(BĹ aĹĽej T. SkoczeĹ (PHD, DSC.) (Auth.) ) Compens PDF

Blazej T.
SkoczeIi
Compensation Systems for Low Temperature Applications
Blazej T. Skoczen
Compensation Systems
for low Temperature
Applications
With 178 Figures
~ Springer
BlaZej T. Skoczeri (PhD, DSc.)
CERN, European Organization for Nuclear Research
Department of Accelerator Technologies
CH -1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
and
Cracow University of Technology
Institute of Applied Mechanics
AI. Jana Pawla 11 37, PL-31-864 Krak6w, Poland
e-mail: blazej.skoczen@cern.ch
ISBN 978-3-642-06066-3 ISBN 978-3-662-06305-7 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-06305-7
Library of Congress Control Number: 2004107592
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To my wife Dorota for her patience and understanding
Preface
The present monograph is mainly focused on the behaviour of ductile ma-

terials at cryogenic temperatures, stability issues concerning application of
corrugated shells at cryogenic conditions and reliability oriented parametric
optimisation of compensation systems containing the corrugated bellows. As
there are relatively few publications on combined material and structural be-
haviour at very low temperatures, the monograph aims at filling this gap. It
is worth pointing out that within the class of publications dedicated to low
temperature behaviour of materials and structures the majority is based on
testing down to the temperature of liquid nitrogen (77 K). Rare publications
deal with the analysis of material and structural response at the temperature
of liquid helium (4.5 K) or superfluid helium (below the point T>., = 2.17 K).
This can be explained by the fact that an (by its nature complex) installation
for testing at such low temperatures is very expensive. Only the large research
centres and universities, working in the domain of superconductivity, cryogen-
ics or developing superconducting magnets for particle accelerators, can afford
such installations.
A significant part of the present monograph is dedicated to the analy-
sis of the phenomena associated with plastic yielding in stainless steels at
cryogenic temperatures. Generally, three phenomena are distinguished: plas-
tic strain induced phase transformations, serrated yielding and evolution of
ductile damage. The work is focused mainly on the most often occurring
'Y - a' transformation, that leads to formation of the martensite sites dis-
persed in the surrounding austenite matrix, as well as on the strain induced
evolution of ductile damage represented by the formation of micro-voids and
micro-cracks. The relevant constitutive models are developed and verified on
the experimental data. Special insight into the plastic strain induced marten-
sitic transformation at low temperatures and its consequences for the strain
hardening and the magnetic permeability has been gained. The existing visco-
plastic models are very complex and based on a great number of parameters.
Identification of all the parameters at very low temperatures is extremely dif-
ficult, laborious and expensive. Therefore a new, simplified and efficient model
VIII Preface
suitable for the temperature range of 2 K+77 K (superfiuid helium to liquid

nitrogen) has been developed. The second constitutive model presented in the
monograph is based on the kinetic law of damage evolution. This law, formu-
lated initially for ambient and enhanced temperatures, has been adopted to
describe the evolution of micro-damage in ductile materials at cryogenic tem-
peratures. Also, it has been used as a basis for derivation of the closed form
analytical solutions for the fatigue life of samples subjected to sustained and
cyclic loads (ratchetting) with the effect of mean plastic strain on cycle taken
into account. Further objective is description of the low cycle fatigue phenom-
ena at cryogenic conditions in the framework of ductile damage mechanics. It
turns out that the evolution of damage has a serious impact on the material
moduli: the modulus of elasticity, the yield point and the hardening modulus.
Here, an uncoupled approach, consisting in the elasto-plastic analysis of the
structure (first step) and integration of the kinetic law of damage evolution
(second step), as well as the relevant numerical procedure are presented.
Since with the development of micro-cracks and micro-voids (micro-
damage) the material becomes "softer" it may have a substantial impact on
the structural response. For instance thin-walled shell structures turn out
to be more susceptible to buckling. Therefore, a cycle to cycle accumulation
of plastic deformations, accompanied by development of damage, may lead
to local instabilities which, finally, may affect the global structural response.
Typical examples of such shell structures are corrugated thin-walled bellows
applied in the interconnections of cryogenic transfer lines or superconducting
particle colliders. The effect of strain induced damage evolution on the struc-
tural stability of corrugated shells at low temperatures has been studied and
the results are presented in the monograph. Also, the complementary stabil-
ity issues (based on the equivalent column concept) like the effect of shear
deformation and torsion on stability of corrugated bellows were extensively
studied. The impact of shear deformation is of particular interest for short
corrugated bellows and can not be neglected in the stability analysis both at
room and at cryogenic temperatures.
Both the low cycle fatigue induced material damage, phase transformations
at cryogenic temperatures as well as the local and the global instabilities of
components compromise the structural reliability of cryogenic systems con-
taining the corrugated bellows. Therefore, a reliability oriented parametric
optimisation of structures containing corrugated bellows and designed for op-
eration at cryogenic temperatures is developed. In the future, a more complex
probabilistic approach, based on the predefined probability density functions,
shall replace the standard deterministic analysis.
Finally, it is worth indicating that the monograph constitutes a sequence
of studies containing an internal logic: from the constitutive modelling, via
material and structural stability issues to the reliability oriented optimisation
of compensation elements of large cryogenic systems. Thus, both the mate-
rial and the structural issues contribute in an essential way to the reliability
Preface IX
analysis and are taken into account in the optimisation. This logic is fully
reflected by the sequence of chapters:
Chapter 1 contains a short introduction to the cryogenics followed by a
broader description of the compensation systems containing the bellows ex-
pansion joints. State of the art concerning toroidal shells and corrugated ax-
isymmetric bellows and refereing to the following aspects: strength analysis,
adaptation and inadaptation to cyclic loads, failure mechanisms, optimum
design, is presented. Different types of expansion joints (standard and non-
standard) for cryogenic and high vacuum applications are described. Finally,
examples of the materials applied in the design of structures working at very
low temperatures are listed.
Chapter 2 is focused on the thermodynamics of processes occurring in met-
als low temperatures. It starts with a description of different types of metallic
lattice and the most common lattice imperfections. Further the mechanisms
of heat transport in metals at very low temperatures as well as the ther-
modynamic instabilities, related to the third principle of thermodynamics,
are explained. Finally, the mechanisms of inelastic deformations, occurring
in ductile materials at very low temperatures, including the continuous and
discontinuous yielding are presented.
Chapter 3 is dedicated to an overview of the physical, chemical and me-
chanical properties of stainless steels at cryogenic temperatures. Special atten-
tion is focused on the phenomena that distinguish the behaviour of stainless
steels at low temperatures from ambient temperature: plastic strain induced
phase transformations b - a') and discontinuous (serrated) yielding. The me-
chanical properties like yield point, ultimate strength, elongation and harden-
ing resulting from phase transformations as well as sensitivity to strain rate at
low temperatures are also discussed. Eventually, some results reported in the
literature on the low cycle fatigue of stainless steels at cryogenic temperatures
as well as the curves of magnetic permeability failure are cited.
Chapter 4 is focused mainly on modelling of plastic yielding and ductile
damage for low temperature applications. It starts from an overview of the
most often used models describing plastic yielding of ductile materials, that
can also be used for some cryogenic applications (continuous yielding). Then
a simple model of the discontinuous (serrated) yielding is presented. Further,
ductile damage based on the standard isotropic formulation and identification
of the parameters of the damage evolution laws at cryogenic temperatures is
explained. The kinetic laws of damage evolution constitute a basis for the
analysis of the low cycle fatigue in the presence of large mean plastic strain
on cycle. A modified kinetic law of damage evolution under cyclic loads leads
to a generalised Manson-Coffin formula, that gives a good estimate of the fa-
tigue life of structures under ratchetting conditions at room and at cryogenic
temperatures. Also, an uncoupled approach to plasticity-damage analysis is
presented together with a relevant numerical algorithm. Here, damage evolu-
tion is computed in the post-processing and as a consequence of the previously
computed plastic deformation at a given temperature.
X Preface
Chapter 5 concentrates on the crucial issue of plastic strain induced

martensitic transformation at cryogenic temperatures. It begins with a review
of the existing models with a special focus on the transformation kinetics. A
new constitutive model of the plastic flow in the presence of strain induced
martensitic transformation, developed for the stainless steels at cryogenic con-
ditions and for the temperature range 2 K+77 K, is presented. The model de-
scribes linear evolution of the volume fraction of a' martensite in the austenitic
"f matrix, as a function of plastic strain, during the second and the most in-
tensive phase of transformation at low temperatures. The model is based on
the Mori-Tanaka homogenisation and defines the mixed isotropic/kinematic
hardening resulting from the amount of"f - a' transformation. A combined
model of plastic strain induced damage evolution and martensitic transforma-
tion is also presented. Finally, integration of the constitutive equations and
comparison with the experimental data under monotonic and cyclic loads is
given and the limits of applicability of the model are shown.
Chapter 6 deals with the stability issues of corrugated, thin-walled bel-
lows. Generally, the chapter shows three mechanisms leading to considerable
reduction of their stability: relaxation of boundary conditions, shear defor-
mation in convolutions and torsion of bellows. First, the main mechanism
of loss of stability via the column buckling is explained. Then, a study ex-
tended towards the effect of relaxation of boundary conditions on instabilities
of systems containing corrugated bellows is presented. It leads to the stability
diagram reflecting the effect of guidance-to--bellows distance on the critical
buckling pressure and a transition from the first (I) to the second (II) princi-
pal buckling mode. Another important issue consists in the influence of shear
deformation on the bifurcation buckling load for relatively short bellows. The
adequate model based on the Engesser approach has been developed and
the results show a considerable reduction of buckling load when compared
to the classical approach. Finally, the third important effect - influence of
torque - leading to a limitation of the bifurcation buckling load is discussed.
Here, a model based on the approach by Ziegler and concerning instability of
the elastic, prismatic columns subjected to torsion and compression, has been
adopted.
Chapter 7 explains the material and fatigue induced structural instabilities
in corrugated bellows at cryogenic temperatures. It begins with an analysis of
the evolution of two plastic strain induced material imperfections that occur
in the bellows convolutions at cryogenic temperatures: ductile damage and
phase transformation. It turns out that both phenomena are highly localised
at root and at crest of convolutions. Further, the mechanism of fatigue in-
duced structural instability is described. It is shown that the fatigue induced
instabilities can be explained on the ground of the ductile damage mechanics.
A column subjected to axial compressive load and simultaneous kinematically
controlled cycling, that causes evolution of ductile damage in the material, is
shown as an example. This model provides a link to a similar phenomenon in
corrugated bellows: evolution of plastic strain fields and damage in the con-
Preface XI
volutions under cyclic loads and internal pressure at cryogenic temperatures.

Such a combined sustained and cyclic loading leads to the fatigue induced in-
stability resulting from the cycle-to-cycle evolution of bellows axial stiffness.
The relevant numerical model based on the linear kinematic hardening and
isotropic damage is presented. As an example evolution of stability of elasti-
cally supported bellows at 4K as a function of number of cycles is shown.
Chapter 8 is entirely dedicated to the reliability oriented parametric opti-
mum design of cryogenic systems containing the corrugated bellows. It begins
with a general introduction of the reliability notions and safety categories for
complex cryogenic systems like a superconducting accelerators of particles,
superconducting links or cryogenic transfer lines. Further, global and local
approaches in the optimisation procedure of cryogenic systems with the de-
sign objective based either on the buckling load, cost function or on both of
them (mixed approach) are presented. The optimisation is carried out in the
framework of the probabilistic approach with the design parameters playing
role of random variables. Thus, the inequality constraints are expressed in the
form of a probability that a given condition has been reached. An assumption
has been made that the probability density functions associated with different
constraints are known. Also, the assumptions of the weakest link model are
presented. Further, the optimum parametric design of the cryogenic bellows
in the probabilistic and deterministic form is presented. Finally, an algorithm
for optimisation of the corrugated bellows is given and some numerical results
are shown.
Chapter 9. The modern high energy physics needs very sophisticated and
complex tools in order to explore the world of elementary particles consti-
tuting the matter. One of the most important aims over the past 30 years
was confirmation of the so-called Standard Model which assumes that the
fundamental constituents of matter form three families of quarks and lep-
tons. The relevant scientific instruments are called accelerators, storage rings
and colliders and their main function is to produce, accelerate, store and col-
lide the beams of particles in order to search for the new elementary events,
announcing the potential discoveries, and to provide more statistics for the
already known reactions. The present chapter gives a brief overview of the
main technologies needed to design and build modern circular particle ac-
celerators: superconducting magnet technologies and technology of ultrahigh
vacuum, materials and structures. Among the accelerator technologies the
thermal expansion/contraction compensation systems, located in the magnet
interconnections, are emphasised. Also, analysis of local stability of inter-
connections containing the corrugated bellows expansion joints as well as the
global stability of the whole accelerator (as a discrete structure) are presented.
XII Preface
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to express a particular gratitude towards all his colleagues
from CERN (Geneva, Switzerland) and Cracow University of Technology
(Poland) for many valuable discussions.
A special thanks goes to Dr Adam Wr6blewski for his precious help when
formatting the book.
Contents
1 Introduction to the Compensation Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Helium Cryogenics and its Applications .................... 3
1.2 Compensation Systems Containing Bellows Expansion Joints.. 11
1.2.1 The Principle of Thermo-Mechanical Compensation ... 11
1.2.2 Reliability Aspects of Cryogenic Compensation Systems 19
1.3 Bellows Expansion Joints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22
1.3.1 State of Art: Corrugated Bellows and Toroidal Shells .. 22
1.3.2 Bellows Expansion Joints for Low Temperature
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31
1.4 Materials Applied at Low Temperatures .................... 38
2 Thermodynamics of Processes Occurring in Metals at

Low Temperatures ........................................ 41
2.1 Types of Metallic Lattice and its Imperfections ............. 41
2.2 Heat Transport in Metals at Low Temperatures ............. 47
2.3 Thermodynamic Instabilities at the Temperatures Close to
Absolute Zero. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
2.4 Mechanism of Inelastic Deformations in Ductile Metals at
Low Temperatures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56
3 Properties of Austenitic Stainless Steels at Cryogenic

Temperatures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 65
3.1 Metallurgical Aspect (Chemical Composition and
Structure) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 65
3.2 Metallurgical Stability at Low Temperatures - Martensitic
Transformation and Magnetic Permeability ... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 66
3.3 Mechanical Properties: Tensile and Fatigue Tests at Low
Temperatures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68
3.4 Classical versus Serrated Yielding ......................... 73
XIV Contents
4 Plastic Yielding and Evolution of Ductile Damage under

Cryogenic Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 77
4.1 Modelling of Plastic Yielding at Cryogenic Temperatures . . . .. 77
4.1.1 Smooth Stress-Strain Curves ....................... 77
4.1.2 Serrated (Discontinuous) Yielding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 82
4.2 Ductile Damage and the Kinetic Laws of Damage Evolution .. 85
4.2.1 Damage Variable and the Effective Stresses. . . . . . . . . .. 85
4.2.2 The Variable (Y) Associated with Damage (D): Dual
Variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87
4.2.3 Potential of Dissipation and Kinetic Law of Damage
Evolution ........................................ 89
4.2.4 Identification of Parameters of the Kinetic Law
of Damage Evolution at Room and at Cryogenic
Temperatures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 91
4.2.5 Orthotropic Damage in Ductile Materials at Cryogenic
Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 95
4.3 Accumulation of Damage due to Cyclic Loads. Effect of
Large Mean Plastic Strain on the Number of Cycles to Failure 103
4.3.1 Accumulated Mean Strain of the Order of the Tensile
Ductility ......................................... 104
4.3.2 Solution Based on the Kinetic Law of Damage Evolution106
4.3.3 Linear Evolution of the Mean Plastic Strain as a
Function of Time .................................. 109
4.3.4 Comparison with the Experimental Results ........... 110
4.3.5 Generalised Manson-Coffin Formula. Constant Mean
Plastic Strain (Finite Ratchetting) ................... 111
4.4 Numerical Modelling of Damage Accumulation .............. 113
4.4.1 The Partially Coupled Approach to Plasticity-Damage. 114
4.4.2 The Uncoupled Approach to Plasticity-Damage Analysis 115
5 Strain Induced Martensitic Transformation at Low

Temperatures ............................................. 119
5.1 Constitutive Models of Steels Exhibiting Strain Induced
Martensitic Transformation ............................... 119
5.2 Transformation Kinetics at Cryogenic Temperatures ......... 121
5.3 Constitutive Modelling of Plastic Flow in the Presence of
Strain Induced Martensitic Transformation at Cryogenic
Temperatures ........................................... 123
5.4 Combined Model of Plastic Strain Induced Damage Evolution
and Martensitic Transformation ........................... 130
5.5 Integration of the Constitutive Equations and Comparison
with the Experimental Data .............................. 132
5.6 Combined Model of Plastic Strain Induced Orthotropic
Damage and '"Y --> ex' Phase Transformation ................. 134
Contents XV
6 Stability of Corrugated Axisymmetric Shells (Bellows) .... 137

6.1 Mechanism of Buckling of the Corrugated Bellows ........... 137
6.2 Reissner-Meissner Equations Applied to Corrugated
Axisymmetric Shells .................................... 138
6.2.1 Geometry of Typical Corrugated Bellows ............. 140
6.2.2 Rotationally Symmetric Deformation (Large
Displacements, Small Strains) ....................... 142
6.2.3 Overall Small Bending (Small Displacements, Small
Strains) .......................................... 146
6.2.4 Numerical Solution ................................ 150
6.3 Concept of Equivalent Column in the Stability of Corrugated
Axisymmetric Shells ..................................... 151
6.3.1 The Equivalent Column Concept .................... 151
6.3.2 Model of the Equivalent Column .................... 152
6.3.3 Strategy for Computation of the Critical Force ........ 153
6.3.4 Simple Applications - type-S (Toroidal) Convolutions 155
6.4 Effect of Relaxation of Boundary Conditions on Buckling of
Systems Containing Corrugated Bellows .................... 159
6.5 Shear Deformation versus the Bifurcation Buckling Load ..... 161
6.5.1 Eigenvalue Problem for the Column with a Finite
Shear Stiffness .................................... 162
6.5.2 Definition of Bending and Shear Stiffness of
Corrugated Bellows ................................ 165
6.5.3 Effect of Shear on Buckling of Short Corrugated Bellows166
6.5.4 Stability of Systems Equipped with Short Bellows:
Relaxation of Support Conditions and Shear Effect ..... 167
6.6 Effect of Torsion on Bifurcation Buckling of Corrugated
Bellows (Torque/Pressure Interaction Curves) ............... 170
7 Material and Fatigue Induced Structural Instabilities of

Corrugated Bellows at Low Temperatures ................. 175
7.1 Introduction to the Phenomena Observed in Corrugated
Bellows at Low Temperatures ............................. 175
7.2 Mechanisms of Plastic Adaptation in Bellows under
Combined Loads ........................................ 176
7.2.1 The governing Equations for Elastic-Perfectly Plastic
Bellows .......................................... 177
7.2.2 The Reduced Set of Equations and the Boundary
Value Problem .................................... 180
7.2.3 Limit Analysis .................................... 183
7.2.4 Mechanisms of Adaptation and Inadaptation to Cyclic
Loading .......................................... 185
7.2.5 Adaptation and Inadaptation Domains ............... 193
XVI Contents
7.3 Plastic Strain Induced Damage Evolution and Martensitic

Transformation in the Bellows Convolutions at Cryogenic
Temperatures ........................................... 194
7.4 Mechanism of Fatigue Induced Structural Instability ......... 200
7.5 Evolution of Plastic Strain Fields and Damage in the
Corrugated Bellows under Cyclic Loads at Cryogenic
Temperatures ........................................... 205
7.5.1 Simplified Constitutive Model of Stainless Steels at
Cryogenic Temperatures ............................ 205
7.5.2 Numerical Simulation of Evolution of the Plastic
Strain Intensity in Bellows Convolutions at Cryogenic
Temperatures ..................................... 207
7.5.3 Numerical Simulation of Damage Evolution in Bellows
Convolutions at Cryogenic Temperatures ............. 210
7.6 Fatigue Induced Evolution of Bellows Axial Stiffness and its
Effect on Buckling ....................................... 211
8 Reliability Oriented Optimum Design Of Cryogenic

Compensation Systems .................................... 217
8.1 Reliability of Systems and Classification of Failures .......... 217
8.2 Reliability Categories .................................... 218
8.3 Global Approach in the Optimisation Procedure ............. 220
8.3.1 Optimisation with respect to the Buckling Load
(Minimum Buckling Failure Probability) ............. 221
8.3.2 Optimisation with respect to the Global Cost of the
Structure Under Failure Probability Constraints ....... 222
8.3.3 Optimisation with respect to the Cost and the Global
Buckling Load .................................... 223
8.4 Local Approach in the Optimisation (Interconnections) ....... 224
8.5 Optimum Design of the Cryogenic Corrugated Bellows ....... 226
8.5.1 Reliability Oriented Optimisation - Probabilistic
Approach ........................................ 226
8.5.2 Classical Optimisation - Deterministic Approach ..... 227
9 Applications: Accelerators for High Energy Physics and

Cryogenics Transfer Lines ................................. 233
9.1 Lepton and Hadron Colliders - Modern Tools of High
Energy Physics .......................................... 233
9.1.1 Superconducting Magnets and the Relevant Technology 236
9.1.2 Technology of Ultra-High Vacuum for the Beam Lines. 238
9.2 Design of Compact Expansion Joints for Beam Vacuum
Systems ................................................ 241
9.2.1 The Beam Vacuum Interconnects of the LHC ........ 241
9.2.2 Very Compact Solution - Nested Bellows ........... 243
9.2.3 Metallurgical Analysis of Nested Bellows ............. 245
Contents XVII
9.2.4 Simplified Numerical Analysis of the Nested Bellows ... 247

9.3 Analysis of Local Stability of Magnet Interconnections ....... 249
9.3.1 Mechanisms of Local Buckling in the Zone of
Interconnections Containing Universal Joints .......... 250
9.3.2 Eigenvalue Analysis of a Universal Expansion Joint .... 254
9.3.3 Buckling of Actively Cooled Thermal Shield Interconnect256
9.4 Analysis of Global Stability of a Particle Accelerator ......... 262
9.4.1 Eigenvalue Buckling Analysis of an Elastic
Discontinuous Multi-Link Model on Elastic Foundation 263
9.4.2 Bifurcation Buckling ............................... 265
9.5 Fatigue Testing of Corrugated Bellows at Cryogenic
Temperatures (77 K, 4 K) ................................ 267
9.6 Reliability of Thermal Contraction Compensation System of
a Particle Accelerator .................................... 270
References . .................................................... 275
Index . ......................................................... 287

