BUILDING THERMAL LOADS

Psychrometry and Processes

Principle and general definitions
1-1 Air conditioning
An air conditioner is a system or a machine
that treats air in a defined, usually
enclosed area via a refrigeration cycle in
which warm air is removed and replaced
with cooler and more humid air. In
construction, a complete system of
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning is
referred to as HVAC. Whether in homes,
offices or vehicles, its purpose is to
provide comfort by altering the properties
of the air, usually by cooling the air inside.
The main function of air conditioner is to
change adverse temperature.
1-2 Heating, Ventilating, and Air
Conditioning
Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
(HVAC) is the technology of indoor and
vehicular environmental comfort. Its goal
is to provide thermal comfort and
acceptable indoor air quality. HVAC system
design is a subdiscipline of mechanical
engineering, based on the principles of
thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and
heat transfer.
2
Principle and general definitions
1-2 Heating, Ventilating, and Air
Conditioning, Cont.,
HVAC is an important part of residential
structures such as single family homes,
apartment buildings, hotels and senior
living facilities, medium to large industrial
and office buildings such as skyscrapers
and hospitals, on ships and submarines,
and in marine environments, where safe
and healthy building conditions are
regulated with respect to temperature and
humidity, using fresh air from outdoors.
Ventilating or ventilation (the V in HVAC) is
the process of exchanging or replacing air
in any space to provide high indoor air
quality which involves temperature
control, oxygen replenishment, and
removal of moisture, odors, smoke, heat,
dust, airborne bacteria, carbon dioxide,
and other gases. Ventilation removes
unpleasant smells and excessive moisture,
introduces outside air, keeps interior
building air circulating, and prevents
stagnation of the interior air. 3
Principle and general definitions

Thermal Comfort
Thermal comfort is the condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the
thermal environment and is estimate by subjective evaluation. Maintaining this
standard of thermal comfort for occupants of buildings or other enclosures is
one of the important goals of HVAC design engineers. Most people will feel
comfortable at room temperature, colloquially a range of temperatures around
20 to 22 °C (68 to 72 °F), but this may vary greatly between individuals and
depending on factors such as activity level, clothing, and humidity.

4
 What are the
factors influence
thermal comfort?

5
Factors that influence thermal comfort

Air temperature Radiant temperature• Air speed (velocity) Humidity

Thermal comfort is a complex term, but The rate of air A general description
affected by the air generally described movement. of the moisture
temperature. as how the heat content of the air.
transfers between the
body and other
objects in the area
solar loading.

6
Principle and general definitions
Sensible Heating Process
Sensible Heating Process is a
process during which the
temperature of air is increased.
The process occurs at constant
moisture content. The air passes
over a hot and dry surface, which
might be pipe coil using steam or
hot water, electrical resistance.
Sensible Cooling Process
Sensible Cooling Process is a
process during which the
temperature of air is decreased.
The process occurs at constant
moisture content. The air passes
over a cold and dry surface,
which might be pipe coil using
cold water or cold air.
7
Principle and general definitions
Humidification Process
The process in which the
moisture or water vapor or
humidity is added to the air
without changing its
temperature is called as
humidification process
Humidification process along
with cooling or heating is
used in number of air
conditioning applications.
Dehumidification Process
The process in which the
moisture or water vapor or the
humidity is removed from the air
keeping its temperature
constant is called as the
dehumidification process
8
 Properties of Air

‫اسم العنصر‬ ‫الرمز‬ ‫الوزن الجزئي‬ ‫النسبة المئوية‬ Air is an example of matter. Air is
‫بالحجم‬
a mixture of gases consisting of
O2 32 20.9476
‫أكسجيـــــن‬
‫نيتروجين‬ N2 28.016 78.084 approximately 4/5 Nitrogen and
‫أرغــــون‬
‫ثاني أكسيد الكربون‬
Ar
CO2
39.944
44.010
0.934
0.031 1/5 Oxygen. Like all matter, air
‫نيـــــــون‬
‫هليــــــوم‬
Ne
He
20.183
4.003
0.0018
0.0005
has weight and takes up space.
‫هيدروجين‬
‫ميثــــــان‬
H2
CH4
2.016
16.043
0.0005
0.0002
It can also be compressed,
‫ثاني أكسيد الكبريت‬
‫مكونات أخرى‬
SO2
-
44.010
-
0.0001
0.0003
unlike solids and liquids. These
three properties will be studied
in this investigation.
9
Principle and general definitions

Dry Bulb Temperature DBT (tdb)

The dry-bulb temperature (DBT) is the temperature of air measured by a
thermometer freely exposed to the air, but shielded from radiation and moisture.
Temperature is usually measured in degrees Celsius (°C), kelvins (K), or degrees
Fahrenheit (°F).

