied by exit velocity of the work.
93
Maximum Reduction per Pass
• It is a straightforward matter to determine this
maximum draw stress and the resulting maximum
possible reduction that can be made in one pass,
under certain assumptions. Let us assume a perfectly
plastic metal (n = 0), no friction, and no redundant
work.
• In this ideal case, the maximum possible draw stress
is equal to the yield strength of the work material.
Expressing this using the equation for draw stress
under condition of ideal deformation, Eq. (19.31), and
setting Yf = Y (because n = 0), 
95
Maximum Reduction per Pass
• Why is more than one step required to achieve the
desired reduction in wire drawing?
• Why not take the entire reduction in a single pass
through one die, as in extrusion?
• The answer can be explained as follows:
• From the preceding equations, it is clear that as the
reduction increases, draw stress increases. If the
reduction is large enough, draw stress will exceed the
yield strength of the exiting metal. When that
happens, the drawn wire will simply elongate instead
of new material being squeezed through the die
opening. For wire drawing to be successful,
maximum draw stress must be less than the yield
strength of the exiting metal.
94
A0 A 1
 d  Y f ln  Y ln 0  Y ln Y
Af Af 1 r
A0 1 • The value given here is often used as the
ln  ln 1 theoretical maximum reduction possible
Af 1 r in a single draw, even though it ignores
the effects of friction and redundant work,
A0 1 which would reduce the maximum
  e  2,7183 possible value, and strain hardening,
Af 1  r which would increase the maximum
possible reduction because the exiting
e 1
rmax   0,632 wire would be stronger than the starting
metal. In practice, draw reductions per
e pass are quite below the theoretical limit.
Reductions of 0.50 for single-draft bar
drawing and 0.30 for multiple-draft wire
drawing seem to be the upper limits in
industrial operations.
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 Drawing Practice and Products Bar Drawing

• Drawing practice: • Accomplished as a single-draft operation - the stock

 Usually performed as cold working is pulled through one die opening
 Most frequently used for round cross-sections • Beginning stock has large diameter and is a straight
• Products: cylinder
 Wire: electrical wire; wire stock for fences, coat • This necessitates a batch type operation
hangers, and shopping carts
 Rod stock for nails, screws, rivets, and springs
 Bar stock: metal bars for machining, forging, and
other processes

97 98

Wire Drawing

• Continuous drawing machines consisting of multiple

draw dies (typically 4 to 12) separated by
accumulating drums
 Each drum (capstan) provides proper force to
draw wire stock through upstream die
 Each die provides a small reduction, so desired
total reduction is achieved by the series
 Annealing sometimes required between dies
Figure 19.42 - Hydraulically operated draw bench
for drawing metal bars

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 Features of a Draw Die
• Entry region - funnels
lubricant into the die to prevent
scoring of work and die
• Approach - cone-shaped
region where drawing occurs
• Bearing surface - determines
final stock size
• Back relief - exit zone -
provided with a back relief
Figure 19.43 - Continuous drawing of wire
angle (half-angle) of about 30
• Die materials: tool steels or
cemented carbides

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Preparation of the Work for Tube Drawing

Wire or Bar Drawing
• Annealing – to increase ductility of stock
• Cleaning - to prevent damage to work surface and
draw die
• Pointing – to reduce diameter of starting end to allow
insertion through draw die
• Drawing can be used to reduce
the diameter or wall thickness of
seamless tubes and pipes, after
the initial tubing has been
produced by some other process
such as extrusion. Tube drawing
can be carried out either with or
without a mandrel.

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