1
Introduction to the Compensation Systems
Large scale cryogenic systems applied in modern fusion reactors (Claudet

and Aymar 1990), superconducting particle accelerators (Lebrun 1999b; Van-
Sciver 1998) or coolant transfer lines (Lebrun 1999a) as well as small scale
refrigerators and cryo--coolers generate significant progress in multiple do-
mains related either to material sciences or to structural behaviour. When
designing large scale cryogenic systems the engineers quickly realise that it is
impossible to build a continuous "cold mass" since the material - by its phys-
ical nature - exhibits the thermal contraction and the thermo-mechanical
strain fields, developed locally in the constraint structure might damage the
object. Thus, any large cryogenic system has to be subdivided into the "cold
segments" , each of them constructed separately and all of them assembled to-
gether in the destination place. A typical example can be found in the domain
of particle accelerators where a continuity of the magnetic field is strongly pos-
tulated by the accelerator physics. On the other hand, the real structure has
to be discontinuous, since the magnets are limited in length (for technological
reasons) and separated by the so-called interconnections (Fig. 1.1). A similar
problem appears in the cryogenic transfer lines, that convey liquid nitrogen
or helium, where the maximum length of segments is often a function of the
technological process of their manufacture and assembly. A typical liquid and
gaseous helium transfer line containing several headers, located next to a su-
perconducting accelerator, is shown in Fig. 1.2.
Thus, in most cases (accelerators or transfer lines) the cold mass contain-
ing the magnets or the headers constitutes a sequence of relatively stiff objects
connected by using very flexible compensation elements. They provide a tight
connection between the adjacent segments so that the continuity of flow of
coolant is ensured. The necessary flexibility is obtained by means of the so-
called expansion joints, existing mainly in the form of short axisymmetric
thin corrugated shells called bellows. The set of expansion joints constitutes a
compensation system of a given cryogenic device like accelerator or a coolant
transfer line. Similar compensation systems, based on similar families of ex-
B. T. Skoczeń, Compensation Systems for Low Temperature Applications
2 Introduction to the Compensation Systems
Fig. 1.1. Interconnections between magnets in the superconducting accelerator

(Large Hadron Collider at CERN).
Fig. 1.2. Cryogenic helium distribution line located close to the superconducting
accelerator (image: CERN).
pansion joints, are applied in the liquid hydrogen and oxygen supply lines,
designed for the modern launchers like US Space Shuttle or European Ariane.
A fundamental feature of all the cryogenic systems is their thermal insula-
tion. The cold mass, often cooled down to 77 K or 4.5 K or in some cases even
below 2 K, has to be vacuum insulated from the outside world. A reasonably
good insulation vacuum (10- 5 -;- 10- 6 mbar) can be obtained inside a long
and continuous cryostat (vacuum vessel) by using efficient turbo- molecular
pumps. Thus, given the low density of the residual gas, the heat transfer via
1.1 Helium Cryogenics and its Applications 3
convection from the vacuum vessel to the cold mass is nearly eliminated. The
vacuum vessel forms again a sequence of cylinders (Fig. 1.1) connected by
using flexible components (thin-walled corrugated shells) so that the conti-
nuity of vacuum is ensured. A standard modern cryogenic system is therefore
composed of a cold mass surrounded by the actively cooled thermal shielding
and suspended inside the vacuum vessel. Portions of such system are con-
nected by using the cryogenic and the vacuum expansion joints located in the
zones of interconnections. Their principal function is to compensate for the
thermal expansion/contraction of the main components of cryogenic system,
often under very severe loading conditions. One of the most spectacular cryo-
genic systems is the proton accelerator called Large Hadron Collider (LHC,
Fig. 1.1), currently under construction at CERNl. The accelerator forms a
27 km long ring and is designed to work at 1.9 K, in the static bath of super-
fluid helium (Lebrun 1999a). The total length of the cold mass reaches some
23 km, which implies thermal contraction from room temperature down to
1.9 K of around 70 m. The accumulated thermal contraction constitutes the
major load for the whole compensation system of the LHC.
1.1 Helium Cryogenics and its Applications
In order to cool a complex high field superconducting magnet or a cryogenic

system down to the temperature close to absolute zero a coolant is used.
Among different chemical elements useful in cryogenics certainly the gaseous
and liquid nitrogen (N) as well as helium (He) belong to the most popular
coolants. Especially helium offers a large spectrum of applications since it
can theoretically be used down to the temperature of 0 K. Helium is the
unique element that exists at the temperature of 0 K in the liquid state. If
the cryogenics in general refers to the range of temperatures between 0 and
100 K the helium cryogenics refers rather to a narrow temperature range
o --;- 10 K. The most popular helium isotope is ~He. The second isotope ~He
has a marginal meaning for technical applications.
Helium exists in four fundamental states (as a function of temperature and
pressure): gaseous, liquid state, superfluid state and solid (for the pressures
exceeding 25 bar). Generally, helium is used, in the form of normal liquid
(He I) or in the so-called superfluid state (He II), for the low temperature
superconductivity. The superfluid helium represents the lowest energy state
of helium. He I has all the features of a classical fluid and can be described
by using an ideal fluid model. On the other hand, He II shows the physi-
cal features that can be described only on the basis of quantum mechanics.
In particular it shows the thermal conductivity several orders of magnitude
higher than thermal conductivity of solids and, in addition, its viscosity is
orders of magnitude smaller than the viscosity of normal fluids. Thus, the
1 European Organization for Nuclear Research, Geneva, Switzerland
P [MPa]
10 1
HeI
Critical
Point
10- 1
Hell
10-2
10- 3 L -_ _ _ _ ~~ __________________ ~
T [K]
o 2 3 4 5 6
Fig. 1.3. Phase diagram of helium at cryogenic temperatures.
transport properties of He 11 are excellent. The helium phase diagram - T

versus log(p) - is shown in Fig. 1.3. The critical point has the following
parameters: T = 5.2 K, p = 0.226 MPa. It is worth pointing out that in
the case of helium there is no classical triple point where the vapour, liquid
and solid might coexist. As the He I behaves like a classical liquid, it stays
in equilibrium with the vapour and has a latent heat of vaporisation. The
two-phase coexistence region of liquid and vapour extends up to the critical
point. Another two-phase coexistence region is that between liquid and solid
helium, for very high pressures. The transport properties of He I are relatively
limited (see Table 1.1). The normal liquid state of helium (He I) is separated
from the superfluid state (He 11) by the so-called A-line. There is no latent
heat associated with the transition from He I to He 11 and the transition has a
discontinuous character (discontinuity of dB/ dT, where B denotes the entropy
and T is the temperature). This is characteristic of the second order phase
transformation (according to the Ehrenfest classification; Table 1.2) where the
following condition is satisfied:
dB I cl- dB I (1.1 )
dT -TA dT +TA .
The A-transition starts at the temperature of 2.172 K under the pressure

of 0.00497 MPa and ends up at the temperature of 1.763 K under the pres-
Table 1.1. Properties of helium (pressure 0.1 MPa).
Temperature Density Viscosity Thermal

conductivity
[K] [kg/m 3 ] [kg/ms] [W/mK]
293 0.16 2xlO- 5 0.16
4.5 14.6 1.3xlO- 6 9.8x 10- 3
1.9 147.2 ",0 5 x 104 (lOJLm channel)
Table 1.2. Classification of phase transformations.
Phase transformations (Ehrenfest classification)

I-order phase transformations I1-order phase transformations
• Discontinuity of the first deriva- • Discontinuity of the second

tive of free energy If! with respect derivative of free energy If! with
to pressure
81f!
or temperature 82 If!
8p
respect to temperature 8T2' This
81f! Th'IS Yle
8T' . Id s d'IscontmUlty
.. 0f
. Id s d'IscontmUlty
Yle . . 0 f dT'
dS
volume (V) or entropy (S), re- • Latent heat doesn't exist.

spectively. • Two different phases can not coex-
• The latent heat exists. ist in thermodynamic equilibrium.
• Two different phases can coexist
in thermodynamic equilibrium.
sure of 2.974 MPa (intersection with the solid state boundary). The phase
transformation from He I to He 11 doesn't induce any latent heat. Therefore,
the coexistence of both phases in thermodynamic equilibrium is not possible.
The illustration of both types of phase transformation is shown in Figs. 1.4
and 1.5. Discontinuity of dSjdT across the A-transition is shown in Fig. 1.6.
Another state function that remains discontinuous across the A-transition is
the specific heat at saturated vapour pressure:
(1.2)
It is worth pointing out that at very low temperatures (below 1 K) the

differences between G, Gp, Gv are very small and the specific heat is propor-
tional to T3. This shows that the excitation spectrum in He 11 is dominated
mainly by the longitudinal phonons.
The behaviour of He 11 can be described in two different ways: via quantum
mechanics or by using the so-called two-fluid model. The two-fluid model is
Stable state II
Activation energy
Latent heat
Atom position
Fig. 1.4. Illustration of the I-order phase transformation SI) -# Sin.
9-< Stable state II

>-
~
Ql
c
Ql Activation energy
Ql
~
LL
Atom position
Fig. 1.5. Illustration of the II-order phase transformation as I I-I- as I

aT) aT n·
6 S [J/gKJ
o '-----'----------------' T[K]
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0
Fig. 1.6. Illustration of ~~ discontinuity across the A-transition for helium.
particularly useful since it is based on the assumption that He II is a mixture

of two interpenetrating fluids: normal- and superfluid. The normal component
obeys the classical fluid mechanics and classical equations can be used in order
to describe the flow and the heat transport. The normal fluid is described
by the state parameters like density, viscosity and entropy density: Pn, T)n,
0.5
o T [K]
Fig.!. 7. Normalised density versus temperature for the two-fluid model of He 11.
Sn. Its counterpart (superfluid) is described by the density, however, both

the viscosity and the entropy are equal to zero: Ps -I- 0, 'f/s = 0, Ss = O.
The final parameters of the two-fluid model (cf. Van-Sciver 1986) result from
superposition of properties of both components (Fig. 1.7):
P=Pn+Ps,
pS = PnSn, (1.3)
'f/ ='f/n,
where the subscript "n" stands for normal fluid and "s" for superfluid. The
superfluid has no entropy and all the dissipative effects are carried exclusively
by the normal fluid component. The model turns out to be very useful in the
analysis of He II behaviour below the A-transition.
The transport properties of He II can be expressed by using the N avier-
Stokes equations formulated for the two-fluid model (cf. Van-Sciver 1986):
(1.4)
Here P denotes density, 'f/ stands for viscosity (superfluid viscosity is zero)
and S is the specific entropy. Heat transport can be illustrated by means of
the heat conductivity equations developed for small channels of diameter d.
Here once again a two-fluid approach has been used:
(1.5)
The effective conductivity turns out to be a nonlinear function of diameter

d and temperature T. At 1.9 K the effective thermal conductivity computed
for a channel of lOp,m in diameter amounts to around 5 x 104 W /mK. Since the
heat transport properties of He II are limited by the existence of critical ve-

locity in the superfluid component, the effective conductivity can not increase
beyond a maximum value. Nevertheless, the excellent properties of He 11 in
terms of heat transport are the basis of efficient cooling of superconducting
magnets in the modern accelerators. The structure of a superconducting mag-
net contains numerous channels and cavities into which He 11 can penetrate,
thanks to its very small residual viscosity. Very high effective conductivity
allows fast sub-cooling even in the case of comparatively large volumes. The
main limitation in the process of cooling complex systems down to the temper-
ature of superfluid helium is related rather to thermo-mechanical restrictions
due to the strain and the stress fields generated by high transient thermal
gradients.
In the technical applications the mechanism of efficient cooling is usu-
ally obtained by performing subsequently the isothermal compression and the
isentropic expansion. The cooling process is illustrated in Fig. 1.8, where two
isobars were located in the "entropy as a function of temperature" diagram.
Pup
Si
Si+l
Fig. 1.8. Process of cooling by performing isothermal compression and isentropic

expansion.
The isothermal compression brings the coolant from the pressure Pdown
to the pressure Pup without temperature change. The subsequent isentropic
expansion brings the coolant back to the pressure Pdown under constant en-
tropy and with the reduction of temperature from Ti to THl < T i . With every
step the temperature of medium gets reduced by an increment, that itself is a
function of temperature. Since the entropy change tends to 0 when the tem-
perature approaches the absolute 0, the efficiency of the process is smaller and
smaller (both isobars converge towards the origin of the coordinate system).
Thus, as a result of the third principle of thermodynamics an infinite number
of steps is necessary to bring the temperature of medium down to 0 K.
Typical application of helium cryogenics can be found in the description
of cooling of long channels containing the superconducting cables in order to
transport the energy without heat losses. Such narrow channels may oper-
ate as long cryogenic links, through which the corrector magnets of particle
accelerators are powered (cf. Kowalczyk et al. 1998). An example of such a
channel, containing an expansion joint is shown in Fig. 1.9.
T
CulNbTi
~~~~~~~~~~~m-+
I I
I expansion
..
I
I
: Hell I
~'I
HeI joint
Fig. 1.9. Propagation of 'x-front in a narrow channel containing the superconduc-

tors.
The temperature range between Tf = 4.5 K in He I and Tb = 1.9 K in He 11

(at 1.3 bar) includes the A-transition at T).. = 2.17 K, where helium becomes
superfluid. In the simplified analysis, the channel is supposed to be initially
filled with liquid helium at 4.5 K, when its leftmost extremity is cooled to
1.9 K. This corresponds to the arrival of the A-front (front of He 1/ He 11
phase transformation) which propagates with a velocity c, that determines
the time needed for all the helium in the channel to become superfluid. In
order to estimate this time, the heat diffusion equation should be solved in
two different regions separated by the moving A-front (cf. Dresner 1984). As
the A-transition is not characterised by any latent heat, the condition to be
satisfied at the A-front is that the longitudinal heat fluxes are equal on both
sides. Given the thermal properties of the superconductor (mainly copper)
and of the liquid helium at 4.5 K, this condition is approximately equivalent
to equalising heat fluxes in the superfluid helium, on one side, and in the
copper cable on the other side of the A-front. It turns out that the relevant
equations can be solved analytically, supposing that the A-front propagation
has a travelling wave dependence. For the He I region, the heat diffusion
equation can be written as:
(1.6)
where P, Cp denote density and specific heat of He I, k is the conductivity of

copper, A stands for the cross-section area. The terms (pcpA)lcu and (kA)I HeI
are neglected as they are small when compared to the two others. The pos-
tulated solution is in the form of a plane wave T = T (x - ct), where C is the
wave front propagation speed. After substitution into (1.6) and integration,
one obtains:
aT
(pcpA)IHeI cT + (kA)lcu 8(x _ et) + f(x - ct) = o. (1.7)
There exist two boundary conditions for this equation:

• equality of the heat fluxes at the A-front:
(1.8)
• temperature and its slope at the far end of the He I region:
Tf = 4.5 K, aT =0 (1.9)
a(x - ct) ,
These two conditions permit the unknown function f (x - et) to be elimi-

nated:
(pcpA)I HeI cTA + (kA)lcu a(xaT

_ ct) IA = (pcpA)IHeI cTf + (kA)lcu a(xaT
- ct) If
(1.10)
(1.11)
where K denotes the thermal conductivity in He 11, X A stands for the A-

front position along the channel and m is the Gorter-Mellink coefficient (its
theoretical value is 3).
Here, for the sake of simplicity, two assumptions have been made:
• the distribution of temperature along the portion of the channel occupied
by He 11 is linear,
• the thermal conductivity in He 11 is computed as the equivalent value
corresponding to the temperature range in the He 11 portion of the channel:
(1.12)
where the turbulent heat transport equation for He 11 is written in the

form
dT = f(T)qm (1.13)
dx
and q is the heat flux.
Assuming a constant wave velocity c and substituting X A by ct, one can
easily calculate the time at which the A-front will reach the far end of the
channel. This simplified analysis can be carried out in a more precise way by
taking into account variation of thermal conductivity in He 11 as a function
of temperature and the radial heat exchange between the superconductor and
the helium. Nevertheless, even this simplified approach is sufficient to obtain
1.2 Compensation Systems Containing Bellows Expansion Joints 11
the results that correspond well to the experiments. It can be easily shown
that, under the above listed assumptions, the following approximation for the
A-front velocity can be derived:
(1.14)
Finally, a typical average speed of A-front propagation in the narrow chan-

nels is of the order of 6 mm/so Similar analysis can be applied to the design
of thin-walled heat exchangers that are used to sub-cool complex structures
from the temperature of normal liquid helium to the temperatures below TA.
1.2 Compensation Systems Containing Bellows

Expansion Joints
1.2.1 The Principle of Thermo-Mechanical Compensation
50
Aluminum
"1
0
40
.....
L-
t:
0
U 30
~
c
8
16 20
E
-
a;
.s:::.
L-
ea
Q) 10
t:
:.::i Invar
0 100 200 300

Temperature [K]
Fig. 1.10. Thermal contraction of chosen materials as a function of temperature.
A fundamental role in the cryogenic structures is played by the so-called

compensation systems containing the expansion joints. Development of com-
pensation systems for cryogenic applications is a natural consequence of the
phenomenon of thermal contraction and expansion of materials. Nearly all the

typical materials used at cryogenic temperatures show a significant thermal
contraction (Fig. 1.10). The thermal contraction/expansion coefficient a is
usually a function of temperature:
a = a(T) , (1.15)
and the resulting thermal strain, integrated over the whole temperature range,
reads:
J
Tf
Eth = a(T)dT, (1.16)

To
where To, Tj are the initial and the current temperatures, respectively. In case
of highly anisotropic materials (composite, laminated layers etc.) the scalar
a has to be replaced by the relevant thermal contraction tensor Q. In most
of the applications (cooling systems, cryogenic transfer lines, superconduct-
ing accelerators, spacecraft etc.) the traditional materials like stainless steel,
aluminium or copper are used. The curves showing the thermal contraction
of chosen materials relative to 293 K, that represented by the function:
(1.17)
are shown in Fig. 1.10. The lowest thermal contraction can be attributed to
Invar, however this material is less used in the large scale cryogenic systems
because of its high corrosivity. Stainless steel belongs certainly to the class
of materials most often used for the cold mass components. Copper is a per-
fect material for the heat exchangers and thermal bridges. Aluminium and
its alloys are frequently applied in the design of thermal shielding. All these
materials exhibit the thermal contraction from 293 K to 0 K reflected by the
thermal strain in the range of 0.003 --;-- 0.0045. For nearly all of them the ther-
mal strain below 50 K is constant (nearly entire thermal contraction occurs
between 293 K and 50 K). Imagine now a stainless steel rod, clamped at both
ends (Fig. 1.11) and cooled down to 0 K. A simple multilinear representation of
the stress-strain curves for a typical stainless steel AISI 316L, corresponding
to three temperature levels: 293 K, 77 K and 4.5 K and illustrating the in-
crease of hardening modulus due to the strain induced phase transformation,
is shown in Fig. 1.12. The yield point increases between 293 K and 4.5 K by
the factor 2. The tensile strength increases even more, nearly by the factor 3.
~ 293 K --; 0 K ~
~~~
Fig. 1.11. Stainless steel rod clamped at both ends and cooled down to 0 K.
1600
4.5 K
1200
ca
a.
6
rJ) 800
rJ)
~
en
400
o
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Strain
Fig. 1.12. Multilinear representation of the stress-strain curves for AISI 316L.
The 0.2% yield stress as a function of temperature is plotted in Fig. 1.13.

The realistic behaviour of the material close to the yield point at 4.5 K is
500
400
ca
a.
6 300
rJ)
rJ)
~
1ii
"0 200
Q)
>
100
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Temperature [K]
Fig. 1.13. Yield stress as a function of temperature for AI SI 316L.
500
430
400
&. 300
6
I/J
e
I/J
Ci5 200
100
o
0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
Strain
Fig. 1.14. Bilinear schematisation of the stress-strain curve for AISI 316L at 4.5 K.
500
ro
a..
430-
400
......
~
300
Cl)
...
-
Cl)
Q)
en 200
Fig. 1.15. Complete cycle of cool down and warm up for the stainless steel rod.
shown in Fig. 1.14. Since the yield stress constantly increases with the decreas-
ing temperature, the level of stress in the rod at 4.5 K does not exceed the
0.2% yield point. However, the real behaviour of the material (stainless steel)
below the 0.2% yield stress is nonlinear. Therefore, the thermo-mechanical
strain equal to 0.003 corresponds, after unloading at constant temperature
4.5 K, to a residual strain around 0.0009. In order to illustrate better the
phenomena that occur close to the yield point, simple bilinear schematisation
of the stress-strain curves with "artificial" yield points have been introduced
for all temperature levels (Figs 1.14, 1.15).
Assuming, for the sake of simplicity, that the yield stress is a linear function
of temperature:
ao(T) = aT + b, (1.18)
and that the initial hardening modulus at each temperature level (293 K,
77 K, and 4.5 K) is identical, a diagram showing the complete cycle of cool
down from 293K to 4.5 K and warm up back to 293 K has been constructed
(Fig. 1.15). The cycle runs through the set of temperatures that characterise
the process:
(1.19)
where To is the initial temperature (293 K), Tu is the yield point temper-
ature, Tk is the minimum temperature (4.5 K) and Tp is the reverse yield
point temperature. It is worth pointing out that the ideal Bauschinger ef-
fect (kinematic hardening) has been taken into account for each temperature
level separately. Since the cooling process induces a constant evolution of the
yield point the first plastification occurs much below the room temperature
(Tu < To). The process of plastic yielding is accompanied by constant in-
crease of the stress level, much beyond the initial hardening modulus, due to
the evolution of material properties with temperature. Therefore, an equiva-
lent hardening modulus has been introduced:
H+ =H_~E-H (1.20)
eq ex E '
where H denotes the initial hardening modulus and ex stands for the thermal
contraction coefficient. It can be easily shown that:
(1.21)
since the parameter a is negative.

When the temperature Tk = 4.5 K is reached the cool down process is
terminated. Following the Duhamel-Neumann equation:
(1.22)
the sum of the mechanical and the thermal strains vanishes. Therefore, the
mechanical strain is equal to:
(1.23)
and is positive (corresponds to tensile stress). During the warm up process the
rod follows the linear unloading path corresponding to the modulus of elastic-
ity E (small evolution of the modulus with temperature has been neglected).
Before the room temperature is reached the state of stress in the rod becomes
negative (compressive stress). As a function of the material properties a pos-
sibility of reverse plastification may exist. In such a case, the reverse yielding
begins at the temperature level:
(1.24)
which can be easily determined by assuming the ideal Bauschinger effect.