10
Principle and general definitions

Wet Bulb Temperature WBT (twb)

The wet-bulb temperature is the temperature a
parcel of air would have if it were cooled to
saturation (100% relative humidity) by the
evaporation of water into it. The wet-bulb
temperature is the lowest temperature that can be
reached under current ambient conditions by the
evaporation of water only. Wet-bulb temperature is
largely determined by both actual air temperature
(dry-bulb temperature) and the amount of moisture
in the air (humidity).
11
Principle and general definitions

Humidity
Humidity is the amount of water vapor present in the air. Water vapor
is the gaseous state of water and is invisible. There are three main
measurements of humidity: absolute, relative and specific

12
Principle and general definitions

Absolute Humidity
Absolute humidity is the total mass of water vapour present in a given
volume or mass of air. It does not take temperature into consideration.
Absolute humidity is the mass of the water vapour (mH2O), divided by
the volume of the air and water vapor mixture (Vnet), which can be
expressed as;

The absolute humidity changes as air temperature or pressure

changes. This makes it unsuitable for calculations 13
Principle and general definitions

Specific Humidity (ω)

Specific humidity is approximately equal to the "mixing ratio", which is
defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapor in an air part to the
mass of dry air for the same part. As temperature decreases, the
amount of water vapor needed to reach saturation also decreases.

14
Principle and general definitions

Relative Humidity (ϕ)

Relative Humidity is a ratio, expressed in percent, of the amount of
atmospheric moisture present relative to the amount that would be
present if the air were saturated

15
Principle and general definitions
Specific Enthalpy (h)
A thermodynamic quantity
equivalent to the total heat
content of a system. It is equal to
the internal energy of the system
plus the product of pressure and
volume. The unit is kJ/kg
Percentage saturation (ψ)
Percentage saturation is defined
as the ratio of the specific
humidity of air to the specific
humidity of saturated air at the
same temperature.
16
Principle and general definitions

Dew Point (tdp)

The dewpoint temperature is the temperature at which the air can no
longer "hold" all of the water vapor, which is mixed with it, and some of
the water vapor must condense into liquid water. The dew point is
always lower than (or equal to) the air temperature.

17
Principle and general definitions
Psychrometrics
The names for the field of
engineering concerned with the
physical and thermodynamic
properties of gas-vapor
mixtures. The term comes from
the Greek meaning
"measurement of cold".
Psychrometer
A psychrometer, or wet-and-dry-
bulb thermometer, consists of
two thermometers, one that is
dry and one that is kept moist
with distilled water on a sock or
wick.
18
Principle and general definitions

Perfect gas equation

Boyle's law is an experimental gas law that describes how the pressure
of a gas tends to increase as the volume of a gas decreases. The
absolute pressure exerted by a given mass of an ideal gas is inversely
proportional to the volume it occupies if the temperature and amount
of gas remain unchanged within a closed system

19
Charles' law
Charles' law

Charles' law is an experimental gas law that describes how gases tend
to expand when heated. A modern statement of Charles' law is: When
the pressure on a sample of a dry gas is held constant, the Kelvin
temperature and the volume will be directly related
Tν

= constant
T

p 
 = constant
T
21
p1  1 p  p  V
= 2 2 = 3 3 = Constant, since v 
T1 T2 T3 m
Charles' law
. V1 = p2  V2 = p3  V3 = Constant, OR
p1 
T1  m T2  m T3  m

p1 p2 p3
= = = Constant
T1  1 T2   2 T3   3

p 
= constant
T

The constant of the equation of the perfect gas is called the specific gas constant (R)

p 
= R, the unit of the specific gas constant is obtained as follow:-
T
N m3
 ~
N m 2m 3 kg Nm R
R= 2   J / kgK R =~ ~ where
m kg
K NmkgK R m
R=   J / kgK R = ~ where
~ K kgK m 22
R is constant = 8314.5 N.m/kmol.K, and
~
~ constant
R ism = 8314.5
is the molar mass N.m/kmol.K, and
of the gas (kg/kmol)
Charles' law
For example, the molar mass of oxygen and nitrogen are 32 and 28 kg/kmol

8314 .5
 The specific gas constant (R) for oxygen = = 259.83J/kg.K = 0.2598kJ/kg.K
32

8314 .5
The specific gas constant (R) for nitrogen = = 296.95J/kg.K = 0.2969kJ/kg.K
28