During the reverse yielding again the material properties (yield stress) evolve
with temperature and the equivalent hardening modulus is lower than or equal
to the initial hardening modulus:
aE+H
H~ = ;-E-- + H, (1.25)
H~~H. (1.26)
Finally, after the process of unloading a residual compressive stress al will

exist (it corresponds to c = 0 at T = To on the unloading/reverse loading
path).
alE
0.008
If) 0.007
If)
~ 0.006
Ui
.~ 0.005
32
u
E 0.004
-c
Q)
0.003
.!::!
ro
.... 0.002
E
0
z 0.001
0.000 ~~--.-~~~~~~~A
Al
o 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Slenderness ratio
Fig. 1.16. Elastic-plastic loss of stability due to the compressive stress in the rod.
It can be easily shown (Fig. 1.16) that all the rods having sufficiently high
slenderness ratio:
OK~293 K
Fig. 1.17. Loss of stability of the rod during warm up to 293 K.
. [i (1.27)
Z= Vii'
will lose their stability (buckle, Fig. 1.17) during the warming up process
(here A denotes the cross-section of the rod, I its moment of inertia, Lo is
the initial length and J.l stands for the parameter that represents the influence
of the boundary conditions). Indeed, in the limit case the instability occurs
at the end of the process if the following conditions are fulfilled:
7l'2E
10'11 = 7 for >'1 > >'(293 K) , (1.28)
1
10'11 = cA1 + d for >'1 ::; >'(293 K) , (1.29)
where the right hand sides of the above presented equations correspond ei-
ther to the Euler elastic critical stress or to the elastic-plastic critical stress,
respectively. Parameter >'(293 K) stands for such slenderness ratio that sepa-
rates at room temperature (T = To) the elastic regime from the elastic-plastic
buckling regime. In fact, the instability conditions can be satisfied even below
the room temperature (n < To, buckling on the elastic unloading path) pro-
vided that the slenderness ratio is large enough. In such a case, the normalised
buckling stress has to be identified from the set of curves corresponding to
a given temperature n (Fig. 1.16). Here, a simplified assumption has been
made that the Euler elastic instability curves are identical for all the tem-
perature levels (evolution of the modulus of elasticity is neglected). However,
the elastic buckling regime is limited by the yield stress (that is a function of
temperature) and by the corresponding slenderness parameters arranged into
the sequence (Fig. 1.16):
>.( 4.5 K) < >'(77 K) < >'(293 K) . (1.30)
Thus, as soon as the stress O'b on the unloading path is compressive

(Fig. 1.15) there exists a rod characterised by the slenderness ratio:
(1.31)
that will buckle during the warm up process. Instability (Fig. 1.17) becomes
the principal failure mode of clamped slender rods (beams) subjected to a
293 K~ OK
Fig. 1.18. Stainless steel rod with a spring clamped at both ends and cooled down
to 0 K.
complete thermo-mechanical cycle of cool down to cryogenic temperatures

and warm up back to the room temperature.
The same exercise with a slightly different configuration (Fig. 1.18) com-
prising the rod and an elastic spring of much lower stiffness c when compared
to the stiffness of the rod:
EA
c« Lo ' (1.32)
leads to the conclusion that buckling may easily be avoided. The spring ab-
sorbs the thermal expansion/contraction of the rod developing simultaneously
the stress levels (proportional to the stiffness of the spring) much lower when
compared to the case of the clamped rod.
In most of the cases the spring remains linear for the whole range of
temperatures (the yield stress increases with the decrease of temperature)
and the stress induced in the rod is much smaller than the critical buckling
stress:
c,1L
(J = A« (JE, (1.33)
Thus, the response of the system remains elastic and far from the insta-
bility regime. In some specific cases, related to the tight optimisation of the
compensation elements, the "springs" are compact and behave in an elastic-
plastic way. In such cases the stress level in the rod remains far from the
buckling regime, however, the plastic work is produced in the spring during
the thermo-mechanical cycle. Long term behaviour of the spring depends on
its elastic-plastic properties and the amplitude of the cyclic load: the spring
can either shake down to fully elastic behaviour after several cycles or continue
dissipation of plastic energy throughout its whole life time.
Generally, for the above explained reasons the structures designed for cryo-
genic applications are equipped with the flexible expansion joints (springs).
Usually, they have a form of thin-walled, corrugated, axisymmetric shells, lo-
cated in the interconnections between the stiff portions of the system. Here
again, a classical example is a superconducting accelerator of particles com-
posed of a number of dipole and quadrupole magnets separated by the zones
of interconnections that contain the compensation units. Often the compensa-
tion elements fulfil at the same time several functions. They provide continu-
ity of the cryogenic or vacuum channels, compensate for the thermal expan-
sion/ contraction and provide a transverse flexibility in case of misalignment
of the stiff portions (like superconducting magnets or pipe headers, Fig. 1.19).
Cold mass
i
Interconnection Interconnection
t
~III~ + t ~IIIC
Win
- L
Fig. 1.19. Compensation elements in the interconnections between magnets as well

as dissipation of energy due to plastic deformation during the cool down / warm up
cycles
1.2.2 Reliability Aspects of Cryogenic Compensation Systems
One of the important features of highly optimised cryogenic systems is a

strong localisation of plastic straining in the interconnections, whereas the
rest of the system remains usually elastic. As a consequence, the dissipation
of inelastic energy over each thermo- mechanical cycle occurs mainly in the
interconnections (Fig. 1.19) and a probability of failure in these zones is much
higher than in the adjacent portions.
Thus, the failure probability in such a discontinuous (in terms of the stiff-
ness) system can be expressed by the following function:
Pn = PoH [(x - Xnd(Xn2 - x)] cp (xn2;n xnl) , (1.34)
where H( .. ) is the Heaviside function, Xn2 -Xnl corresponds to the span of the
interconnect, Po stands for the reference failure probability and cp is the cor-
rection function that depends on the ratio between the length of interconnect
and the length of the adjacent components. Function cp increases when the
ratio (Xn2 - Xnl)/ Ln decreases, which is equivalent to a larger load imposed
on the interconnect during the cool down or the warm up of the system. Such
a definition of a discontinuous system (in terms of the stiffness and the plastic
dissipation function) leads directly to the following statement: the reliability
of the interconnects, related to the thermo- mechanical cyclic loads and plas-
tic straining, is usually smaller than the reliability of the adjacent portions of
the system. Indeed, if f(t) denotes the probability density function associated
with the fatigue failure , and:
J
t
F(t) = f(r)dr , (1.35)

o
represents the distribution function, than the reliability function can be de-
fined as:
R(t) = 1 - F(t) , (1.36)

and the failure rate takes the form:
(1.37)
Since the failure probability of nth interconnect is expressed by:
Fn(t, x) = Pn(t, x) = Po(t)H [(x - Xnl)(X n2 - x)] <p (Xn2;;n Xnl ) (1.38)
the corresponding reliability reads:
Rn(t, x) = 1- Po(t)H [(x - Xnl)(X n2 - x)] <p (Xn2;;n Xnl ) (1.39)
If, for the sake of simplicity, we assume that:
(1.40)
than the reliability as a function of the longitudinal coordinate satisfies - in

the vicinity of nth interconnect - the following equation:
Rn(t, x) = 1- Po(t)H [(x - Xnl)(Xn2 - x)] [1 - A ~:n] , (1.41)
This function has been illustrated in Fig. 1.20 for two types of interconnec-
tions: long and short ones.
R(t,x)
I!::;::;::;:.,..,:::;::;:;
Fig. 1.20. Reliability function for short and long interconnections.
Now it becomes obvious that reducing the length of interconnect with

respect to the length of the adjacent portions of the system may have a signif-
icant impact on its reliability. Therefore, the reliability oriented optimisation
of the compensation system turns out to be a fundamental task when de-

signing a cryogenic system. Generally, the optimisation aims at reducing the
stiffness of the compensation elements. Small stiffness of the interconnections
ensures an unconstraint contraction/expansion of the adjacent portions, thus
reducing a risk of overstress (under tension) or global instability of the sys-
tem (under compression). On the other hand, the requirement of low stiffness
implies longer compensation elements (more convolutions) and may lead to
local instability of its convolutions. A typical general formulation of the op-
timisation problem is shown in Fig. 1.21. The objective function (stiffness
of the bellows expansion joint) has been illustrated in the form of a set of
isolines (hypersurface). The admissible domain is limited by the geometrical,
fatigue, reliability, cost, strength and stability constraints. The arrow shows
the direction of search for minimum axial stiffness of the bellows expansion
joint.
Design objective
minimum stiffness
Reliability
Fig. 1.21. Reliability oriented optimisation of cryogenic compensation bellows.
Usually the optimum solution is found on one of the constraint lines: sta-
bility /strength, cost or reliability constraints become active. A typical exam-
ple of a highly optimised compensation element (nested bellows) is shown in
Fig. 1.22.
A correctly designed compensation system (set of expansion joints) con-
tributes to a successful long term performance of the whole cryogenic system.
Fig. 1.22. Nested bellows for the beam vacuum interconnections.
1.3 Bellows Expansion Joints
1.3.1 State of Art: Corrugated Bellows and Toroidal Shells
Bellows form a special class of thin- walled, usually rotationally-symmetric (in

the original configuration) shell structures, composed of a number of identical
segments linked along the same axis (Fig. 1.22). They are significantly more
resilient than an equivalent straight pipe. Therefore, bellows are often used as
flexible joints incorporated in the transfer lines, that convey gases or fluids, in
order to compensate for thermal expansion or contraction of the system com-
ponents. Bellows may also be used as flexible anchors. The closed- end bellows,
subjected to variations of internal pressure, produce a considerable axial mo-
tion and are applied as the pneumatic servo- mechanisms. As a function of
application, the bellows are subjected to a combination of axial , transverse,
angular or torsional displacements.
Generally, the geometry of bellows as well as the configuration of loads
may vary considerably from one application to another. The most often used
types of the bellows convolutions are: single omega (type- D), semicircular
(type- C), type- S, type-V, mixed type (combination of S and V profiles) and
special profiles like nested bellows. The load components usually taken into
account in the design of bellows expansion joints are: axial and transverse
forces, bending and torsional moments, inner and outer pressure as well as a
temperature field. Both for the systems designed for high and low temperature
service the thermal insulation may turn out to be imperfect. Therefore, the
analysis of influence of various types of temperature gradients shall be taken
1.3 Bellows Expansion Joints 23
into account. It is worth pointing out that the high temperature and cryogenic
systems are often subjected to cyclic loads that correspond to periodically
varying temperature or pressure. Cyclic thermal expansion and contraction of
system portions, combined with flow of a medium (gas, fluid), results in the
cyclic axial force and constant or varying pressure. Thus, in order to provide
a comprehensive analysis of bellows the static as well as the cyclic combined
loads must be considered.
Strength Analysis
Wilson (1984) in his survey on mechanics of bellows distinguished the fol-

lowing five groups of analytic models: a beam model, a strength-of-materials
shell model, a classical plate model, a plate-cylindrical shell model as well as
shell models based on classical shell theories, on approximate energy, finite dif-
ference and finite element methods. For engineering applications simple beam
or plate models can be applied to predict the maximum stress levels and the
deflections in toroidal bellows. Theoretical results for the equivalent beam or
circular plate (having identical geometric parameters as the bellows) are usu-
ally correlated with the experimental stress and deflection behaviour for half
convolution of bellows. Such an approach was used by Feely and Goryl (1950),
who applied beam theory for the stress and deflection analysis of the triangu-
lar or crimped-plate bellows, subjected to axial load and pressure. Wahl and
Lobo (1930) used classical plate theory to calculate the stiffness of an elastic
disc clamped on the inner and the outer edges, representing a segment of the
crimped-plate bellows. Donnell (1932) applied a strength-of-material shell
model to triangular, parabolic or sinusoidal and elliptical bellows of shallow
corrugations. The rectangular-type bellows were studied by Haringx (1952)
who assumed that the structure was composed of annular plates or disks
attached at the edges to cylindrical shell elements. More general proposals,
,based on the solutions obtained from the rigourous toroidal shell theories,
concerning the application of a concept of equivalent beam or annular plate
to S- or type--U bellows subjected to axial loading, were presented by Chand
and Garg (1981). Clark (1950) was the first to apply the linear theory of
thin shells of revolution, supplemented with the method of asymptotic inte-
gration of differential equations, to the analysis of type-D bellows subject
to axial load as well as corrugated pipes subjected to axial load and inter-
nal pressure. This analysis was later extended by Anderson (1965) to include
type-U bellows. The Standards of the Expansion Joints Manufacturers Asso-
ciation (1995) were based on this work. Another approach was presented by
Dahi (1953), who calculated the axial stiffness of single D bellows using the
approximate energy methods. The results were completed with experiments.
In the same year Clark and Reissner (1953) came up with an idea that lon-
gitudinal displacements of D bellows much larger than the wall thickness fell
within the scope of linearised theory and confirmed this observation. Turner
and Ford used, in the classical already work published in 1957, shell the-
ory based on the energy analysis to predict the flexibility of the semicircular
and type-S bellows. A noteworthy feature of the work is excellent agreement
the authors obtained between analytical and experimental results. Laupa and
Weil (1982) presented an elastic analysis of type-U expansion joints subjected
to axial load and pressure. The analysis contains implementation of energy
method for the toroidal sections and the theory of symmetrical bending of
circular plates for plate sections of bellows convolutions. The study was pre-
sented in a form suitable for coding on a computer. The Clark and Reissner
small deflection theory of thin-walled toroidal shells was adopted in the six-
ties by Hamada and Takezono (1964; 1965; 1966a; 1966b; 1967a; 1967b) to the
analysis of type-U bellows. A more extended model, consisting of a toroidal
shell, an annular plate and a cylindrical shell was employed by Hamada et al.
(1970) to calculate the stresses and displacements in type-U expansion joints
of pressure vessels. The accuracy of the proposed method was confirmed by
comparing the results of calculations with the experimental results obtained
by Turner and Ford (1957). Some formulae for design of U and type-S bellows,
subjected to axial load, were given by Hamada and et al. (1971). The prob-
lem of limitation of the linearised approach was considered by Hamada et al.
(1968). A rigourous numerical analysis, based on the small finite deflection
equations derived by Reissner (1950) (1950; 1963) and on the finite difference
method (FDM), Was applied in Hammada's paper to large deflection analysis
of type-U bellows and of the corrugated diaphragms. A numerical method
for problems of asymmetric bending deformation of the axisymmetric type-U
bellows was proposed by Hamada, Nakagawa, Miyata and Nakade (1971). The
dependent variables were expanded into the Fourier series in the circumfer-
ential direction in order to reduce a partial differential equation problem to a
one dimensional problem for meridional independent variable, next solved by
the use of the FDM. Later Hamada et al. (1976) employed the finite element
method (FEM) to solve the thin shells equations for type-U bellows. Some
experimental data on the flexibility of axially loaded type-U steel bellows
were reported by Berliner and Vikhman (1976). Calladine (1974) used shell
theory and energy methods to find an expression for flexibility of the axially-
symmetric elastic type-S bellows subjected to axial loading. He studied the
effects of the convolution angle on the flexibility parameter, as well. A dis-
cussion of solutions based on the energy approach Was performed by Findlay
and Spence (1979). The existing Clark's, Dahl's and other results were used
to demonstrate that the application of the theorem of minimum potential en-
ergy leads to the lower bound flexibility factors, whereas the analysis based
on the theorem of minimum complementary energy provides the upper bound
flexibility factors. In 1979 Snedden's study of type-U configurations (PhD
Thesis), which included extensive experiments to obtain the longitudinal and
transverse bellows flexibility as well as the buckling behaviour, was presented.
Effects of internal pressure were included and the test results were completed
with computer aided solutions based on the finite element shell analysis. Boyle
and Spence (1984) developed a large deflection analysis procedure, based on
Reissner's finite deflection equations, for the rotationally-symmetric mixed

type bellows under axial loads and internal pressure, with a deviation from
circularity and uniform thickness given by a Fourier representation. Solution
of a nonlinear two point boundary value problem was based upon the direct
integration method and a nonlinear shooting technique. Finally, Singh (1988)
examined the accuracy and validity of application of the axisymmetric curved
thick shell isoparametric elements to the linear elastic analysis of type-U ex-
pansion bellows with arbitrary profile, subjected to axial load and internal
pressure. A comparison of numerical results with those from the Turner and
Ford experiments illustrates the accuracy of the technique applied. As far as
the elastic-plastic response of bellows is concerned the paper by Turner and
Ford (1957) is worth mentioning, where some loading/unloading experiments
within the elastic-plastic range are presented for type--S bellows. A number of
papers based on the Prandtl-Reuss model with material hardening taken into
account, widely used for the elastic-plastic analysis of plates and shells, was
published by Hamada and Tanaka (1971; 1972) as well as Tanaka (1972). The
paper by Hamada and Tanaka (1971) contains derivation of the basic differ-
ential equations for large deflections of elastic-plastic shells of revolution. The
kinematics is based on the same equations which were used in the nonlinear
theory of thin elastic shells by Reissner (1958). The incremental approach is
combined with the FDM and applied to type--U configurations. Fatigue tests
of bellows in the elastic-plastic range were carried out by Hamada and Take-
zono (1967a). The low cycle fatigue failure oftype--U bellows was examined by
Hamada and Tanaka (1974) by employing the large deflection elastic-plastic
analysis and the FDM. A comprehensive survey on computerised analysis
of toroidal shell structures was published by Skrzypek (1990). Among other
structures, like curved tubes and elbows, a wide variety of papers devoted to
strength of the axisymmetric bellows was mentioned and discussed. Finally,
elastic-plastic response of type-C bellows subjected to combined loads was
studied by Skoczen (1991; 1992) based on the Reissner type kinematics and
two point substitutive wall section.
Stability Issues
Each of the loading components, mentioned at the beginning of the para-

graph, may cause either an overall loss of stability (bifurcation buckling, snap-
through), depending on the global boundary conditions, or an effect of local
wall-instability, independent of the support conditions. High axial flexibility
of bellows implies the necessity of formulating the instability problems within
the domain of finite deflections and rotations theory. However, the first papers
devoted to this problem were based upon the linear approach. A particular
attention should be paid to the Haringx study (1952) of an surprising effect
of the bellows bifurcation buckling due to internal pressure. A bellows in-
stalled between two flat end-plates, subjected to pure internal pressure, may
buckle if the magnitude of pressure is sufficient. Although the critical value
of pressure was computed only for rectangularly shaped corrugations, the ef-
fect itself is valid for an arbitrary bellows configuration. Some problems of
bellows instability were discussed by Axelrad (1976) on the ground of small
displacements and small strains theory. In order to calculate the critical axial
force a simplified concept of equivalent column, based on the bending stiffness
(EI)eq obtained from the equations of the Meissner type, was introduced. The
buckling load for the equivalent column is described by the traditional Euler
formula:
(1.42)
where J-LsL stands for the reduced length of the column, which depends on
the support conditions. Buckling behaviour was also investigated by Sned-
den (1979) from the theoretical and experimental points of view. The type-U
configurations were analysed in order to obtain longitudinal and transverse
bellows flexibility. The calculations were carried out by using the FEM. In
order to investigate the bifurcation buckling of bellows it is convenient to
adopt the equivalent column method. A column characterised by the same
axial, bending and shear rigidities as the bellows constitutes the equivalent
structure. This concept was successfully applied to the problem of stability
of compressed helical springs by Kruzelecki and Zyczkowski (1990). A similar
strategy for calculation of the critical bifurcation buckling load for the corre-
sponding equivalent column in the presence of prebuckling nonlinearities has
been implemented by Skoczen and Skrzypek (1992). Large deflection analy-
sis ofaxisymmetric bending of bellows leads to the conclusion that certain
type of instability is also possible when the rotational symmetry of deforma-
tion is retained. The instability mode depends, among others, on the loading
configuration. Many references concerning the problem of instabilities of ar-
bitrary shells of revolution can be quoted. Let us mention here, for instance,
the paper by Bushnell (1984) where a computational strategy for calculation
of critical loads, based on the nonlinear prebuckling state has been devel-
oped. Taking into account the fact that the most often used bellows shapes
(S?, C, S, U) are composed of toroidal fragments, the review of papers is
restricted only to those where instability of toroidal shells subjected to loads
that cause the rotationally-symmetric deformation occurs. Buckling analysis
of toroidal shells of revolution subjected to external pressure, under the ad-
ditional assumption of membrane precritical state, was carried out by Sobel
and Flugge (1987), Jordan (1973), Fedosov (1971). Fedosov noticed that, even
in the case of rotationally asymmetric instability mode, the critical pressure
is approximately the same as for a simplified rotationally symmetric analysis.
However, the analysis based on the hypothesis of a membrane precritical state
considerably overestimates the critical loads. The semi-membrane theory was
developed by Axelrad (1979). Nonlinear theory was applied in many other pa-
pers. Worthy of mention are here the works of Bulygin (1973a; 1973b), Gay-
daychuk et al. (1978a; 1978b), Gulayev et al. (1982), Bielski and Skrzypek
(1982). Bielski (1985) discussed the influence of thickness imperfections on
the equilibrium paths and analysed two modes of instability of a torus, cor-
responding to deformation forms that are either symmetric or asymmetric
with respect to symmetry plane of the initial configuration. Symmetric insta-
bility modes of plastic toroidal shells and the postcritical deformations were
analysed by Skrzypek (1982), Skrzypek and Zyczkowski (1978) as well as by
Muc and Skrzypek (1982), Skrzypek and Muc (1988). Symmetric deforma-
tions of a plastic toroidal shell-arch with an open semicircular profile as well
as the limit point instability were analysed by Skrzypek and Skoczen (1988).
Stability of elastic toroidal shells with open profiles, subjected to external
pressure distributed over a portion of the profile, was investigated by Skoczen
(1991) for various types of boundary conditions. The analysis was based on
the geometrically nonlinear approach.
Adaptation and Inadaptation to Cyclic Loads
Fundamental adaptation (Melan 1938) and inadaptation (Koiter 1958) theo-