ν = V / m (V volume of the gas and m is the mass of the gas)

p V
The perfect gas equation will become: =R PV = mRT
T m
p V
=R PV =PV
mRT
= mRTOR Pν = RT
T m
(p) The gas pressure in (N/m2) (V) The gas volume (m3)
PV = mRT OR Pν = RT
(ν) The gas specific volume (m3/kg) (R) The specific gas constant (J/kg.K) 23
(p) The gas pressure in (N/m2) (V) The gas volume (m3)
(T) The gas temperature (K)
(ν) The gas specific volume (m3/kg) (R) The specific gas constant (J/kg.K)
Mixture of Vapour and Air
Dalton law

Atmospheric air includes dry air and water vapor

Pressure of Mixture = Partial Pressure of Steam + Partial Pressure of Airm =

ma + mb
p = pa + pb
25
{ ‫الجزئي لب ار الما من جدو الب ار بمعلومية رجة الحرار‬ ‫ل ال‬ ‫} ي ال لي (ب ار ما وهوا (يمكن الحصو‬
Dalton law

For example if the atmospheric temperature and pressure are 40oC

and 1.013bar respectively, from steam table the partial pressure of the
saturated vapor is psat = 0.07375 bar, when applying the Dalton law ;
p = pa + ps therefore pa = p – ps = 1.013 – 0.07375 = 0.93925 bar
pa is the partial pressure of the dry air
From steam table, the partial pressure of the vapor is increase as the
temperature of the air is increased.
Specific Humidity (ω) is estimated from the relationship;
ω = (ms / ma) >>>> 1-1
Where ms & ma are the mass of the vapor and dry aire respectively 26

at a given volume, since both occupied the same volume V.

Dalton law

Therefore the mass density is;

ms
s  (kg / m3).
V
The specific volume is given by;

 s = (1 / νs) where νs ≡ vapor specific volume (m3 / kg)

νs ≡ dry air specific volume (m3 / kg(

ms / V = 1 / νs  ms = V / νs 1-2

ma
a  ≡ Dry air density (kg / m3)
V

 a = (1 / νa) where νa ≡ specific volume of the dry air (m3 / kg)

ma / V = 1 / νa 27

 ma = V / νa 1-3
Dalton law
The specific humididty cab be obtained by substitude equation 1-2 and 1-3 in equation 1-1, in terms
of specific volume of the dry air and specific volume of the vapor

V /  s  1 /  s  = (ν / ν )
ω= = a s ω = (νa / νs) 1-4
(V /  a ) (1 /  a )
Assume the vapor and dry air are perfect gases, therefore;
ps V
psV = msRsT  ms = 1-5
R sT
pa V
and paV = maRaT ma = 1-6
RaT
~ ~
R R
Also Rs = ~ 1-7 and Ra = ~ 1-8
ms ma

Where
28
Ra and Rs are specific gas constant for dry air and water vapour respectively (kJ/kgK).
~
R is universal molar gas constant kJ/kmol K.
Dalton law
~ are molar mass of dry air (28.96 kg/kmol) and water vapour (18 kg/kmol) respectively.
~ and m
m a s

T is the absolute temperature of the mixture (Kelvin) Substitude equations 1-7 and 1-8 in equations 1-
5 and 1-6.

p sVm~ p aVm~
ms  ~
s
and ma  ~
a
RT RT
Substitude in equation 1-1
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
ps m
p sVm paVm psVm RT s 18 p p
ω= ~  ~ s a
= ~  s
~ = ~ =  s  0.622 s
RT RT RT paVma pa ma 28.96 pa pa

ps
ω = 0.622 1-9
pa

Thus the total pressure (p) equal the sum of ps and pa therefore (p = ps + pa), therefore 29
ps
 ω = 0.622 1-10
p  ps
Dalton law

The relative humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air, expressed
as a percentage of the maximum amount that the air could hold at the
given temperature; the ratio of the actual water vapor pressure to the
saturation vapor pressure. For example if the water vapor in a room is
equal to 10g/m3 at 22oC, and if a 20g/m3 is added to the room so that it
reached to saturation condition (no more vapor can added), the relative
humidity is; RH (  ) = (10 / 20) = 0.50 = 50%
‫ فان كمية الرطوبة التي يمكن ان يتحملها الهواء داخل الغرفة‬27o C ‫اذا زادت درجة الحرارة في الغرفة مثال الى‬
‫ عليه تكون الرطوبة النسبية للهواء تساوي‬.25.6 g/m3 ‫قد تصل‬

30
RH (ϕ) = (10 / 25.6) = 0.39 = 39%
Dalton law

‫رجة الحرار ال وا‬ ‫زيد بزيا‬ ‫كمية الر وبة ي ال وا الجا‬

RH (  ) =: (ms / (ms) sat) 1-11

ps V p satV
ms = and (ms) sat =
R sT Rs T

Where (psat) is the saturation pressure of the vapour at the temperature of the mixture.