rems were derived under the assumption of small strains and small displace-
ments i.e. by means of linear, deformation independent equilibrium equations
and geometrical relations. It is obvious that this classical approach is not
adequate as far as large deflections (finite displacements and rotations) of
shell structures are concerned. In many cases theoretical predictions based
upon these standard tools may be poor in comparison with the experimental
results. One of the first to tackle this problem was Maier (1972; 1979) who
extended the classical shakedown theory to account for the "second order" ge-
ometrical effects. He formulated the shakedown criterion using the piecewise
linear yield conditions. Konig (1980; 1984) investigated the effects of geomet-
rical changes on the incremental collapse processes. He obtained a criterion
for the stable and unstable processes under certain assumptions concerning
the deformation modes. The analysis was also restricted to the "second or-
der" geometrical effects. Buckling of structures associated with the effects of
incremental collapse was analysed by Quoc Son (1984). The shakedown prob-
lems within the framework of geometrically nonlinear continuum mechanics
were discussed by Weichert (1986; 1988; 1987), Weichert and Gross-Weege
(1989). The extension of the Melan's theorem due to Weichert is valid for
such situations, where information about the expected deformation pattern is
available. The extended theorem was applied to shell like structures, undergo-
ing moderate rotations at small strains, by Weichert (1989). Gross-Weege in
his PhD Thesis (1988) deals with the theoretical and numerical investigation
of the shakedown behaviour of shells under variable mechanical and thermal
loadings. The influence of finite deflections has been taken into account. A
very simple model of a corrugated shell is also discussed by the author. The
majority of papers on the shakedown problems are restricted to the elastic-
perfectly plastic material behaviour. The finite element discretization was ap-
plied to discuss the shakedown behaviour of elastic-perfectly plastic sheets
under mechanical loads by Belytschko (1972), Corradi and Zavelani (1974),
Nguyen Pang Hung and Palgen (1979) and, more recently, Gross-Weege and
Weichert (1987). The extension of shakedown theorems to kinematic harden-
ing, i.e. a rigid translation of the initial yield surface in the course of plastic
deformations, started with the works of Melan (1938) and later Neal (1950).
Papers by K6nig (1971) and Maier (1972) were concerned with more gen-
eral models allowing for changes of shape of the yield surface. Ponter (1975)
discussed a general shakedown theorem in the case of work hardening model.
K6nig (1982; 1987) as well as K6nig and Siemaszko (1988) extended the static
and kinematic shakedown theorems to the case of general strain hardening
model. K6nig (1982) came to the conclusion that in the case of unlimited kine-
matic strain hardening the phenomenon of incremental collapse is impossible.
The inadaptation of the structure is caused by the alternating plasticity phe-
nomenon. The problem of generalisation of the adaptation and inadaptation
theorems has attracted much interest in past years. Let us now briefly discuss
the papers concerning the shakedown and failure due to inadaptation of shells
of revolution and bellows. Waszczyszyn and Pabisek (1980) as well as Pabisek
(1982) analysed the neutral and shakedown type domains for axisymmetric
shells subjected to cyclic thermal and pressure loads. The fatigue strength of
type-U bellows under variable repeated axial force in the elastic-plastic range
was studied by Hamada and Takezono (1967a). The formula for estimation
of the fatigue life of type-U bellows, based upon the experimental data, was
proposed by the authors. The low cycle fatigue failure of type-U bellows sub-
jected to completely reversed loading was also investigated by Hamada and
Tanaka (1974) on the ground of large deflections. The plastic strain range
under cyclic loading was calculated by using the finite difference technique
and the low cycle fatigue life was predicted by applying this strain range to
the Manson-Coffin equation. Cyclic hardening property of material due to
the alternation of external load was also discussed. Numerical examples were
compared with the results of the relevant experiments. Another fundamental
mode of inadaptation, incremental collapse (called also ratchetting), consists
in accumulation of plastic strains within the structure exposed to cyclic loads.
After a number of cycles the structure becomes unserviceable due to an in-
cremental failure mechanism. The ratchetting mechanism of bellows has also
its own history. First theoretical model of this phenomenon was based on
the mechanism specified for the pressurised cylinders. The failure of a pres-
surised cylinder subjected to cyclic thermal stresses was investigated by Miller
(1956), Bree (1966b; 1966a) and Burgreen (1968). The evaluation method of
plastic ratchetting was extended to creep range by O'Donnell and Porowski
(1975). The method was also extended to bellows ratchetting by Porowski
and O'Donnell (1978) and incorporated into the design code of the expansion
joints by American Society of Mechanical Engineers (1983). Yamashita (n.d.)
clarified that the ratchetting mechanism of bellows was entirely different from
that of a pressurised cylinder, used as the theoretical model of bellows by
Porowski and O'Donnell. A new evaluation method, based on a beam model,
was proposed by the authors. The validity of the method was proved by com-
paring the numerical analysis with experiments. Finally, Skoczen et al. (1992)
presented an extensive study on the shakedown and inadaptation mechanisms
of bellows subjected to constant pressure and cyclic axial force.
Failure Mechanisms (Limit analysis)
The simplest material model, refereing both to the elastic and plastic response,
is the elastic~perfectly plastic Prandtl model. The majority of results of the
shakedown theory were derived under the assumption of perfect plasticity. The
model is particulary useful as far as the fundamental plastic collapse mecha-
nisms due to inadaptation are concerned. Simplicity of the Prandtl model is
essential for such a complex matter as large deflection analysis of shells un-
der combined, cyclic loads. In the case of structures made of elastic~perfectly
plastic~materials usually two limit loads are distinguished: the Elastic Carry-
ing Capacity (ECC), corresponding to the onset of first plastic strains, and
the Load Carrying Capacity (LCe) , related to a mechanism of plastic col-
lapse. However, Szuwalski and Zyczkowski (1973) proved on the ground of
small strain theory that there existed another limit state, corresponding to
formation of a local normal displacement discontinuity, inadmissible from the
point of view of the continuous medium. The associated load parameters were
called the Decohesive Carrying Capacity (DCC). Within the framework of the
finite strain theory the situation slightly changes. This problem was studied
by Zyczkowski and Szuwalski (1982) as well as by Skrzypek and Zyczkowski
(1983), who came to conclusion that the termination of the solution was caused
by inadmissible stress field discontinuity or a strain derivative discontinuity.
The corresponding DCC was usually lower than for the small strain formula-
tion. The analysis of the DCC for shells (formation of the plastic hinges) is
usually complicated and needs an advanced numerical treatment. The DCC
interaction curves of an infinitely long cylindrical shell under radial forces
and axial load at infinity were investigated by Binh and Zyczkowski (1984).
The small strain theory was applied. Skrzypek and Hodge (1975) as well as
Skrzypek (1982) studied the rigid~perfectly plastic, sandwich toroidal shells
under the assumption of large plastic deformations. Discontinuities in both
the stress and the velocity fields were pointed out. Skrzypek (1979) discussed
also modes of termination of the processes of plastic deformation for the ge-
ometrically nonlinear, toroidal shells due to various loading trajectories. The
DCC interaction curves were determined. On the ground of the deformation
(Hencky~Ilyushin) theory as well as the incremental (Nadai~Davies) theory of
plasticity, Skrzypek and Zyczkowski (1983) analysed the incomplete toroidal
shells subjected to in~plane bending and internal or external pressure. The
results were compared for small and finite strains. Local kinematic disconti-
nuities were classified according to the following pattern:
• O-order discontinuity - infinitely large strains
• 1-order discontinuity - infinitely large material strain derivative
In addition, the two point sandwich approximation of the shell wall allows
to distinguish a partial or a complete kinematic discontinuity, due to occur-
rence of this effect in one layer or in both layers, respectively. Skrzypek and
Muc (1988) formulated the opinion that the formation of inadmissible kine-
matic discontinuities may be reached either within a developed plastic zone
or at a singular point. The first case is usually associated with formation of
a plastic hinge, whereas the second case corresponds to instantaneous deco-
hesion. In both cases the plastic strain localisation terminates the continuous
deformation process. The problem was further investigated and generalised
by Bielski and Skrzypek (1989). Due to this description the DCC may co-
incide with the ECC (no plastic zone). Plastic strain localisation may occur
in the elastic zone, independently of advanced yielding in other parts of the
shell. Finally, the concentration of plastic deformation may appear inside the
plastic zone (plastic hinge). The failure modes were analysed for thin-walled,
elastic-perfectly plastic toroidal shells on the basis of the finite displacements
and axisymmetric shell theory. Similar mechanisms were analysed by Skoczeri.
and Skrzypek (1995) with respect to the corrugated bellows. Here, again the
two point sandwich approximation of the shell wall has been implemented.
Optimum Design
There are many publications containing various approaches to optimisation

of shells of revolution, among them: Marcelin and Trompette (1988), Mehrez
and Rousselet (1989), Mota Soares et al. (1991), etc. In attempting to dis-
cuss the background of the shape optimisation of bellows, the present review
will be once again restricted to the toroidal shells. Some attempts at the op-
timisation of toroidal shells subjected to external pressure, with minimum
weight of the shell as objective function and constant bifurcation pressure
as a constraint, were presented by Gulayev et al. (1982). Optimum design
based on the geometrically nonlinear theory and the Pontriagin principle was
performed by Skrzypek and Bielski (1988). The authors formulated the op-
timisation problem with maximum value of the lower of critical pressures
as objective function and constant weight of the structure as the main con-
straint. Both the unimodal and the bimodal designs were discussed. A double
step parametrical optimisation under stability constraints of elastic toroidal
shells of open profiles was performed by Skoczeri. (1991). The procedure was
oriented towards the midsurface design and the design with respect to the
wall thickness. Constant distance between the supports and constant area
of the meridional cross-section were applied as the constraints, respectively.
A very simple design of the type-S bellows with respect to axial flexibility
was proposed by Calladine (1974). On the basis of shell theory and energy
methods Calladine noticed that for given values of the bellows mean radius,
the wall thickness and the convolution angle there was an optimum value of
the convolution radius, which maximised the flexibility factor. He found also
such a combination of the convolution angle and the toroidal shell parameter
that gives the highest flexibility of all type- S bellows. A reliability oriented
optimisation of corrugated bellows under geometrical, strength, stability and
fatigue constraints has been developed by Skoczen (2002).
1.3.2 Bellows Expansion Joints for Low Temperature Applications
One of the fundamental principles of the superconducting circular acceler-

ators is the principle of maximum of magnetic length. The ratio between
the length of arc with the presence of magnetic field and the accumulated
length of interconnections has to be maximised. This, in turn, leads to a
strong reduction of the space available for all the systems situated in the
interconnections (between the magnets) - in particular the thermal con-
traction compensation system (bellows expansion joints). The compensation
system has a fundamental function of providing the continuity between the
helium and the vacuum enclosures at all stages of operation of the accelera-
tor. In the past the requirements imposed on the compensation systems were
less stringent. The accelerators and their interconnections operated at ambi-
ent temperature. Therefore, a standard compensation between the beam line
portions was sufficient. The superconducting colliders require much more so-
phisticated compensation systems, that fulfil all the functions both at room
and at low temperatures. Additionally, the principle of maximum magnetic
length yields a strong demand to optimise all compensation elements situated
in the cryomagnet interconnections.
Fig. 1.23. Compensation system between two superconducting magnets (LHC ,

CERN).
The zones of interconnections in a modern superconducting accelerator of

particles (Fig. 1.23) are the zones where the deformation of the structure due
to thermo-mechanical cycles is localised. Indeed, the contraction of magnets
when cooling down and their expansion when warming up are entirely accom-
modated by the expansion joints. The highly optimised expansion joints dissi-
pate a considerable amount of plastic power over a single thermo-mechanical
cycle (Skoczen 2000). Therefore, their fatigue life stays usually between 500
and 5000 cycles to failure (low cycle fatigue). The accumulated plastic de-
formation induces two fundamental effects at low temperatures: evolution of
ductile damage and strain induced phase transformation, that can affect the
performance of the compensation system.
The compensation systems used for low temperature interconnections are
based on expansion joints of the same type as those applied at room and
at high temperatures (see Fig. 1.24a, b). The expansion joints work often
in extremely severe service conditions comprising temperature variations be-
tween ambient and operational conditions, high internal pressure, large cyclic
axial offset, and different types of misalignment offsets as well as irradiation.
They are supposed to compensate for mismatch of dimensional tolerances and
they should provide leak-tight transitions between the adjacent components
(magnets, pressure or vacuum vessels).
a)
b)
Fig. 1.24. a) type-U single bellows expansion joints with internal protection
b) type-U universal joints (double bellows) with internal protection.
Typical expansion joints applied at cryogenic temperatures are:

• Single type-U, multiply bellows and universal expansion joints (cryogenic
transfer lines, accelerator interconnections),
• Special very compact thin-walled expansion joints (nested bellows, edge
welded bellows for vacuum applications),
All of them are made of materials easy to form plastically and showing high
level ductility under cryogenic conditions (mainly stainless steels). Usually,
they can accumulate a large plastic deformation (due to low cycle fatigue and
ratchetting) before the process of macro-crack propagation starts.
Standard Expansion Joints for Interconnections between Helium

Enclosures
Active part of the standard expansion joints is the corrugated axisymmetric

membrane having usually a type-U profile of convolutions. These thin-walled
shells are manufactured out of seamless or longitudinally welded cylinders,
sometimes heat treated in order to make the process of mechanical forming
sufficiently easy. The expansion joints designed for high internal or exter-
nal pressure applications are wmally manufactured as multiply shells. Such a
structure is characterised by a low axial stiffness and, at the same time, by a
high pressure capacity of the bellows. One of the main problems when forming
multiply bellows is the interlayer friction and possible damage of the surfaces
staying in contact.
Single bellows (Fig. 1.24a) are used as compensation elements in the in-
terconnections between the magnets where alignment movements are small.
The transverse offset of these units is rather limited. On the other hand, the
universal joints (Fig. 1.24b) are applied in the peripheral lines, where consid-
erable transverse movements are required. Universal joints (2 single bellows
linked by an intermediate tube), offering less stiffness with respect to lateral
movements, are simultaneously less stable under inner pressure and require
special methods to predict the buckling behaviour.
One of the most important parameters contributing to stability of inter-
connections is the axial stiffness of expansion joints. The axial stiffness is
defined either as the elastic tangent stiffness measured when unloading the
shell:
Ft = dF (1.43)
ax dx'
or as the elasto-plastic secant stiffness:
(1.44)
both are based on the hysteresis curves for the locally plastified convolutions.
Here F, x denote the axial force and the corresponding displacement, respec-
tively. The axial stiffness turns out to be a parameter highly dependent on the
geometry and material properties. For instance, it depends on the thickness

of bellows convolutions, as shown in Fig. 1.25.
Displacement [mm)
~ . .~+---~---+--~
1.5
-4000 Force [N)
Fig. 1.25. Hysteresis loops computed for thin and moderately thick expansion
bellows: (mean radius to thickness ratio of 105.5 and 63.5, respectively).
Typical hysteresis loops for an expansion joint with type- U convolutions,

corresponding to three temperature levels: 293 K (room temperature), 77 K
(liquid nitrogen) and 4 K (liquid helium), are shown in Fig. 1.26. Due to
evolution of the material properties, the hysteresis loops at low temperatures
show much smaller amount of plastic deformation than at room temperature.
Thus, the total amount of plastic power dissipated in the convolutions when
closing a complete loop turns out to be smaller. This leads to increase of fatigue
life at cryogenic temperatures, which is a direct consequence of decrease of
the energy dissipated over a stabilised cycle.
3000
2000
1000 Displacement [mm)
1.5
-4000
-5000 77K
Force [N)
-6000 4K
Fig. 1.26. Hysteresis loops of expansion joint computed for three temperature levels
(room and cryogenic temperatures) .
The bellows axial stiffness, as determined by the Expansion Joint Manufac-

turers Association (EJMA, 1995), can be expressed by the following formula:
Fax = ~f (ETDm (:r (::)) , (1.45)
where ET denotes the modulus of elasticity at the temperature T, Dm stands

for the bellows mean diameter, tpjw is the thickness of ply to convolution
depth ratio, npjnc is the number of plies to number of convolutions ratio and
J-l, C f are the correction factors. Thus, the elastic axial stiffness is directly
proportional to the modulus of elasticity at a given temperature. Evolution
of the axial stiffness as a function of temperature for expansion joints made
of 316L stainless steel is shown in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3. Evolution of the bellows elastic axial stiffness with temperature.
Temperature Modulus of Bellows elastic
elasticity axial stiffness
[K] ET F!x/T
293 E 293 F!x/293
77 E77 3:' 1.08E293 F!x/77 = l.08F!x/293
4 E4 3:' 1.08E293 F!x/4 = l.08F!x/293
Both at the temperature of liquid helium (4 K) and at the temperature of

liquid nitrogen (77 K) the elastic axial stiffness is approximately 8% higher
than at room temperature. Hence, the expansion joint turns out to be stiffer.
The elastic-plastic axial stiffness is a function of the total axial offset
imposed on the expansion joint. Generally, larger offset leads to higher amount
of plastic strains in the bellows convolutions and, consequently, to smaller
secant stiffness. This parameter can be measured between the points of return
on the stabilised hysteresis loops for a given temperature. In the equation for
the bellows axial stiffness Eq. (1.45) the correction factor J-l can be expressed
as:
(1.46)
since it is a function of the plastic strain range on a stabilised cycle and the
temperature. Evolution of the elastic-plastic axial stiffness of an expansion
joint subjected to the same axial offset at room and at cryogenic temperatures
is presented in Fig. 1.27. The accumulation of plastic strains due to ratchetting
or development of ductile damage (micro-cracks and micro-voids) may lead
to further evolution of the axial stiffness with the increasing number of cycles.
This may cause either increase of bellows stiffness, for instance due to cycle
to cycle evolution of profile of convolutions, or to decrease of stiffness due to
degradation of the material properties.
2600
2400
E
E
Z
Q) 2200
'§
co
·x 2000
ca
u
~
ca
0..
I
1800
.8
CJl
ca
W 1600
1400
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Temperature [K]
Fig. 1.27. Elastic-plastic axial stiffness versus temperature for a typical cryogenic
bellows expansion joint.
Non-Standard Expansion Joints for Cryogenic Vacuum Systems
The particle beams circulate in the channels connected by means of very thin,
corrugated shells (typical thickness of 0.15 mm) which separate ultra-high
beam vacuum from the insulation vacuum. Under normal operating conditions
there is no differential pressure between the inside and the outside of the
beam lines. Therefore, the design of the relevant compensation units can be
particularly "light". Exceptionally, in case the beam or the insulation vacuum
is broken, the bellows can be subjected to inner or outer atmospheric pressure.
Since the beam vacuum interconnections stay in permanent thermal contact
with the helium enclosure (magnets) their operational temperature is usually
equal to the temperature of the magnets. Thus, all the problems associated
with operation of thin shells at low temperatures remain valid.
The requirement of limited axial space available for installation of inter-
connections leads to a very compact design of the expansion joints. Among
special and compact compensation units, two types are most often applied:
• edge-welded bellows
• nested bellows
A modern alternative for the edge welded bellows are nested bellows, sin-
gle ply thin-walled corrugated shells, having a specific "nested" profile of
convolutions (Fig. 1.28). This very compact design leads to an exceptional
ratio 1:1 between the compensation capacity and the length of bellows. On
the other hand, the fatigue life of these compact units is usually low since the
bellows operate in the domain of low cycle fatigue (1000 --;- 5000 cycles to fail-
ure). Also, the nested bellows are very sensitive with respect to imperfections
(geometrical, material) both from the point of view of fatigue and stability
(buckling) .
Fig. 1.28. Beam vacuum interconnect ~ compact nested bellows on the left (LHC,
CERN).
Since the compensation elements for particle accelerators remain in the

direct proximity of particle beams it is of primary importance to reduce their
magnetic permeability as much as possible in order to avoid creation of peri-
odic beam perturbation fields. Typical initial value of magnetic permeability
for stainless steel is 1.005. However, the magnetic permeability can drastically
increase as a result of the plastic strain induced martensitic transformation
at cryogenic temperatures. Therefore, it is crucial to choose for the beam vac-
uum interconnections the materials showing an exceptional stability at low
temperatures. This particular problem is treated in the next chapters since
increase in magnetic permeability of the beam vacuum bellows beyond a pre-
defined value constitutes also a failure mode. Such a failure , specific to the
material applied for bellows convolutions, can be classified as material fail-
ure (contrary to the structural failure modes like fatigue failure or bellows
instability). Similar considerations are valid for the cryogenic transfer lines,
superconducting links and other low temperature equipment containing the
expansion bellows.
1.4 Materials Applied at Low Temperatures
There is a large variety of materials suitable for applications at low tem-

peratures: from austenitic stainless steels to the fibre--epoxy composites. The
choice of material for a given application depends on a number of required
features and parameters like:
• yield and ultimate strength at room and at low temperatures (0-6.2' o-;lt) ,
• moduli of elasticity (ET, GT) at room and at low temperatures,
• strain-to-rupture (c~lt) and impact strength at room and at low temper-
atures,
• weldability or possibility of joining by other methods (gluing, brazing,
soldering) ,
• thermal properties like: conductivity, surface emissivity,
• physical properties like: magnetic permeability, out gassing rate,
• cost of fabrication and accessibility on the market.
The materials used in the construction of the cryogenic equipment may
be classified in two groups: metallic and non-metallic ones. Representation of
both groups is presented in Tables 1.4 and 1.5.
Table 1.4. Examples of metallic materials for cryogenic equipment.
Description Grade Application

Tubes, cylinders, braiding wires
304, 304L
(metal hoses)
thin-walled shells (bellows expo
Austenitic
316L joints, corrugated tubes),
stainless steels
sheets, piping
Massive parts, high strength
316LN
expansion loops, vacuum barriers
Carbon steels Cryostats, vacuum vessels
Series 1000 and 3000 Thermal shields
Aluminium alloys Extrusions and piping,
Series 5000 and 6000
aluminium/st. steel transitions
Heat exchangers, heat transfer
Copper and
OFHC applications, bus bars,
copper alloys
thermalisation straps
Ti-6AI-4V Supports and high strength
Titanium
Ti-5AI-2.5Sn components
Special alloys Hastelloy Dewar components
Invar Low shrinkage components, tubes
1.4 Materials Applied at Low Temperatures 39
Table 1.5. Examples of non-metallic materials for cryogenic equipment.
Description Grade Application