  = (ps / psat) 1-12

p  p g 
Ψ = (ωs / ωsat) = 100  × 1-13
 p  ps 
31
“
EXAMPLES
32
Example 1-1

The air supplied to a room of a building in winter is to be at 17oC and

have a percentage relative humidity of 60%. If the barometric
pressure is 1.01325bar, calculate the specific enthalpy. What would be
the dew point under these conditions?

33
Example 1-1 (Solution)

From steam table the saturation pressure at 17oC, psat = 0.01936 bar (psat in steam table indicates the
saturation pressure of the vapour), hence using equation 12 (relative humidity).
 = (ps / psat) 0.6 = (ps / 0.01936) ps = 0.011616 bar
Using equation 10 to calculate the specific humidity:
ps
ω = 0.622 ω = 0.622 (0.011616 / (1.01326 - 0.011616)) = 0.007213
p  ps
 ω = 0.007213 kg of vapour per kg of dry air

To find the dew point temperature (ϕ = 100%), first we search the steam table and look after the
temperature at which the partial pressure of the vapor (ps = 0.011616 bar) to be saturated pressure (ps
= psat). From steam table the pressure found between 0.01147 – 0.01227 bar and 9 – 10oC, by
interpolation the dew point temperature tdp is;
34
Example 1-1 (Solution)

35
Example 1-1

At 9oC 0.01147 bar

tdp 0.011616 bar
10oC 0.01227 bar
10  9 
(t dp  9)
0.01227  0.01147 (0.011616 0.01147)

 tdp = 9.183oC

36
Example 1-2

If air at the conditions of the example 1-1is passed at the rate of

0.5m3/s over a cooling coil which is at a temperature of 6oC, calculate
the amount of vapor which will be condensed. Assume that the
barometric pressure is the same as in example 1-1, and that the air
leaving the coil is saturated.

37
Example 1-2 (Solution)

The amount of vapour condensed = mass of vapour before cooling – mass of vapour after cooling.
= ms1 – ms2
Before passing the cooling coil:

 = (ms1 / ma) ma = paV / RT pa = p – ps = 1.01325 - 0.011616 = 1.00163 bar

T = 17 + 273 = 290 K  ma = (1.00163× 102 × 0.5) / (0.287 × 290) = 0.6017 kg/s
 ms1 =  × ma = 0.007213 × 0.6017 = 0.0043401 kg/s

After passing the cooling coil: ɸ = 1, this means that ps = psat

From steam table the saturated pressure at 6oC is equal to 0.009346bar

Therefore ω2 = 0.622 (0.009346 / (1.01326 - 0.009346)) = 0.00579
 ms2 = ω2 × ma = 0.00579× 0.6017 = 0.003484 kg/s
 ms1 – ms2 = 0.0043401 - 0.003484 = 8.561 E-4 kg/s = 3.082 kg/h 38
Example 1-3

The temperature and pressure of a room is 28oC and 1bar respectively,

calculate:
1- The partial pressure of water vapor and the dew point temperature.
2- The specific volume of the water vapor and dry air.
3- The Specific humidity.
Assume relative humidity is 30%

39
Example 1-3 (Solution)

From steam table and at 28oC, therefore psat = 0.03778 bar.

 = (ps / psat)  0.30 = (ps / 0.03778)  ps = 0.01133 bar

For dew point, the ps = pd (pd ≡ the saturation pressure for the dew point). From steam table the
corresponding temperature to saturation pressure ps = 0.01133 bar can be found as follow:

At 8oC 0.01072 bar

tdp 0.01133 bar
9oC 0.01147 bar
9  8 
(t d  8)
 td = 8.8oC
0.01147  0.01072 (0.01133  0.01072)

40
Example 1-3 (Solution)
To find the specific volume (V/ m) of the water vapour and the dry air (νs and νa)

For the vapour νs = (RsT / ps) T = 28 + 273 = 301K

Rs (vapour) = 0.462 kJ/ kg.K

νs = ((0.462 × 301) / 0.01133.102) = 122.7 m3 / kg

Similarly for dry air νa = (RaT / pa) pa = p – ps = 1- 0.01133 = 0.98867 bar

Ra (dry air) = 0.287 kJ/ kg.K

νa = (0.287 × 301 / 0.98867.102) = 0.874 m3 / kg

ps 0.01133
The specific humidity ω = 0.622 ω = 0.622  = 0.00712, also ω can be calculated in
pa 0.98867
terms of specific volume as follow:
41
a 0.874
ω= = = 0.0071
s 122.7