Glass fibre/epoxy: Fixed and sliding supports, spacers,
Composites G10, Gll etc. cold feet, vacuum barriers
Carbon-carbon Small spacers
Peek polyetheretherketone Spacers
Kevlar Filament winding
Mylar Super-insulation
Kapton Insulating strips
polyetherimide resins filling resins, glues
Resins
epoxy resins filling resins, glues
The most often used construction materials for cryogenic applications re-
main austenitic stainless steels. These stable and weldable materials for use
at very low temperatures (close to absolute zero) preserve their ductility at
cold. Also, their mechanical properties at cold are usually better than at room
temperature. The most often used grades are 304, 304L, 316L and 316LN. The
components of cryogenic equipment that are not subjected to intensive plas-
tic yielding (massive components, supports etc.) are usually made of stainless
steel, type 304 or 304L. If higher strength is required the grade 316LN can
be used. On the other hand, the components where intensive plastic yielding
may occur (expansion joints, cooling loops etc.) shall be made of stainless
steel type 316L that shows a very good structural stability at low temper-
atures. The grade 316L shows no spontaneous martensitic transformation.
However, the E- and a'-martensite may be induced by plastic deformation at
low temperatures. The martensitic transformation alters local stress distribu-
tion by introducing local inhomogeneities. It may result in reduction of the
fatigue life of components. This phenomenon is of particular importance for
the bellows expansion joints developing strong local plastic strain fields in the
convolutions. Typical mechanical properties of stainless steels (grades 304L
and 316L) at room and at cryogenic temperatures (Suzuki et al. 1988) are
shown in Tables 1.6 and 1.7.
The most often used non-metallic materials in cryogenic conditions are
fibre-epoxy composites. The main advantage of the composites is their small
thermal conductivity. Therefore, they are particularly suitable for spacers and
fixed/sliding supports of cryogenic transfer lines (supplying helium to the
superconducting magnets) inside the vacuum jackets. Mechanical properties
of the composites depend very much on two principal components: matrix
(epoxy resin) and the fibres (glass or kevlar fibres etc.). A variety of fibres
can be selected as a function of the required mechanical properties. Direction
of fibres in the multi-layer composites can be optimised to reach the required
tensile strength and fatigue properties. The glass fibre reinforced composites
are suitable also for some vacuum applications. Typical mechanical properties
of G-lO and G-ll composites at room and at cryogenic temperatures are
shown in Table 1.8.
Table 1.6. Mechanical properties of grade 304L stainless steel.
Temperature Young's Yield Tensile Elongation

modulus strength strength
[K] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [%]
300 191000 225 588 65
77 206000 353 1470 45
4 206000 421 1705 34
Table 1.7. Mechanical properties of grade 316L stainless steel.
Temperature Young's Yield Tensile Elongation

modulus strength strength
[K] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [%]
300 191000 216 529 65
77 206000 314 1235 49
4 206000 431 1441 48
Table 1.8. Example of mechanical properties of G-10 and G-ll composites.
Temperature Modulus of Tensile Compressive Ultimate

elasticity strength strength tensile strain
[K] [GPa] [MPa] [MPa] [%]
300 22-;.-35 260-;.-460 280-;.-460 1.5-;.-1.8
77 27-;.-37 460-;.-830 560-;.-840 2.5-;.-3.5
4 29-;.-39 500-;.-870 600-;.-860 2.7 -;.-3.7
2
Thermodynamics of Processes Occurring in
Metals at Low Temperatures
The processes occurring in metals at very low temperatures are strictly re-
lated to their physical and mechanical properties, to the type of lattice and
its imperfections as well as to the mechanisms of heat transport. The basic
mechanism of inelastic deformations remains the same and is based on the
motion of dislocations. However, as the Peierls-Nabarro potential increases at
low temperature, the dislocations are less mobile. Thus, the same load applied
at the temperatures close to 0 K will produce much less inelastic deformation
than at room temperature. Nevertheless, when approaching the absolute zero
several parameters like the thermal conductivity and the thermal contraction
coefficient or state functions like the specific heat at constant volume and the
entropy also tend to zero. This phenomenon yields a thermodynamic insta-
bility at very low temperatures and has a fundamental importance for the
existence and triggering of special mechanisms of inelastic deformation like
the shear bands. When analysing the response of thin-walled structures at
low temperatures all these phenomena have to be taken into account.
2.1 Types of Metallic Lattice and its Imperfections
Generally, the matter exists at low temperatures in similar states as at room

temperature with the exception of superfluid state of helium. For what con-
cerns pure metals and alloys the same types of lattice are identified at low
temperatures, however, a transition from one type to another may occur due
to the process of cooling. The main feature of lattice is the translation sym-
metry that reflects the periodic nature of crystals. For each periodic lattice
three basic vectors are defined:
ai, i = 1,3 (2.1)
Translation of the lattice in one of three directions does not change its
structure and corresponds to identity mapping. The simplest definition of
42 2 Thermodynamics of Processes Occurring in Metals at Low Temperatures
the translation vectors is based on the distance between the closest nodes of
lattice. However, translation by a vector mQi also maps the lattice onto itself,
provided that m is an integer. General translation vector can be expressed in
the following manner:
3
-v = """
L....t m,a·
"-1,' (2.2)
i=l
where mi are integer numbers. Three basic vectors Qi and three angles (0:, (3, ')')
define the basic cell of the lattice (Fig. 2.1).
x
Fig. 2.1. The basic cell of the lattice (f!:.i,a,(3,,).
All the atoms in the lattice that satisfy the conditions of identity mapping
under translation by the vector V constitute the so-called Bravais lattice. The
Bravais lattice has been classified into seven crystallographic configurations,
presented in Table 2.1. Each configuration can be illustrated by a geomet-
rical object (a parallelepiped or a prism) constructed on the closest nodes
in the Bravais lattice. It reflects all the principal symmetries of the lattice.
Within each crystallographic configuration there exist four types of lattice:
Simple (P), Body Centred (I), Base Centred (C), Face Centred (F). In gen-
eral 14 Bravais types of lattice were distinguished. Several examples of the
simplest types of lattice are shown in Fig. 2.2. Nearly all the metals can be
classified either to the cubic, tetragonal or to the hexagonal lattice configu-
rations. In the family of cubic lattice configurations the most often identified
types are Body Centred Cubic (BCC) and Face Centred Cubic (FCC) lattices.
The simple cubic type oflattice (denoted AO) is very rare and doesn't appear
in the metals used in the technical applications. The FCC lattice (Fig. 2.2b)
carries the symbol Al and is characterised by the atoms located in the corners
and in the middle of each wall. Since each atom located in the corner belongs
Table 2.1. Configurations and types of lattice.
Symbol
Lattice configuration Bravais' type of lattice
P I C F
Cubic Simple +
Body Centred Cubic +
Face Centred Cubic +
Tetragonal Simple +
Body Centred +
Orthorhombic Simple +
Body Centred +
Base Centred +
Face Centred +
Hexagonal Simple +
Rhombohedral Simple +
Monoclinic Simple +
Base Centred +
Triclinic Simple +
a) Simple Cubic (SC) b) Face Centred Cubic (FCC)
c) Body Centred Cubic (BCC) d) Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP)
Fig. 2.2. Examples of the simplest types of lattice.

to 8 different cells and each atom situated in the middle of the wall belongs
to 2 cells, 4 atoms have to be counted per cell. In the case of the BCC basic
cell (Fig. 2.2c), which carries the symbol A2, the atoms are located in the cell
corners and one atom is situated in the middle of the cell. Here, only 2 atoms
are counted per cell. The metals having cubic configuration of the lattice
are listed in Table 2.2. Another popular lattice is based on the hexagonal
configuration. Hexagonal simple cell (Fig. 2.2d) is denoted by A3. Here also 2
atoms are counted per cell. Typical examples of the hexagonal close-packed
lattice are Be, Mg or Tin.
The lattice of real metals contains different types of imperfections. The
simplest imperfections are the so-called point defects that comprise: missing
atoms, internodal atoms, atoms of admixed materials and combined defects.
The missing atoms, called vacancies, are the empty nodes in the lattice. A
missing atom causes an imperfection of the lattice that consists in the dis-
placement of the neighbouring atoms towards the missing node. Thus, locally
the lattice density decreases and a field of tensile stress appears. Such defects
occur relatively frequently and their concentration is a function of tempera-
ture.
Generally, with decreasing temperature the concentration of vacancies
significantly reduces. The internodal (interstitial) atoms result from moving
nodal atoms into the nodal interstices. This local effect is usually related to
the inelastic deformation. However, it can also be related to the phonon mech-
anism (elastic waves in the lattice) or to the interaction of lattice (target) with
a beam of high energy particles. Lattice imperfection resulting from the pres-
ence of an additional atom in the space between the nodes generates a local
field of compressive stress. Interaction between a vacancy and an interstitial
atom may lead to annihilation of both effects since such configuration will
satisfy the principle of minimum potential energy of lattice. Such annihila-
tion process is accompanied by production of heat. The imperfections related
to admixed atoms correspond to two possible mechanisms: an admixed atom
replaces a lattice atom in its nodal position or is located in the nodal inter-
stices. In the first case the sign of the local stress field depends on the size of
the "new" atom when compared to the lattice atoms. Larger admixed atoms
induce the compressive stress, whereas the smaller ones generate the tensile
stress field. The stress field is accompanied by a considerable local distortion
of the lattice. In the case of penetration of the admixed atom into the nodal
interstice, usually a compressive state of stress is generated since the admixed
atoms are larger than the available space. All the point lattice defects can mi-
grate. The defects that generate the heteropolar stress fields attract, whereas
the defects that generate the unipolar stress fields repulse each other. The lat-
tice point imperfections do not contribute directly to the mechanism of plastic
deformation, however they can be at the origin of barriers and obstacles for
the motion of linear lattice defects called dislocations.
The dislocations play in the theory of plasticity a similar role like the
Fermi gas in the metals. They are the carriers of plastic deformations (plastic
2.1 Types of Metallic Lattice and its Imperfections 45
Table 2.2. Crystallographic configurations and slip planes in common metals.

Configuration and type of Element Examples of slip planes
lattice
Simple cubic (AO) Po
Face Centred Cuhic (AI) Ag, AI, Au, Cu, CO;3,
Fe", Ir, Ni, Pb, Pd, Pt
z
L ---~::----/!
': ~~~'
.:--- y
x
V """"
V
Slip plane: (111)
Body Centred Cubic (A2) Cr, Fe"" Mo, Nb, W

z
/ \:"" /
-'\: --.'~"'"
""" --::" "<'~ y
/ ""'\V
x
Slip plane: (011)
Fe"" Mo, Na, Ta, W

z
/J ,'---
, ""
/
~
V--- """,,':,' V : y
--
Slip plane: (112)
Cr, Fe"" K
z
// ':':,""'" /
:
~
y
x
/ -"-<\ j/
Slip plane: (123)
flow) and under the external loads they diffuse in the lattice. Generally, the
linear defects of lattice (dislocations) can be subdivided into two families:
edge and spiral dislocations. The simplest model of dislocation consists of an
additional half-plane inserted into the lattice, as shown in Fig. 2.3. Here, the
edge dislocation is denoted by the symbol .L
....
m
1
._._.J..._.
I
Fig. 2.3. Half-plane inserted into the lattice - edge dislocation.
Such dislocation induces a lattice imperfection, which consists in displac-

ing the neighbouring atoms by the so-called Burgers vector (Q) to the left
and to the right with respect to the new half-plane (see Burgers 1939). Single
edge dislocation remains local and the perturbation of lattice is of the order
of several lattice cells. The cells that contain additional atoms in direct prox-
imity of the dislocation axis (symbol ..l) constitute the nucleus of dislocation.
As a result of local increase of density of atomic planes (on one side of the
dislocation edge) each dislocation is accompanied by the relevant stress field.
If, in addition, a shear stress T is applied to the lattice in the direction parallel
to the m - n plane a motion of dislocation in the m - n plane is possible.
As a result of such process the dislocation may move down the lattice and
appear on the surface of the material in the form of a "step". The motion of
dislocation leading to the permanent displacement of a portion of lattice by
multiple of the Burgers vector is considered the main mechanism of plastic
deformation. Obviously, the macroscopic plastic deformations result from dif-
fusion in the lattice of the whole dislocation fields, often in the form of the
slip bands. Another type of linear lattice defect is called a spiral dislocation.
Here, a portion of the lattice moves in the direction parallel to the axis of
dislocation by the Burgers vector. The nodes of the lattice cells form a spiral
line centred on the axis of dislocation 0, as shown in Fig. 2.4.
The spiral dislocations can be either right-hand or left-hand as a func-
tion of orientation of the displacement vector. Dislocation shown in Fig. 2.4
2.2 Heat Transport in Metals at Low Temperatures 47
Fig. 2.4. Spiral dislocation in the lattice.
represents the right-hand orientation. If the axis of dislocation is neither per-

pendicular (Fig. 2.3) nor parallel (Fig. 2.4) to the Burgers vector then the
dislocation is of the mixed type. The dislocations can form in the lattice com-
plex trajectories, closed loops and networks composed of different types of
linear imperfections. However, in all the cases the dislocation systems reach
the surface of the lattice.
2.2 Heat Transport in Metals at Low Temperatures

The stationary vibrations of lattice (oscillations of atoms in the nodal posi-
tions) can be expressed by the following function (cf. Kosevich 1981):
wen, t) = w(k) exp [i (kr(n) - wt)] , (2.3)
where w(k) denotes the amplitude, n is the identification vector for a given
node, r: is the node position vector and k is the wave vector. Here the assump-
tion is made that the oscillations of atoms around their equilibrium are small
and that the current position of nucleus represents the centre of gravity of the
atom (electrons follow the motion of nuclei). The potential energy of lattice,
reduced to two first terms of the series representation, reads:
W = Wo + ~ L Qik(n - m)1Qi (11)l!l (m) (2.4)

!b.!!!:
or in matrix convention:
+ "2 L
1
W = Wo {A(n- m)}1Q(n)1Q(m) , (2.5)
'!.!.,!.!l
where Wo is a constant term, {A(n - m)} is a matrix of size 3 x 3 and n, m

represent all the nodes in the lattice. Since the equation of motion for the
atoms of mass M in the lattice is given in the following form:
(2.6)
by inserting the potential energy one obtains:
d 2 w(n) '" (2.7)

M dt 2- = - ~ {A(n- m)}w(m).
!I!
Given the usual solution for the stationary vibrations in the form exp( -iwt)
the equation of motion takes the form:
Mw 2 w - L {A(n - m)} w exp [ikr:(n - m)] = 0, (2.8)
and represents the system of linear equations for the amplitude w. The above
equation can be further simplified:
(2.9)
and leads to the obvious condition for the eigenvalues:
(2.10)
Thus, the stationary elastic vibrations with the natural frequencies given by
the above equation constitute the natural state of the lattice. Solution of the
eigenvalue problem makes it possible to determine the dispersion law:
w = w(k) , (2.11)
that constitutes relation between the natural frequencies andthe wave vector.
Assuming that the stationary vibrations of the lattice are harmonic it can be
easily shown (cf. Kosevich 1981) that, due to the translational symmetry of
lattice, the oscillations of the node n are fully determined by the motion of a
reference node Q:
w(n) = w(Q) exp [ikr:(n)] , (2.12)
In the case of a simple ID model and under the assumption of:
ak« 1, (2.13)
a simple linear dispersion law holds:

W = wsk, (2.14)
where Ws denotes the phase speed of sound. This linear dispersion law de-
scribes the acoustic vibrations of the lattice with the wavelength >.. much
exceeding the distance between the atoms a. The model of long wave oscilla-
tions, extended to all values of k and with the frequencies limited by W max ,
corresponds to the Debye linear approach.
A quantum of elastic vibrations of lattice is called a phonon. In principle,
the elastic waves in the lattice are composed of phonons. Moreover, the heat
induced vibrations of lattice are also composed of phonons. The energy of
lattice (sum of energy of all the "harmonic oscillators") is given by:
E = L (~ + NIs.) 11w(!s.) , (2.15)

Is.
where NIs. denotes the sequence of quantum numbers, each representing the
number of excited phonons that correspond to a given wave vector !s.. For
NIs. = 0 one obtains the so-called zero vibrations of lattice, which corresponds
to the basic state of the lattice:
(2.16)
Thus, the energy of lattice can be expressed as a sum of two terms: the energy
of zero vibrations and the energy of the phonon "gas":
E = Eo + LNIs.11w(!s.) , (2.17)
Is.
where each phonon is characterised by its quasi-momentum:
(2.18)
The main mechanism of heat transport at very low temperatures (close

to 0 K) is mainly based on the diffusion of phonon gas (cf. KitteI1996). The
average free path of a phonon is determined by the mechanism of collisions
either with the lattice imperfections or with the other phonons. The heat
diffusion process has to satisfy the thermodynamic equilibrium at any tem-
perature and in any portion of the lattice. The elastic collisions of phonons
with the lattice imperfections do not change their overall energy. The process
of phonon collisions, denoted by "N":
(2.19)
also does not change the overall momentum of the phonon gas. The thermal
resistance is generated by the three-phonon processes in which the wave vector
is not conserved:
(2.20)
where 9 is the vector of the inverse lattice. Such process is called "umklapp"
and denoted by "U". The U-type processes prevail at enhanced temperatures
and the thermal resistance is roughly proportional to the temperature T. On
the other hand, at the temperatures close to 0 K the majority of the phonon
interactions are of N-type, with the following condition:
(2.21 )
and the total momentum change:
(2.22)
Thus, the thermal resistance is considerably reduced and the free path of
phonons is determined rather as a function of the size of sample (wall to wall
distance) or by the distance between the lattice imperfections. A simplified
model of weakly interacting phonons can be illustrated by a laminar flow of
gas inside a long tube without friction.
It is assumed that the reference temperature, characteristic of the lattice,
is the temperature Debye defined as:
8 = liwmax , (2.23)
where Wmax is the maximum frequency of acoustic phonons. N-type phonon

interactions occur for:
T«8. (2.24)
The energy of lattice at low temperatures can be computed as follows:
f
W max
E= 7jJ(w}v(w}liwdw, (2.25)
o
where 7jJ(w} denotes the statistical distribution function and v(w} is the
phonon density of states function. Given the assumption concerning the linear
dispersion law one obtains:
Vw 2
v(w} = - 223' (2.26)
7r Ws
where V is the volume of lattice. The distribution function obeys the Bose-
Einstein statistics:
(2.27)
Thus, one obtains internal energy in terms of density of phonon gas:
(2.28)
For very low temperatures the integration can be extended to infinity:
Eph
v ( fiwT)3
= 2rr2 s T
/00 X3
eX _ 1 dw . (2.29)
o
Since for the Debye temperature it can be shown that:
e '" fiws (2.30)

a '
the internal energy takes the following form:
(2.31)
where N denotes the number of atoms in the lattice. Having the internal
energy of lattice associated with phonon excitations one can easily derive the
specific heat under constant volume:
(2.32)
It becomes obvious that the specific heat is a nonlinear function of normalised

temperature and tends to 0 when the temperature T approaches the absolute
zero. Specific heat under constant volume (strain) as a function of temperature
normalised to Debye reference value is shown in Fig. 2.5.
The thermal conductivity kT in the lattice at low temperatures is defined
(for ID model) as:
. oT (2.33)
q = -kT ox'
where q denotes the heat flux. Based on the kinetic theory of perfect gas the
thermal conductivity can be written in the form
k _ Gvvl
T - -3- , (2.34)
where v denotes the average velocity of gas particles and l is the average
free path between the interactions. A similar reasoning can be applied to the
phonon gas interactions in the lattice. As the N-type processes prevail at very
low temperatures it is clear that the free path of phonons between interactions
is of the order of the size of sample or of the order of the distance between
the lattice imperfections. In both cases the free path of phonons does not
depend on the temperature. The velocity of acoustic phonons is also constant
and equal to the speed of sound in the lattice. Thus, the only function in the
formula for thermal conductivity that depends on temperature is the specific
heat. This leads to the following conclusion:
Cy= a~h(T) I
25.0 aT v_-------
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0
Fig. 2.5. Specific heat under constant volume (strain) as a function of temperature.
(2.35)
where Vs denotes the speed of sound and L is the size of sample. Thus, the
thermal conductivity is again a nonlinear function of temperature and tends
to 0 when the temperature approaches the absolute zero. As an example,
thermal conductivity as a function of temperature for the stainless steel 316L
is shown in Fig. 2.6.
Similar analysis is carried out for the thermal expansion/contraction of
metals at low temperatures. The linear thermal expansion/contraction coeffi-
cient is defined as:
a= ~ (=~)p (2.36)
The linear expansion coefficient can be a function of direction in the

anisotropic solids. On the other hand, for the isotropic solids it is assumed
that the linear expansion coefficient is one third of the so--called volume ex-
pansivity:
(3 = ~
V
(DV)
DT p
(2.37)
It can be easily shown that the difference between the specific heat at
constant pressure and the specific heat at constant volume is a function of the
volume expansivity:
2.3 Thermodynamic Instabilities at the Temperatures Close to Absolute Zero 53
16.0 kT [W/m K]
12.0
8.0
Stainless steel 316L
4.0
T[K]
0.0
o 100 200 300
Fig. 2.6. Thermal conductivity as a function of temperature for 316L stainless steel.
TvrJ2
LlC = Cp - Cv =- -, If,
(2.38)
where If, is the isothermal compressibility. As the LlC vanishes with the tem-
perature approaching the absolute zero, both the volume expansivity and the
linear expansion coefficient tend to O. Moreover, both coefficients a, f3 ap-
proach the temperature 0 K with zero slopes:
aal
aT T=O K -
-0
,
af31
aT T=O K
= 0
.
(2.39)
2.3 Thermodynamic Instabilities at the Temperatures

Close to Absolute Zero
The thermodynamic state of lattice at very low temperatures is determined

mainly by the state of the phonon gas. As the acoustic phonons represent the
wave length much larger than the distance between the atoms:
A» a, (2.40)
it is possible to pass from the mechanics of lattice to the mechanics of contin-

uum, where the thermodynamic state is described by the Helmholtz potential
and the relevant state functions. Assuming the thermo-elastic behaviour of
continuum (cf. Nowacki 1972) the Helmholtz free energy is expressed as:
IfF = U - ST, (2.41)
where U denotes the internal energy of continuum and S is the entropy. Here
the internal energy is a function of the state of stress and strain, so that:
(2.42)
Since dlfF is the total differential, one obtains:
(~~)T d~+ (:)g dT=gd~-SdT, (2.43)
which leads to the following relations:

olfF S =_olfF
a=-' (2.44)
= o£' aT'
The Helmholtz free energy can be developed into Taylor series in the vicinity
of the zero state (where ~ = ~ and T = To):
1 X (LlT)2
IfF (£,T)
-
= -E££ - (3£L1T -
2_ -- =- 2
+ ... (2.45)
where E is the elastic stiffness tensor and:
(2.46)
For the isotropic and homogenous solid the above equations reduce to:
(2.47)
where /L, A are the Lame constants and:
'Y = (3)' + 2/L) 0: = 3Ko:. (2.48)
The Helmholtz free energy can be reduced to even more simple form:
(2.49)
expressed as a function of the strain fields and the temperature difference.

Now the entropy takes the following form:
olfF oR
S = - aT = 'Ytr~ - aT ' (2.50)
and its differential is equal to:

2.3 Thermodynamic Instabilities at the Temperatures Close to Absolute Zero 55
[PR
dS = I'd(tr~) - 8T2 dT. (2.51)
Since the specific heat under constant strain is related directly to entropy:
8S) 82R
Cc = ( 8T c T = - 8T2 T , (2.52)
by integrating this equation one obtains:
_ 8R = C In (1
8T c
+ L1T)
To
= C [L1T -
C To
~2 (L1T)2
To
+ ...]
'
(2.53)
Keeping exclusively the first term of Taylor series and combining it with the
expression for entropy one obtains:
(2.54)
or in a more developed form:

L1T
S = 3Katr[ + Cc--;:;:;- , (2.55)
- .La
Assuming that the reference temperature To i- 0 and the current temperature
T -+ 0 both the thermal expansion coefficient and the specific heat under
constant strain (volume) tend to 0:
a -+ 0, (2.56)
Thus, the entropy also tends to 0, no matter what the elastic strain field or
thc tcmperature difference might be. This conclusion reflects the third law of
thermodynamics that sets the entropy at absolute zero to be identically O.
The fact that the state functions tend to 0 when the temperature ap-
proaches the absolute zero leads to the phenomenon of thermodynamic insta-
bility. The heat increment i8 related to temperature by the following equation:
dQ = mCvdT, (2.57)
where m is the mass of the sample. By transforming this equation to the form:
dT 1
(2.58)
dQ mCv '
and knowing that Cv -+ 0 when T -+ 0 one obtains:
dT
dQ -+ 00, (2.59)
which means that close to the absolute zero an arbitrary small dissipation of
energy in the lattice will produce a significant increase of temperature. Such
energy dissipation can be induced by the plastic deformation (motion of dis-
locations in the lattice) accompanied by the plastic work, partially converted
into heat.
2.4 Mechanism of Inelastic Deformations in Ductile

Metals at Low Temperatures
The mechanisms that govern plastic deformations at low temperatures are

similar to the mechanisms observed at room temperature. Here, the plastic
strain is understood as such a process of lattice deformation that remains,
at least partially, after disappearance of its cause. The dislocations remain
the main carrier of inelastic strains also at the temperatures close to absolute
zero. The motion of dislocations is related to the mechanism of breaking and
re-establishing of the atomic bonds, in the direct vicinity of the lattice defects
(Wyrzykowski et al. 1999; Przybylowicz 1999). Motion of dislocations along
a slip plane in the lattice leads to the so-called shear strains, illustrated in
Fig. 2.7. The simplest mechanism of plastic deformation is reflected by a
displacement of the upper part of lattice with respect to the lower part by
the Burgers vector. When the motion of a dislocation across the lattice is
completed the lattice remains perfect and is not subjected to stress any more.
The motion of dislocations has often a collective nature. A massive diffusion
of dislocations along a given direction can form a slip band. In order to obtain
a motion of dislocations in a given system of slip planes the following criterion
has to be satisfied:
T > T cr , (2.60)
where Tcr is the critical value of the shear stress. Generally, the critical shear
stress is a function of type of lattice, its imperfections, temperature and defor-
mation speed. The critical shear stress increases with decreasing temperature,
which corresponds to increase of the activation energy.
.....
Fig. 2.7. Motion of edge dislocation across the lattice.
Motion of edge dislocations along the slip planes remains the basic mech-
anism of plastic deformation at low temperatures. Some other mechanisms,
like climbing of the edge dislocations resulting from the interaction between
the dislocations and the vacancies, are less probable since the concentration
of vacancies significantly reduces at low temperatures and the vacancies are
not sufficiently mobile. The speed of propagation of edge dislocations under a
given stress level decreases with decrease of temperature (roughly exponential
2.4 Mechanism ofInelastic Deformations in Ductile Metals at Low Temperatures 57
function). Apart from the motion of edge dislocations along the slip planes
and the "climbing" mechanism, two other mechanisms can be distinguished:
motion of dislocation loops and transverse slip of spiral dislocations. In the
first case a dislocation loop increases its diameter under the shear stress and,
finally, reaches the lattice surface. In the second case a transverse slip of a
spiral dislocation, in the direction parallel to the Burgers vector, generates a
step-like slip surface. This mode can be activated also at low temperatures.
The sources of dislocations can be classified into three groups:
• initial lattice imperfections (existing dislocation fields),
• generation of dislocation embryos on the admixed atoms, phase bound-
aries, inclusions and grain boundaries,
• generation of dislocation loops by the Frank-Read mechanism (Read
1953).
The Frank-Read source of dislocation loops is schematically shown in
Fig. 2.8.
,t---------------------- .... ---- .. ,
"
, , ,
" "
,
"
.. ..
:
: : ..
, , ,
: :
: A0', ,'0
B :
.. - - :
:
.. , , , , ,
" "
.. 'oO .. _ .. _ .. _ .. - .. ---- .. --------------,

:
Fig. 2.8. The Frank-Read source of dislocation loops.
Another basic mechanism of plastic deformation is known as twinning. The

mechanism of twinning consists in a reconfiguration of lattice inside a small
domain located around the so-called twinning plane. The reconfiguration re-
sults from a shear stress, acting along the twinning direction, that induces
a massive slip along a set of planes parallel w.r.t. the twinning plane. The
twinning plane constitutes, after completion of the process, a symmetry plane
0-0' of the new twin (Fig. 2,9). Twinning occurs very often in the metals
characterised by the hexagonal lattice. Both in the Fee and Bee types of
lattice twinning occurs either under very high deformation rates (dynamic
strain) or at low temperatures. Typically, copper or austenitic stainless steels
show twinning when subjected to shear stress at very low temperatures. The
process of twinning starts from the formation of embryos and includes both
growth of twins and formation of new embryos. Usually, the stress needed
to create an embryo is much higher than the stress needed for propagation
of twins. At low temperatures both above described mechanisms: motion of
dislocations along the slip planes and twinning contribute to the final defor-
mation of lattice. The final state of plastic deformation depends entirely on
the history of the process.
Fig. 2.9. Simplified model of a coherent twin.
Motion of edge dislocations along the slip planes as well as twinning are
blocked by the presence of different barriers in the lattice like: grain and sub-
grain boundaries, interfaces between different phases, admixed molecules and
combinations of dislocations. Generally, all the obstacles that arrest or reduce
the mobility of dislocations cause the so-called material hardening. Admixed
atoms (molecules), inter-nodal atoms, missing atoms or substitutive atoms,
classified as the point defects of the lattice, become the sources of lattice per-
turbation and generate fields of displacements of atoms and the corresponding
stress fields. Given a concentration of defects and elastic interactions between
them, motion of edge dislocations or twinning occur in the "internal" elastic
stress field, stretching throughout the whole lattice, and superimposed with
the applied "external" stress field, necessary to obtain the plastic deforma-
tion. Typical mechanisms blocking motion of dislocations in the lattice can
be classified into four groups (from smaller to larger entities):
1. Elastic interactions and intersection of dislocations. Two dislocations mov-
ing along two different slip planes can interact elastically at the point of
intersection forming inflexions and faults. Motion of dislocations elongated
and containing many points of intersection with other dislocations requires
higher energies (higher level of stress).
2. Effect of the admixed atoms and molecules. Dislocations are anchored by
the concentrated groups of admixed atoms close to the core of disloca-
tion. The mechanism is based on the diffusion of admixed atoms in the
stress field of a dislocation to the locations minimising locally the poten-
tial energy of the distorted lattice. Thus, clouds of admixed atoms occur
around the dislocations, constituting the so-called Cottrell atmosphere
(cf. Cottrell 1963). Interaction between the dislocations and the admixed
atoms, including the frictional effects, slows down the motion of disloca-
tions. As the dislocation can move together with the Cottrell atmosphere
exclusively in highly excited lattice (high temperature promotes diffusion
2.4 Mechanism ofInelastic Deformations in Ductile Metals at Low Temperatures 59
of the admixed atoms), dislocations are at very low temperatures anchored

by the clouds of admixed atoms. High level of shear stress combined with
heat dissipation (enhancing locally the temperature) can liberate the dis-
location from the Cottrell atmosphere.
3. Effect of the small dispersed fractions of different phase embedded into the
matrix. Two-phase materials consist usually of small portions of the sec-
ondary phase embedded into the matrix of primary phase. Such a material
structure can result from a phase transformation (for instance from FCC
to BCC lattice). A dislocation moving in the matrix of a two-phase mate-
rial can by-pass more rigid inclusions by bending around them (Orowan
mechanism, Orowan (1949)), as shown in Fig. 2.10. A liberated dislocation
leaves the dislocation loops concentrated around the inclusions behind. As
the local stress state enhances a new dislocation needs higher energy to
by-pass again the same configuration of inclusions, surrounded by the
dislocation loops.
Fig. 2.10. Orowan mechanism - dislocation (A) by-passing inclusions (B, C, D).
4. Effect of the grain and sub-grain boundaries. Here the effect is related
to the fact that the orientation of lattice (slip planes) may change across
the grain boundaries. Therefore the dislocations stack close to the grain
boundaries and produce locally a stress field that generates an interface
pressure. This interaction, shown in Fig. 2.11, may in turn activate a
source of secondary dislocations in the neighbouring grain. The interface
pressure can be easily expressed in terms of the local state of stress and
the normal to the grain boundary:
(2.61)
The dislocations may also annihilate on the grain boundaries. However,

this effect is strictly related to the excitation of the lattice and is rather
observed at enhanced temperatures.
Fig. 2.11. Dislocations stack on the grain boundaries.
Generally, due to decreasing excitation of the lattice when the temperature

approaches the absolute zero, the dislocations are less mobile and are easily
arrested by the above mentioned mechanisms. As a result, ductile materials
and alloys show usually higher hardening at low temperatures when compared
to their behaviour at room temperature.
Motion of dislocations can be analysed from the point of view of inter-
nal friction mechanisms. Here, the relevant model is based on the assump-
tion that a dislocation moves from one minimum potential energy state to
another. The states of minimum energy are separated by an energy bar-
rier that can be surmounted by reaching the equivalent level of the Peierls-
Nabarro (Peierls 1940; Nabarro 1967), stress Tp-N. The energy barrier Ep(T)
is strongly temperature dependent and increases substantially at very low
temperatures. However, local dissipation of energy dQ, reflected by the lat-
tice excitation and local increase of temperature, reduces the barrier and al-
lows dislocation to move to the neighbouring equilibrium state. The process
is illustrated in Fig. 2.12.
The kinematics of the process comprises the following stages:
• the lattice is subjected to a local shear stress of magnitude comparable
with the Peierls-Nabarro level,
• local dissipation of energy takes place (enhancing the temperature),
• the energy barrier reduces to such a level that allows a portion of disloca-
tion to move to another equilibrium state,
2.4 Mechanism of Inelastic Deformations in Ductile Metals at Low Temperatures 61
Fig. 2.12. Motion of dislocations - internal friction model.
• the critical length of the "transferred portion" is reached,

• both transition zones between the old equilibrium and the new one move
in the transverse direction allowing the whole dislocation to occupy the
new equilibrium state.
Such a model can help to understand the specific effects that occur at very
low temperatures, like the so-called serrated yielding.
One of the simple methods often applied to analyse the effect of the above
described micro-mechanisms on the macroscopic parameters, reflecting the
inelastic behaviour of ductile materials at low temperatures, is the quasi-static
traction test. In the case of materials characterised by the Fee lattice (copper,
austenitic stainless steel) the traction curve for moderately low temperatures is
in most of the cases smooth and contains four main stages: elastic deformation
(I), uniform plastic deformation (Il, one dimensional stress state), nonuniform
plastic deformation (Ill, three dimensional stress state), nonlinear hardening
due to strain induced phase transformation (IV, for the materials that exhibit
Fee to Bee transformation). A typical stress-strain curve is presented in
Fig. 2.13.
During the first stage only the micro-plasticity close to the grain bound-
aries is observed. The first stage ends up with the so-called limit of propor-
tionality. Second stage starts from the yield point, that in the case of Fee
type lattice is the apparent limit measured by residual deformation after un-
loading. During the second stage the dislocations interact, intersect and form
barriers. The Fee type lattice shows usually already at the beginning of the
process high density of mobile dislocations and a weak interaction with the
admixed atoms. The third stage follows a transition from one dimensional
to three dimensional stress state and is characterised by formation of a large
number of shear bands. Finally, during the fourth stage the intersections of
the shear bands become the strain induced nucleation sites and local transfor-
Fig. 2.13. Typical stress-strain tensile curve of ductile materials at low tempera-
tures.
mat ion from the Fee to Bee lattice takes place. This transformation results
in a strong hardening observed as a nonlinear part of the traction curve.
At very low temperatures (below 10 K) and for sufficiently high strain rates
another deformation pattern is observed. The stress-strain curve becomes
discontinuous in terms of do-jd€ due to the plastic flow instabilities called
serrated yielding. The main feature of serrated yielding consists in abrupt
drops of stress as a function of strain during the monotonic loading (cf. Obst
and Nyilas 1998). The mechanism of discontinuous yielding is linked directly
to the local shear bands formation. When testing the sample, a fast formation
of the shear bands is manifested by acoustic effects of "dry" sounds emitted
by the specimen. Each "serration" (sudden drop of stress as a function of
time) is accompanied by a considerable increase of temperature, related to
the dissipation of plastic power and thermodynamic instability described in
the previous section. Typical stress-strain tensile test for the materials that
exhibit discontinuous yielding is shown in Fig. 2.14.
Every spike in the stress-strain diagram shows a similar pattern: after ini-
tial elastic stage plastic yielding occurs and goes on until the drop of stress
takes place. No significant increase of temperature is observed during the plas-
tic yielding process. The temperature starts increasing dramatically when the
abrupt relaxation of stress begins. The maximum surface temperature rise
may reach some 40 --;- 50 K for austenitic stainless steel. The stress relaxation
is again a two stage process: micro-second drop of stress level (I) is followed by
a millisecond process of relaxation of stress down to a minimum level (II), not
necessarily each time the same. Small amplitude serrations are observed quite
often during the plastic yielding, indicating probable activation of mechanical
twin modes. Reconfiguration of lattice may create more favourable conditions
for massive motion of dislocations along the slip planes. On the other hand,
2.4 Mechanism of Inelastic Deformations in Ductile Metals at Low Temperatures 63
cr
Fig. 2.14. Serrated yielding in FCC metals (copper, austenitic stainless steel,
nickel).
during the second stage of stress relaxation the temperature rise induces a sig-
nificant decrease of the yield point as the properties of the FCC materials are
highly temperature dependent. With increasing temperature the dislocations
become more mobile and further straining process occurs at much lower stress
levels. Thus, the fast relaxation process (I) is related to shear bands forma-
tion, whereas the "slow" relaxation (11) appears to be a thermally activated
process.
3
Properties of Austenitic Stainless Steels at

Cryogenic Temperatures
3.1 Metallurgical Aspect (Chemical Composition and

Structure)
The most often used stainless steel grades for cryogenic applications are the
AISI grades 304, 304L, 316, 316L and 316LN. Sometimes the grades 316Ti
and 321 were used for low temperature service, however the recent studies
show their rather limited applicability. An important feature of the above
mentioned stainless steel grades is the presence of large amount of chromium
reaching some 16 --;- 20% as well as reduced amount of carbon of around 0.03-
0.08% (specially limited in the grades denoted L). Also, all these grades are
characterised by the presence of significant amount of nickel (8 --;-14%), which
stabilises the austenitic matrix at cryogenic temperatures. A controlled addi-
tion of nitrogen (N) improves the yield point and the tensile strength when
compared to the traditional grades. The other important elements in the chem-
ical composition of stainless steels are: Si (around 1%), Mn (around 2%), Mo
(up to 3%), S (around 0.03%) and P (around 0.05%). In the grades 316Ti, 321
titanium is present to the upper limit of 0.7%. Composition of typical grades
of wrought stainless steel for low temperature use is shown in Table 3.1 (as
quoted in the ASTM and ASME specifications, cf. INCO Databook, 1974).
It turns out that the grade 316L is advantageous for low temperatures in
terms of welds and fatigue life - especially for pre-formed thin-walled shells.
On the contrary, the 304L stainless steel shows rather insufficient structural
stability. Both grades are metastable austenitic stainless steels and show a
typical plastic strain induced martensitic transformation from the austenitic
phase 'Y into the et' martensite. In the case of grade 316L no spontaneous
temperature induced martensitic transformation was observed.
66 Properties of Austenitic Stainless Steels
Table 3.1. Composition of typical grades of wrought stainless steel for low temper-
ature applications.
Stainless Weight %
Steel C Si Mn Ni Cr Mo Ti S P Fe
Grade max max max max max max
304 0.08 1 2 8-12 18-20 - -
0.03 0.045 Bal.
304L 0.03 1 2 8-12 18-20 - - 0.03 0.045 Bal.
316 0.08 1 2 10-14 16-18 2-3 - 0.03 0.045 Bal.
316L 0.03 1 2 10-14 16-18 2-3 - 0.03 0.045 Bal.
321 0.08 1 2 9-12 17-19 -
0.7 0.03 0.045 Bal.
3.2 Metallurgical Stability at Low Temperatures -

Martensitic Transformation and Magnetic Permeability
The Fe-Cr-Ni stainless steels are commonly used to manufacture the com-
ponents of superconducting magnets and cryogenic pipelines since they pre-
serve their ductility at low temperatures and are paramagnetic. The nitrogen
strengthened stainless steels of series 300 belong to the group of met astable
austenitic alloys. Under certain conditions the steels undergo martensitic
transformations at cryogenic temperatures that lead to a considerable change
of material properties and to a ferromagnetic behaviour. The martensitic
transformations are induced mainly by the plastic strain fields and amplified
by the high magnetic fields. Spontaneous transformations due to the cooling
process - identified with respect to some alloys - are not observed in the
most often used grades 304L, 304LN, 316L, 316LN. Generally, in complex
structures applied at low temperatures, the martensitic transformations are
difficult to predict. Nevertheless, in some cases the transformations can be
anticipated on the basis of the structural analysis leading to determination of
intensity of the plastic strains.
The stainless steels of series 300 show at room temperature a classical
I'-phase of face centred cubic austenite (FCC). This phase may transform ei-
ther to 0/ phase of body centred tetragonal ferrite (BCT) or to a hexagonal E
phase. The most often occurring I' - a' transformation leads to formation of
the martensite particles dispersed in the surrounding austenite matrix. The
spontaneous martensitic transformation starts at the temperature of initia-
tion of the process Ts and continues until the temperature drops below the
temperature of termination of the process T f . The strain induced transfor-
mation start at much higher initiation temperature T d . In the course of the
transformation the particles of martensite modify the FCC lattice leading
to local distortions. The amount of the martensite depends on the chemical
structure, temperature, plastic strains and an exposure to a magnetic field.
3.2 Metallurgical Stability at Low Temperatures 67
It is well known that the solutes like Ni, Mn and N considerably stabilise the
,),-phase. For instance the strain induced martensitic content in the grades
304LN, 316LN at low temperatures is much lower than in the grades 304L,
316L for the same level of plastic strain (Suzuki et al. 1988). Application of
a strong magnetic field leads to a significant amplification of the martensitic
transformation. It is estimated (Morris et al. 1992) that the martensite frac-
tion depends on the intensity of magnetic field B according to the following
equation:
Fra(T,B) = Fra(T, 0) exp (CB:) , (3.1)
where Fr Cl< (T, B) denotes martensite fraction at the temperature T and field
B, whereas M stands for magnetic moment of 0: and C is a constant.
The increase in martensite fraction promoted by plastic deformation can
be detected by measuring the magnetic permeability p,. The evolution of p,
at low temperatures with monotonic straining as well as with the low cycle
fatigue for 304L and 316L stainless steels was investigated by Suzuki et al.
(1988). The monotonic and the fatigue tests were carried out in ambient air
(293 K), in liquid nitrogen (77 K) and in liquid helium (4 K). The value of
p, was measured by using a magnetometer and by comparing the magnetic
response in the gauge section of tested specimen with that of a standard
specimen. Thus, the evolution in magnetic response (measured at 293 K) due
to the plastic strain induced martensitic transformation at cold was analysed.
The approximate results of the influence of monotonic tensile straining on the
magnetic permeability of 304L and 316L stainless steels are summarised in
Table 3.2. The table shows clearly that below 1% tensile strain there was no
significant increase of p, whereas above 2.5% tensile strain the increase of p,
was significant. Thus, 1% tensile strain can be regarded as a critical value.
Table 3.2. Magnetic permeability J-t of grades 304L and 316L at cryogenic temper-
atures (Suzuki et al. 1988).
Grade Temp. Tensile strain [%)

[K) 0 1 2.5 5 10
293 1.05 1.05 1.1
-
304L 77 1.02..;..1.05 1.05 1.1 1.9 -
-
4 1.1 1.6 -
293 1.05 1.05 1.05

-
304L 77 1.02..;..1.05 1.05 1.1 1.2 -
-
4 1.1 1.2 -
Results of cyclic straining lead to the conclusion that high cycle fatigue
associated with the elastic shakedown does not provoke an increase of M.
On the other hand, low cycle fatigue associated with the incremental plastic
deformation leads to a considerable increase of the magnetic permeability,
which is a consequence of the strain induced martensitic transformation.
The results of influence of cyclic straining on the increase of M are sum-
marised in Table 3.3. The total strain range imposed on the samples varied
from 0.5% to around 5%, thus leading to a different number of cycles to failure
for a given temperature. The authors (Suzuki et al. 1988) report that for both
grades tested at 4 K the increase of M was very limited for the total strain
range of around 0.3% (elastic shakedown) whereas the strain range of 0.4%
(beyond the elastic shakedown) provoked an increase of M up to 1.2+1.5 after
around 200 cycles.
Table 3.3. Magnetic permeability /1 at fatigue failure of grades 304L and 316L at
cryogenic temperatures (Suzuki et al. 1988).
Grade Temp. Number of cycles to failure

[K] 10 2 10 5
293 >2.5 1.3
304L 77 >2.5 >2.5
4 >2.5 >2.5
293 1.8+2.0 1.05
316L 77 >2.5 >2.5
4 >2.5 >2.5
3.3 Mechanical Properties: Tensile and Fatigue Tests at

Low Temperatures
Tensile tests at cryogenic temperatures are rather complex and expensive since
the specimen must be immersed in a bath of liquid nitrogen (77 K) or liquid
helium (4 K) inside a vacuum insulated cryostat. Temperature of the bath has
to be stabilised by using a cryogenic circuit and temperature of the specimen
has to be controlled in the course of the test. The strains are usually measured
by strain gauges, attached to the gauge length of the specimen and calibrated
at cold. Larger strains (at rupture) have to be measured by an extensometer
rather than by the strain gauges. A cell mounted outside the cryostat, next
to the actuator, controls the force. Also, the strain rate has to be controlled
carefully since the properties of ductile materials at cold depend very much
on the deformation rate.
3.3 Mechanical Properties: Tensile and Fatigue Tests 69
Tensile properties of stainless steels at low temperatures are strongly in-

fluenced by the plastic strain induced martensitic transformation. As a result
of the phase transformation the initially homogenous ,,(-phase looses its homo-
geneity due to formation of the inclusions of the harder ex' martensite phase.
The martensite platelets embedded in the soft austenite matrix provoke lo-
cal stress concentration and block the movement of dislocations. Therefore
the onset of the martensitic transformation leads to increase of the strain
hardening. The rate of increase of the martensite fraction in the ,,(-matrix (re-
flecting the degree of metastability) depends on the structure of the stainless
steel. Generally, stable steels exhibit rather slow increase of the martensite
fraction as a function of strain, and retain high ductility at cryogenic tem-
peratures (Fig. 3.1a). Less stable steels show a rapid increase of martensite
fraction, very high strain hardening and finally much lower strain to rupture
(Fig.3.1b).
a) b)
Fig. 3.1. a) Stainless steel stable (in terms of "( - ex' transformation) at low tem-
perature b) Stainless steel unstable at low temperature (high transformation rate).
Dependence of the material properties of stainless steels at low tempera-

tures on the strain rate was discussed by Ogata and Ishikawa (1986); Ogata,
Ishikawa, Reed and Walsh (1988); Reed and Walsh (1988); Ogata et al. (1990);
and Reed et al. (1990). The tests reported by Reed and Walsh (1988), were car-
ried out on the samples made of three different alloys: 310, 304L and 316LN. It
turned out that the yield point, elongation and reduction of the cross-section
area were rather insensitive to strain rate. On the other hand, the ultimate
strength showed a considerable decrease above a critical value of the strain
rate. This value of around 0.0022 l/s was nearly identical for all the alloys.
Below this critical value the ultimate strength increases slowly with increasing
strain rate. Above the "threshold" the ultimate strength decreases dramati-
cally. For instance the grade 316LN loses some 23% of its ultimate strength
at the strain rate of 0.01 l/s when compared to the strength at the rate of
0.002 l/s. The effect of strain rate on the ultimate strength of stainless steels
(grades 310, 304L, 316LN) is illustrated in Fig. 3.2 (cf. Reed et al. 1990).
1800
316LN
ro 1600 I
a.
~
~
.c
0,
ec 1400
I
1ii
2
~'"
310
:::J 1200
1000-r--",,~~-.-rnn~--~,,~~
1.00E-005 1.00E-004 1.00E-003 1.00E-002

Strain rate [1/5]
Fig. 3.2. Ultimate strength as a function of strain rate for typical stainless steels
(310, 304L, 316LN) loaded at low temperatures.
Mechanical strength of 304L, 316L and 316LN austenitic stainless steels

at cryogenic temperatures was investigated, among others, by Suzuki et al.
(1988), Reed and Walsh (1988), Reed et al. (1990), and Sadough-Vanini and
Lehr (1994). An example of chemical composition of tested grades (304L,
316L) is shown in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4. Structure of 304L and 316L stainless steel (Suzuki et a!. 1988).
Stainless Weight %
Steel C Si Mn Ni Cr Mo N S P Fe
Grade
304L 0.013 0.61 0.9 9.3 18.5 ~
0.07 0.008 0.028 Ba!.

316L 0.025 0.47 0.8 12.25 16.35 2.12 ~
0.01 0.027 Ba!.
The tensile tests (Suzuki et al. 1988) were carried out at the strain rates not
exceeding 10- 3 l/s. Thus, the measured ultimate strength was rather stable
(strain rate below its critical value). Mechanical properties of both grades,
measured by using hourglass specimens, are shown in Tables 1.6 and 1.7 for
three temperature levels: 293 K, 77 K and 4 K. This example shows that
at 4 K the yield strength increases approximately by a factor of 2, whereas
the tensile strength increases nearly by a factor of 3. At the same time, the
elongation decreases by around 50% for 304L steel and by around 25% for the
3.3 Mechanical Properties: Tensile and Fatigue Tests 71
grade 316L. Thus, grade 304L appears to be less stable at low temperature
than grade 316L.
Another good example of mechanical properties of stainless steels at cryo-
genic tcmperatures is presented in Table 3.5 (chemical composition) and Ta-
bles 3.6,3.7 (strength) for two grades: 304L and 316LN.
Table 3.5. Structure of 304L and 316LN stainless steel (Ogata et al. 1990).
Stainless Weight %
Steel C Si Mn Ni Cr Mo N S P Fe
Grade
304L 0.016 0.67 1.52 10.03 18.24 - - 0.009 0.027 Bal.
316LN 0.019 0.50 0.84 11.16 17.88 2.62 0.18 0.01 0.0257 Bal.
Table 3.6. Strength of 304L stainless steel at cryogenic temperatures (corresponding

to Table 3.5).
Temperature Yield Tensile Elongation

strength strength
[K] [MPa] [MPa] [%]
293 236 590 79
77 431 1285 69.5
4 505 1476 61.1
Table 3.7. Strength of 316LN stainless steel at cryogenic temperatures (correspond-

ing chemical composition presented in the Table 3.5).
Temperature Yield Tensile Elongation

strength strength
[K] [MPa] [MPa] [%]
293 342 716 85
77 859 1517 70.1
4 1072 1697 60.1
Increase of the Mo and N content leads to a considerable improvement of

the yield strength. Therefore grade 316LN is often applied in the structures
where high level elasticity accompanied by a good elongation at cryogenic
temperatures is required.
Mechanical properties of the stainless steel at low temperatures depend

significantly on the amount of cold work. Generally, higher cold work enhances
the yield strength and the ultimate strength and reduces the elongation at
break (ductility of the material). General trends in the material properties of
the grades 304, 304L and 316 with respect to the amount of cold work (at
room temperature) are shown in Fig. 3.3. Similar effects may be expected at
cryogenic temperatures.
[MPa]
800r-----r_~~~-.~r-----r_----r_--~
Elongation [%]
600~~--r_~~r_----r_----r_----r_--~
80
400 f-=-;::if--t-----t-----t-----t-----t-------=J 60
40
... 20
---=--
o 10 20 30 40 50 Cold work [%]
Fig. 3.3. Curves (min/max) reflecting the material properties of grades 304, 304L
and 316 as a function of the amount of cold work (Stecher and Florence 1971).
Low cycle fatigue of stainless steels at cryogenic temperatures was reported

in a number of publications, among them Suzuki et al. (1988), Ogata et al.
(1990), and Sadough-Vanini and Lehr (1994). Suzuki et al. (1988) investigated
both the fatigue failure as well as the increase in magnetic permeability due
to the accumulation of plastic strains. The authors developed a concept of the
permeability failure, in parallel with the classical concept of fatigue failure.
The permeability failure curve is constructed as the total strain range versus
the number of cycles, with the points corresponding to a rapid increase in the
magnetic permeability. The permeability failure curves are situated always
below the fatigue failure curves (rapid increase of J.L is prior to the fatigue
failure) and have a meaning for structures or components that should remain
paramagnetic (components of the superconducting magnets). They practically
coincide with the elastic shakedown curves, above which a cyclic plastic de-
formation occurs (alternating plasticity) or accumulates from cycle to cycle
3.4 Classical versus Serrated Yielding 73
10.0
Q)
Cl
c:::
~
c::: 1.0
.~
+-'
W
~
~ 304L, 316L (4K)
304L, 316L (77K)
0.1
1E+001 1E+002 1E+003 1E+004 1E+005

Number of cycles
Fig. 3.4. Curves of magnetic permeability failure for 304L and 316L stainless steels.
(ratchetting) thus contributing to the plastic strain induced martensitic trans-

formation. The magnetic permeability failure curves for 3 temperature levels,
obtained by Suzuki et al. (1988), are shown in Fig. 3.4. It is worth pointing
out that the total strain threshold leading to a considerable increase in mag-
netic permeability is lower at 77 K (around 0.2%) than at 4 K (around 0.3%).
The criterion of permeability failure is more conservative than the classical
fatigue failure criterion. Also, the criterion of permeability failure at low tem-
peratures is very convenient since the total strain threshold is independent of
the number of cycles to failure (horizontal lines in Fig. 3.4).
3.4 Classical versus Serrated Yielding
The process of plastic flow of stainless steels at cryogenic temperatures may

turn out to be discontinuous (in terms of da / de). This is most probably due to
the thermodynamic instability described in the previous chapter, valid also for
stainless steels at low temperatures. The near adiabatic local conditions lead to
a conversion of large portion of plastic work to heat and to local temperature
rise. This effect was measured by using thermocouples embedded in the tested
specimens (see Ogata et al. 1990). The local increase of temperature may
reach around 50 K. The phenomenon of discontinuous plastic flow at cryogenic

temperatures (serrated yielding) is shown in Fig. 3.5.
1600
4.5K
1400
1200
«i" 1000
0-
~
.......
en 800
-
en
~
CJ) 600 293K
400
200
Alloy 316L
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Total strain [%]
Fig. 3.5. Tensile tests of 316L stainless steel at cryogenic temperatures.
The mechanism of classical yielding at room temperature is based mainly

on the motion of dislocations. Stable austenitic steels show at room temper-
ature very smooth traction curves and no martensite is detected. Moreover,
in the case of stainless steels Drucker's material instability, typical of car-
bon steels (lower and upper yield point), is not observed. On the other hand,
the mechanism of plastic flow at cryogenic temperatures may be more com-
plex. It is based on trans-granular shear bands of thickness of around 1 f..tm.
The shear bands develop locally, at an angle of 45 deg with respect to the
direction of the principal stress, under adiabatic conditions, and the energy
of inelastic deformation is nearly entirely converted to heat. The increase of
temperature leads to further local evolution of material properties. The shear
bands are trans-granular and do not depend on the orientation of the grains.
Most probably the flow instabilities are associated with accumulation of local
discontinuities of the displacement field, that occur when the energy thresh-
old sufficient to activate the shear bands is reached. Since the deformation
rate in the shear bands is much higher than the strain rate imposed on the
3.4 Classical versus Serrated Yielding 75
sample the global strain "jumps", accompanied by a rapid decrease of load.

This dynamic release of energy stops further development of deformation and
the load starts increasing again. These phenomena were studied in detail by
Tobler et al. (1983), Read and Reed (1980), Reed and Simon (1988), (1990)
and Ogata, Ishikawa, Umezawa and Yuri (1988), Ogata, Ishikawa, Reed and
Walsh (1988), (1990).
A typical stress-strain curve for stainless steel tested at very low temper-
ature (liquid helium, 4 K) is composed of three phases:
1. elastic deformation ~ smooth curve,
2. initial plastic deformation based on classical dislocation mechanism ~
smooth curve,
3. advanced plastic deformation based on formation of the adiabatic shear
bands as well as plastic strain induced martensitic transformation ~ dis-
continuous curve.
It is worth pointing out that the discontinuous plastic flow is highly rate de-
pendent. It turns out that the serrated yielding in grades 304L, 310 and 316LN
initiates at much lower values of stress and strain for strain rates higher than
about 10-4 l/s (Reed and Simon 1990). One of the most important challenges
in the study of the serrated yielding is the correlation between the thermal
spikes (measured by using small thermocouples introduced into the sample)
and the stress-strain instabilities (see Fig. 2.14). Such measurements were car-
ried out by Ogata et al. (1990) on the 316LN stainless steel samples equipped
with thermocouples and subjected to cyclic loads. The samples were cycled
under the strain range of 3% and under the range of frequencies 0.01-;'-0.5 Hz.
A good correlation was found between the thermal spikes and serrated yield-
ing for low frequencies. The maximum temperature rise was of 10 K for the
frequency of 0.01 Hz, of 18 K for 0.1 Hz and of around 40 K for the frequency
of 0.5 Hz.
4
Plastic Yielding and Evolution of Ductile

Damage under Cryogenic Conditions
4.1 Modelling of Plastic Yielding at Cryogenic

Temperatures
As long as the stress-strain curve is smooth (mechanism of plastic deforma-

tion based on the movement of dislocations) and below the critical strain rate
the low temperature plasticity can be modelled in a classical rate independent
way. For the stainless steel, that shows high ductility at cryogenic tempera-
tures, the normality law expressed via the associated flow rule is good enough.
Above the critical strain rate both the hardening modulus and the ultimate
strength depend strongly on the strain rate, therefore a rate dependent plas-
ticity shall rather be applied. A survey of different plastic and visco-plastic
models, potentially applicable at cryogenic temperatures is given below.
On the other hand, there is no sufficiently simple phenomenological model
to describe the effect of serrated yielding (stress-strain curves discontinuous
in terms of da / dE ). This effect of material instability, in the form of discon-
tinuous yielding at low temperatures, has to be analysed and modelled on the
thermodynamic basis. Nevertheless, a simplified approach to serrated yielding
based on frictional stick/slip models is introduced in the present chapter.
4.1.1 Smooth Stress-Strain Curves
In many cases of the stainless steels at room and at low temperatures the
stress-strain curves show at the beginning of yielding very little hardening.
The hardening increases considerably with further development of plastic de-
formations, due to the formation of martensite phase. Therefore, if the plastic
strains are small or moderately large a perfectly plastic material model seems
to be good enough. On the other hand, if advanced plasticity with a significant
amount of hardening is considered a more complex model shall be applied.
Validity of the model shall be determined for each grade of steel and each
temperature level at which yielding occurs.
78 Plastic Yielding and Evolution of Ductile Damage
Simplified Models of Rate Independent Plasticity (at Constant

Temperature)
A simplified approach is based either on the elasto-perfectly plastic model

or on the elasto-plastic model with linear kinematic hardening (suitable for
simplified analysis under cyclic loads).
Elasto-perfectly plastic model is based on the following assumptions:
• Small strains are considered:
(4.1)
with the strain rate limitation to:
(4.2)
• The elastic law:

~= 2Gf{, (4.3)
- -
where
(4.4)
denote the stress and strain deviators, respectively.
• The yield surface (Huber-Mises-Hencky representation):
f(g) = h(g) - ao = 0, (4.5)
where:
(4.6)
denotes the second invariant of the stress tensor and ao stands for the
yield point (it depends on the temperature).
• The associated flow rule is expressed by the following equation:
dcP = of d.\ (4.7)

= o~ ,
which leads to:
3 s
dc P = - -=-- d.\ . (4.8)
= 2h(g)
The increment of .\ can be expressed as follows:
d.\ = dp; (4.9)
where p is the accumulated plastic strain (Odqvist parameter).

4.1 Modelling of Plastic Yielding at Cryogenic Temperatures 79
Finally, the total strain increment takes the following form:

ds 3 s
de = de e
= =
+ de=P = 2G
= + --=-dp
2 ao '
(4.10)
that is known as the Prandtl-Reuss equation. Since all the material modulae
depend on the temperature we have:
G = G(T) and ao = ao(T) . (4.11)
Generally, the Kirchhoff modulus G does not change much with decreasing
temperature, whereas the yield point ao evolves considerably.
For the stainless steels less "stable" at cryogenic temperatures the onset
of hardening is sooner. Thus, another description of the plastic flow can be
introduced, for instance based on a linear kinematic hardening:
• Yield surface:
f (g, X) = J2 (g - X) - ao , (4.12)
where:
(4.13)
and X is the back stress tensor.

• Flow rule:
3 s-X
dc: P = - = = dA (4.14)
= 2 Jdg - X) ,
where A has to be determined from the consistency condition.
• Linear kinematic hardening (evolution of the back stress):
2
dX = -Cdc P ( 4.15)
= 3 ='
where C is the hardening parameter.
Here, again, the material properties (yield point and hardening modulus)
are temperature dependent:
ao = ao(T) c= C(T). (4.16)
This classical approach can be successfully applied at cryogenic temperatures,

provided that the stress-strain curves are smooth enough.
Complex Material Models: Nonlinear Hardening and

Visco-Plasticity
Among different models of nonlinear plasticity (Armstrong and Frederick

1966; Mroz 1967; Valanis 1971; Backhaus 1976; Krieg 1975; Dafalias and
Popov 1976; Chaboche 1991) only some are suitable as a description of the
stainless steel behaviour. The models developed by Benallal and Marquis

(1987); Chaboche (1989); Ohno and Wang (1993); Tanaka (1994); Ohmi et al.
(1995), turned out to be particularly useful with respect to the stainless steel.
The model proposed by Chaboche is based on the following formulation
(cf. Chaboche and Rousselier 1983):
• Yield surface:
f (g, R, X) = h (g - X) - R - ao , (4.17)
where:
(4.18)
and R denotes the isotropic hardening parameter.

• Flow rule:
3 s-X
dc: P = - - - d)' (4.19)
= 2 h (g - X) ,
where). is the plastic multiplier, to be determined from the consistency
condition.
• Kinematic hardening:
(4.20)
where:
2 ) 1/2
dp = ( -dc:P : dc:P (4.21)
3 = = '
and:
cp(p) = 1 + ('I/; - l)e- bp . (4.22)
• Isotropic hardening:
dR = b(Roo - R)dp; R(O) = Ro. (4.23)
Another useful model has been proposed by Ohno and Wang (1993). It
is based on a visco-plastic formulation with a nonlinear dynamic recovery
of back stress and strain memory effects taken into account. The kinematic
hardening rule is given by the equation:
(4.24)
where:
cp(p) = CPoo + (1 - CPoo) e- bp , (4.25)
C
1= "(cp(p); ~=X/h(X). (4.26)
The other two models (Benallal and Marquis 1987; Tanaka 1994) are based
on the following formulation:
(4.27)
where c, a are material parameters and:
(4.28)
Here again 'Po, 'Poo and b are material parameters.
dR = 'Y( Q - R) dp, (4.29)
where 'Y is a material parameter. Evolution of Q is given by a set of non
linear equations, different for both models.
One of the recent formulations (Ohmi et al. 1995), related to the Tanaka
model, turned out to be particularly efficient in modelling of the proportional
and non proportional cyclic plasticity for 316 stainless steel. The formulation
was verified for the temperature range of 293-973 K. It is constructed by using
the following formalism:
• Inelastic strain rate:
.in §. - X \
c = - - /\ (4.30)
= J2 (g - X) ,
where
\~ (J,!4-~ -Q-UO)" , (4.31)
and n, 0"0, K are material constants. Here, the Macauley bracket is defined
as follows:
(u) = u -+ if (u:;::: 0)
(4.32)
(u) = 0 -+ if (u < 0) ,
3
X="X.,
= ~=%
(4.33)
i=l
(4.34)
where COi are material constants and variables ai follow rather complex
evolution equations.
(4.35)
where QL denotes the target value of the variable Q and dHI , d SI are
material constants.
The model involves in total 14 material constants and 5 material functions.
It gives rather good predictions at room and at higher temperatures. The
model is also suitable for low temperature applications, once the material
parameters and functions are identified.
4.1.2 Serrated (Discontinuous) Yielding
From the phenomenological point of view serrated yielding can be classified

as a subsequently stable and unstable behaviour of the material. Here the
definition of the stability in Drucker's sense (Drucker 1952; 1959) is applied.
Fig. 4.1. Plastic work done over a serration cycle.
The plastic work over a stress cycle (loading/unloading) is expressed as

follows:
(4.36)
The first term corresponds to the slope A - B in Fig. 4.1 whereas the
second term corresponds to the slope B - C. Moreover, for the lines A - B
and B - C the following inequalities hold:
dg : d~P > 0 -> line (A - B),

(4.37)
dg : d~P < 0 -> line (B - C) .
In the first case the excessive work is positive whereas in the second case
it is negative. Therefore, the material is stable in Drucker's sense along the
line A - B and unstable along the line B - C. At cryogenic temperatures and
above the critical deformation rate (unlike at room temperature) this chain
of stable and unstable material states continues usually until rupture. Also,
very often the stress amplitude of the oscillations increases with the plastic
deformation.
Since the material stability in the Drucker sense implies convexity of the
yield surface it is not clear whether this condition is satisfied in the case
of serrated yielding (subsequent stable and unstable behaviour). Also it is

not clear how does the evolution of the yield surface follow two different
mechanisms of plastic deformation: motion of dislocations and formation of
shear bands.
In the uni- dimensional case (with uniform distribution of stress through
thickness) the following simplified models of serrated yielding can be formu-
lated:
Initial stage (stable, line A - B in Fig. 4.1) elastic deformation and plastic
yielding based on the motion of dislocations. Here a classical model of
plasticity with linear hardening can be used as a good approximation (see
Fig. 4.2).
Fig. 4.2. Simplified model of plastic deformation in the initial stage (E - modulus
of elasticity, H - hardening modulus) .
Plastic work is expressed by the equation:
(4.38)
where
(J B > (J A and f~ > f~ . (4.39)
The accumulated plastic work is partially converted to heat:
(4.40)
where kH is the conversion coefficient (0 < kH < 1). The onset of mecha-
nism of plastic, adiabatic slip is associated with local temperature of the
sample. With the deformation rate higher than the critical value Eer the
mechanism of heat transport in the sample is inefficient (thermal con-
ductivity tends to zero when temperature approaches 0 K) and only a
very small amount of heat can be evacuated. Therefore, the heat is locally
accumulated nearly adiabatically and the temperature rise is observed
(mechanism of localised overheating of slip bands). Let q be the amount
of heat per unit volume:
,1Q kH,1Wf
q--- (4.41 )
- V - V
the local temperature increase can be expressed as:
6.T = 6.T(q) , (4.42)
Generally, when point B (Fig. 4.1 is reached the following criterion is

satisfied:
(4.43)
where T denotes the temperature (state variable) and subscript 'U' stands
for the upper bound.
Final stage (unstable, line B - C in Fig. 4.1) fast relaxation process (phase I,
plastic deformation based on the adiabatic slip along the plastic shear
bands) and slow relaxation process (phase 11). This effect can be explained
by using a modified model with friction (see Fig. 4.3), where the hardening
spring H has been suddenly detached. Hence, the progressing deformation
(cB ----+ cc) is accompanied by the rapidly decreasing stress (aB ----+ ac).
~I
Fig. 4.3. Simplified model of adiabatic slip in final stage (Esl - slip modulus).
During phase I the plastic work is expressed by the following equation:
6.W2]= ~(c~ - c~)(aB + ac), (4.44)
where
(4.45)
Propagation of the shear bands is stopped by an abrupt decrease of load.
Phase 11 consists of a slow relaxation of stress due to rapid increase of
temperature resulting from a substantial amount of heat released during
the fast relaxation process. Thus, when point C is reached the following
criterion is satisfied:
Fd~,g, T) = 0, (4.46)
where subscript 'L' stands for the lower bound.
Finally, the behaviour of stainless steels showing serrated yielding at cryo-
genic temperatures can be modelled provided that the functions F u , FL
(Fig. 4.4) are known for a given temperature and a given strain rate. However,
the effect of serrations has to be analysed on the basis of a more sophisticated
thermodynamic approach.
4.2 Ductile damage and the kinetic laws of damage evolution 85
1600
1400
1200
m
a..
1000
4.5K
6 800
en
en
~
U5 600
400
200
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Total strain [%]
Fig. 4.4. Upper and lower bounds for the serrated (discontinuous) yielding.
4.2 Ductile Damage and the Kinetic Laws of Damage

Evolution
4.2.1 Damage Variable and the Effective Stresses
The damage variable, as introduced by Kachanov in 1958 (English version

Kachanov (1986)) has been defined on the basis of the irreversible thermo-
dynamic processes leading to nucleation and growth of the micro-voids and
micro-cracks in the entire volume of a sample. Here all types of voids and
cracks (inter- and trans-granular) that spoil integrity of the material are ac-
counted for. Thus, the process of damage development leads by definition
to increase of entropy. Damage is represented here by a scalar damage vari-
able, that is defined, as a surface intensity of intersections of micro-voids and
micro-cracks.
If dBD denotes the surface of intersection of the micro-voids and micro-
cracks with a given plane within the so-called Representative Volume Element
(RVE) and dB stands for the total intersection surface than a scalar variable
called damage parameter is equal to:
D = dBD (4.47)
dB .
In case of the isotropic damage the local value of D does not depend on the
orientation of the plane of section. An assumption is made about the RVE - it
dS
....
... ..
RVE
Fig. 4.5. Representative Volume Element containing damaged material.
has to be small when compared to the volume of the sample and sufficiently
large when compared to the size of voids and cracks (Fig. 4.5).
Damage parameter, as defined by Eq. (4.47), is a non-negative state vari-
able satisfying the following inequality:
(4.48)
D = 0 for non-damaged material, D = Dcr for a total decohesion of the

sample (Dcr ::; 1).
On the basis of the above defined parameter the so-called effective stress
is introduced. Assume that g: denotes the Cauchy stress tensor. If the material
is damaged the same forces-are carried by a smaller surface (dB - dBD ) and
the effective stress is defined as follows:
dF
dF u
--:-:::-::::::--=- = an = dB = g n a = -----=----- . (4.49)
dB - dBD 1- dBD 1- D- = I-D
dB
Thus, the effective stress is proportional to the stress related to undamaged
surface and inversely proportional to the so-called continuity function 'ljJ =
I-D.
In the framework of the homogenisation hypothesis it is possible to pass
from the micro-scale to the macro-scale by defining the following entities:
V ~ total volume of the RVE
V2 ~ volume occupied by the material defects (micro-cracks and micro-
voids)
VI ~ remaining volume
The damage variable can be interpreted on the 3D basis as:
D = V2 (4.50)
V·
Since the total volume of the RVE is composed of two complementary
sub-volumes the mean stress in the entire RVE can be determined as follows:
(4.51)
This leads to the following conclusion:
(j = (uJ.L) (4.52)
= = l'
the effective stress can be interpreted as the mean stress in the volume Vl of
the RVE.
4.2.2 The Variable (Y) Associated with Damage (D): Dual

Variables
The variables associated with the state functions can be derived from the state
potential (see Lemaitre 1992). Assume that the state potential is assimilated
with the Helmholtz free energy and that for an elasto-plastic material it can
be expressed as:
lJt = lJt(c e , T, r, et, D). (4.53)
The following variables (thermodynamic forces) are associated with the
state functions:
stress/elastic strain,
entropy density/temperature,
isotropic strain hardening/plastic strain,
back stress/back strain,
strain energy density release rate/damage.
The free energy rate, as a function of all state variables, is given by the
equation:
(4.54)
The "new" pair of variables (D, Y) allows to compute the power dissipated
in the process of damage:
(4.55)
In the case of elasto-plastic material with linear kinematic hardening (no
isotropic hardening) and under the assumption of isothermal process (no tem-
perature changes) and damage-hardening coupling ignored the following form
of the Helmholtz potential can be written:
Iji = !p (!E fe~e + !C~H!)

2-- - 3--
for non-damaged material
Iji = !p [!(1- D)E ~efe + !CQQ] for damaged material

2 =- - 3 - -
Finally, the damage associated variable can be expressed as follows:
Y = -p aD
alji =! E c;ec;e .
2 = =
(4.56)
It turns out that:

Y = 1 dw e I (4.57)
2 dD O"=const '
where
(4.58)
denotes the elastic strain energy density. Since the variable Y determines a
"softening" of material with evolution of damage it is called elastic strain
energy density release rate. It can be expressed in terms of the Huber-Mises-
Hencky equivalent stress (cf. Lemaitre 1984; Chaboche 1988) and the so-called
tri-axiallity function:
2
O"eq
Y = 2E(1- D)2Rv, (4.59)
where
2
2
Rv = -(1 + 11) + 3(1 - 211) ( - )
O"H
(4.60)
3 O"eq
Here O"eq denotes the Huber-Mises-Hencky equivalent stress and O"H stands
for the hydrostatic stress. Following the idea of equivalent stress, as defined
for non-damaged materials, an equivalent stress for the materials with defects
is derived. Here again a uni-axial state of stress is compared with the triaxial
one in terms of the strain energy density release rate Y:
Yuni = ltri' (4.61)
which yields
(4.62)
The damage equivalent stress depends both on the Huber-Mises-Hencky
equivalent stress (strain energy of shear deformation) and on the hydrostatic
stress (strain energy of hydrostatic deformation). Both parameters yield evo-
lution of the micro-defects.
4.2.3 Potential of Dissipation and Kinetic Law of Damage

Evolution
Since the damage evolution is a similar "dissipative" phenomenon like the

evolution of the plastic strain fields, a similar formulation for the potential of
dissipation can be used. Thus, one is looking for a continuous, convex scalar
function of the dual variables that satisfies the following equality:
(4.63)
In addition, the second principle of thermodynamics (entropy production

rate), expressed in the form of Clausius-Duhem inequality should be satisfied:
. . 'VT
g~ - p(P + sT) - fJ. T ~ O. (4.64)
This leads, for a simplified case of elasto-plastic material with linear kinematic
hardening, to inequality:
f}p) e .P f}P . f}p. 'VT

( a - p - E: +ac: -p-a-p-D-q=-- >0. (4.65)
= f}r;;.€ = ==
-
f}g= f}D - T -
-
In the case of thermo-mechanical de coupling this inequality yields two inde-

pendent inequalities, expressing the thermal and the internal dissipation:
'VT
T >
-q=-- - 0, (4.66)
f}p) . € • P f}p . f}P D'

( a - p - c: +ac: - p - a - p - >0. (4.67)
= ar:;e = == aQ= aD -
- -
Since Q., r;;.€; X, g and Y, D are dual variables the latter can be written as:
- - --
Q.~P - X Qc. + Y iJ ~ o. (4.68)
The above inequality implies the following condition concerning the power
dissipated due to damage:
yiJ = WD ~ 0, (4.69)
where Yis a positive function and iJ must be a non-negative function.

In order to formulate a kinetic law of damage evolution a functional of
potential of dissipation is introduced. General form of this functional was
presented by Lemaitre (1992):
F {g, R, X, Y; (~e, r, g, D) } = F {variables; (parameters)} . (4.70)
For the elasto-plastic material with linear kinematic hardening it reduces to:
(4.71)
One of the possible formulations of the potential is based on a power function:
S (Y)S+l (4.72)
F = (8 + 1)(1 - D) S '
with S representing the strength energy of damage (material parameter) and
8 to be identified by using the experimental data. Such formulation yields the
following kinetic law of damage evolution (cf. Lemaitre 1992):
. . of YS. [ aeqRv
2 ]S .
D = >. aY = (S) p = 2ES(1 - D)2 p, (4.73)
where P denotes the accumulated plastic strain:
JJ~~p ~p
t
P= : dT . (4.74)
o
Note that the formulation proposed by Kachanov (1986), is different:
(4.75)
with 'ljJ = 1 - D being the continuity function. This equation may also be
obtained when the kinetic damage evolution law, expressed by Eq. (4.73), is
combined with the Norton' creep law.
For the analysis of isotropic damage evolution in ductile materials (stain-
less steels) the following formulation is convenient:
iJ = 0 if: P < PD
· = (Y)s.
D 'f {::}
. (y)S
D= S pH(p - PD), (4.76)
S Pl:p?'PD
with PD being the so-called damage threshold. Here H(x) is the Heaviside
function. It is assumed that mechanism of nucleation and growth of micro-
defects is activated above a certain level of the accumulated plastic strain.
The damage threshold is function of the material, temperature, type of sample
(thick or thin-walled) etc. It has to be experimentally identified.
Integrating the kinetic law of damage evolution:
J(~)
t
D(t) = S pdT, (4.77)

to
one obtains damage as a function of the time-like parameter t. Since the

micro-defects develop locally in a more-less homogenous way until a meso-
crack starts propagating, the corresponding critical value of damage parameter
is called Dcr . For D ? Dcr it is rather the fracture mechanics that deals with
the further meso-crack propagation.
4.2.4 Identification of Parameters of the Kinetic Law of Damage

Evolution at Room and at Cryogenic Temperatures
In order to obtain a full description of the process of damage evolution the

following parameters must be identified:
S ~ strength energy of damage
s ~ parameter of the power law
PD ~ damage threshold
Dcr ~ critical value of damage
The common way of identifying these values (under the assumption that
s = 1) consists in performing either loading/unloading tensile tests or low
cycle fatigue tests at a given temperature. The loading/unloading tensile tests
at a constant strain rate (Fig. 4.6) answer the question concerning the effect of
damage on the modulus of elasticity. Since the effective modulus of elasticity
is defined as:
E = E(I- D), (4.78)
the evolution of D can be identified via measurements of E on the unloading
paths. Finally, construction of the diagram D = D(p) allows us to identify
both PD and D cr , (see Fig. 4.7). Also, the energy strength of damage can be
determined from the slope of the curve D = D(p). In the one dimensional case
of traction (with uniform distribution of stress in the sample) one obtains:
1600
1400
1200
tii'1000
Il.
~
III 800
III
~
Ci5 600
400
200
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Total strain [%]
Fig. 4.6. Tensile test of loading/unloading at room and at cryogenic temperatures.

D
0.4
0.3
....
~
E
~
co
0.0.2
Q)
Cl
co
E
co
Cl
0.1
O.O-+--.....--,..---.-------r----r--...,
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
Plastic strain
Fig. 4.7. Identification of damage evolution parameters for a given temperature T.
E
1.2 -
E T
1.1
Ul
::::J
1.0 E-
:; 0.9
"C
0
E 0.8
E+
Q)
.~ 0.7
"0
~ 0.6
Q)
"C 0.5
Q)
~
co 04
.
§0.3
Z 0.2
0.1 N
0.0 Nr
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Normalized number of cycles
Fig. 4.8. Effective moduli versus number of cycles plotted for a given temperature
T (cf. Lemaitre 1992).
0'2
S = dD ' (4.79)
2E(1 - D)2 de P
where the accumulated plastic strain p reduces to the plastic strain eP mea-
sured directly on the sample.
The tests at room temperature are rather standard. On the other hand,
serious problems arise when testing the samples at cryogenic temperatures,
since the tests have to be carried out inside a cryostat in liquid nitrogen (77 K)
or helium (4.5 K). The strain gauges are calibrated at low temperature and the
process of straining is controlled from "outside". Also, identification of data
is particularly difficult at the temperature of liquid helium when serrated
yielding occurs and the traction curve is discontinuous in terms dO' / de.
A similar identification of damage parameters can be performed by using
the low cycle fatigue tests under a constant strain range. Here, the effective
moduli of elasticity are measured at a given temperature T as the unloading
slopes after each point of return on the hysteresis curves. The effective moduli
normalised to the Young modulus are plotted against the number of cycles
(Fig. 4.8) and the values of damage parameter are deduced:
DIT=l-
E+
E ; 1 ( 1-
DIT='h E-)
E (4.80)
with the average crack closure parameter calculated as:
E-E-
hi T ----=--
- E-E+ (4.81)
The remaining parameters are identified as before with one exception: the
accumulated plastic strain has to be integrated over all the complete hysteresis
loops.
1400
1200
(ij'1000
a..
~ 800
en
en 600
....
Q)
en 400
200
Strain
0
0.0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Fig. 4.9. Tensile curve for 316L stainless steel obtained at 4.2 K
0.45
0.40
...
Cl 0.35
*E
~
ca
c.
Q)
0.30
0.25
0.20
Cl
ca
E 0.15
ca
Cl 0.10
0.05
0.00
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Plastic strain EP
Fig. 4.10. Evolution of damage parameter D as a function of plastic strain at 4.2 K
As an example, tensile curve obtained at 4.2 K on a 316L, 0.25 mm thick

fine gauge sample is shown in Fig. 4.9. The corresponding evolution of the
damage parameter D as a function of the accumulated plastic strain is illus-
trated in Fig.4.lO. In this particular case the damage threshold, PD, has been
identified equal to 5.5%.
1.2
1.0
0.6
0.4 -l-----.----.-------..----r------r----,+
o 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature [K]
Fig. 4.11. Evolution of the parameter S as a function of temperature T (316L

stainless steel)
Above the threshold, the curve has been linearised and ~~ has been cal-
culated, leading to evaluation of the strength energy of damage S:
(]'2
S = dD ~ 1.27[MPa] (4.82)
2E(1- D)2_
dp
where the accumulated plastic strain p reduces to the plastic strain E'P (one
dimensional case). Several points on the path were considered to obtain S as
the best fit (cf. Garion and Skoczen 2003). The identification has been carried
out for 3 temperature levels (293 K, 77 K and 4.2 K) and the corresponding
values as well as the approximate evolution of S as a function of temperature
4.2.5 Orthotropic Damage in Ductile Materials at Cryogenic

Temperatures
Two-phase initially isotropic and homogenous material, described in the pre-

vious sections, forms a basis for further considerations concerning the onset
and evolution of orthotropic ductile damage at cryogenic temperatures (cf.
Garion and Skoczen 2003).
Second Order Damage Tensor and the Effective Stress
At a given material point a local set of unit base vectors !li' tangent to the
principal directions, is defined. The relevant damage tensor is introduced in
the following form (Murakami 1990):
D = L Di!l/lJ!li (4.83)
i=1,3
where !li stands for the base vector associated with the principal direction i
and Di denotes the component of the damage tensor related to the direction
i. It is defined by:
dSDn
D - -, (4.84)
i-~
!!,
- -
where S Dn. is the area of damage in the section Sn., represented by the normal
Similarly to the isotropic approach the effective stress is introduced. The

relationship between the stress and the effective stress is postulated under the
following form:
(4.85)
where both !l. and ii are the symmetric second order stress tensors. The general
relationship-between the stress and the effective stress reads:
(4.86)
or
(4.87)
where M stands for the symmetric damage effect tensor, that depends on the
damagestate and fulfils the following conditions:
(4.88)
In its general form (linked to the Eq. 4.85), the damage effect tensor is
defined as:
(4.89)
or in direct notation:
In the definition of pseudo-undamaged continuum four different principles

can be used: strain equivalence, stress equivalence, generalised strain equiva-
lence and complementary elastic energy equivalence. Among them the most
often applied are strain equivalence and complementary elastic energy equiv-
alence principles. The principle of strain equivalence has a very simple form
expressed by:
~ (g, 0) = ~ (g, D) (4.91 )
whereas the principle of complementary elastic energy equivalence defines the
quasi-continuum in a different way:
cpe (g,O) = cpe (g, D) (4.92)
The latter is certainly useful in the cases where a strong production of

transverse damage with respect to the direction of principal stress appears
(rock-like materials, concrete, etc.). For ductile materials, with a limited pro-
duction of transverse damage, the strain equivalence principle is a good ap-
proximation of the real behaviour and does not lead to major errors. Thus,
the effective stress Q. is assumed to obey the strain equivalence principle:
Q. = E: ~e (4.93)
which means that the stress tensor is replaced by the effective stress in the
elastic constitutive law. Hence, the Helmholtz free energy state potential for
linear elasticity coupled with damage is written in the following form:
where Pp is the plastic part which does not explicitly depend upon D. Often
in the formulation of the Helmholtz free energy the so-called modified elastic
strain tensor is used:
(4.95)
(4.96)
where ( is a parameter that represents opening/closure of the micro-cracks.

Here, (A) stands for the MacAuley bracket. For ( = 1, the following equation
holds:
(4.97)
which is equivalent to:
(4.98)
In this case, the effect of compression on the material stiffness is not taken
into account.
On the contrary, for ( = 0 one obtains:
(4.99)
which, in the principal directions of the strain tensor, leads to:
i = 1,2,3
(4.100)
i = 1,2,3
This can be interpreted as a lack of dissipation of energy due to damage under

compression and a full stiffness recovery (till the cracks are closed). The real
value of the parameter ( stays in the range [0, 1]. Another possible formulation
is related to the extended definition of the effective stress (Murakami 1990):
g = ~ [(~ _ D) -1 (g) + (g) (~ _ D) -1] _

(4.101)
~ [(~ _ (D)-1 (_g) + (_g) (~_ (D)-I]
Here also, ( = 0 and ( = 1 represent perfect closure of micro-cracks and

lack of closure of micro-cracks, respectively. For the sake of simplicity and
in order to avoid discontinuity of the material stiffness during unloading and
reverse loading, it is assumed in the present paper that ( = 1. Certainly, at
cryogenic conditions, this assumption seems to be justified due to a strong
thermal contraction of the material and natural opening of the micro-cracks
and micro-voids.
Orthotropic Kinetic Law of Damage Evolution
In the case of anisotropic ductile damage the parameter D is replaced by the

tensor D and the scalar function of the strain energy density release rate Y
is replaced by the relevant tensor Y (cf. Lemaitre 1992). Again both D and
Y form a pair of dual state variables. In the formulation of the kinetic law
of damage evolution it is assumed that the driving force of orthotropic duc-
tile damage in ductile materials remains the accumulated plastic strain. The
strength energy of damage S is replaced by a material tensor e, that defines
the material properties in the principal directions of damage. Furthermore, it
is assumed that as soon as the damage threshold PD has been reached, the
micro-damage starts developing driven by the increase in the accumulated
plastic strain p. However, damage evolution is supposed to be different along
the principal directions described by the eigenvectors of the tensor D. Thus,
the kinetic law of damage evolution is postulated in the following formlGarion
and Skoczen 2002a):
(4.102)
which implies that the tensor of damage is symmetric. In the direct notation,
Eq. (4.102) is equivalent to:
(4.103)
e
Here, the tensor has been imposed on the tensor Y with respect to index k
and the product has been again imposed the tensor eT with respect to index 1.
It is worth pointing out, that the Eq. (4.102) reducesto the standard isotropic
kinetic law of damage evolution in the case of isotropic damage. Tensor e is
defined as follows: -
e = L ei'Ili Q9Lh (4.104)
i=1,3
and can be classified as the symmetric tensor containing the material moduli.
The strain energy density release rate tensor is defined by:
(4.105)
Eqs. (4.89) and (4.94) combined together lead to the following equation:
(4.106)
The power dissipation due to damage, WD , is given by:

(4.107)
It can be easily shown that:

(4.108)
which corresponds to the second thermodynamic principle. Same result can

be obtained from the Clausius-Duhem inequality. The relevant potential of
dissipation reads:
(~-~) :lE,: (~-~)

(4.109)
(~ - X) : (~ - X)
where
(4.110)
or in direct notation:
L ijkl = M-I
ijmn
M-I
mnkl (4.111)
Here, ip is a quadratic function of the conjugate force Y and satisfies the
following equation:
. . aip
D =), ay (4.112)
Table 4.1. Comparison between the isotropic and the orthotropic models.
Isotropic model Orthotropic model
Helmholtz free energy
= E (1 - + IVP = + IV
1ft 1
2p=
E;e :
= D) : E;e
=
1ft 1
2p=
E;e :
==
M ( D) : E :
= = = E;e
P
Effective stress
g = (1- D)g g= 4[(J; - D) g + g (J; - D)] <=?
g=M(D) :g
Conjugate force associated to damage
y = _p dlJF = .!..E;e : E : E;e Y = _p dlJF <=?
8D 2= ~ = = 8D
~ = ~ r~e -(~ :~e) + (~: ~e ) ~e1

Potential of dissipation associated to irreversible damage process
1 Y'" 1
iPD=----
2 S I-D
iPD = ~ (~~~T) :~a (D)
a (D) =
(~- X) :M-I: M-I : (~- X) 1/2
(~-X): (~-X)
Kinetic law of damage evolution
D= ,,8:: = fpi P>PD

D=
=
,,8iP D =CYCT .
-
ar === P
Ip>pn
Thus, the kinetic law of damage evolution Eq. (4.102) can be derived
directly from the Eq. (4.112). It is worth pointing out, that the model has
been built as a direct extrapolation of the isotropic model of damage evolution
(see Table 4.1). The isotropic conjugate damage variables, D and Y, can
be obtained from the orthotropic state variables D and Y by the following
operations: - -
Y = tr [r] (4.113)
and, assuming that C = Cl:. for isotropic material, the first invariant of damage
rate tensor reads:
(4.114)
which corresponds to the isotropic damage evolution law with S = 1/C 2 .
Principal Directions of Damage Versus Principal Directions of

Stress
As an example of texture induced damage anisotropy, we shall consider a

material that is characterised by long grains oriented along the longitudinal
direction (1) and narrow in the transverse direction (2) (Fig. 4.12).
(2)
(1)
,!\
Fig. 4.12. Illustration of the texture directions (1,2) and the applied load (along 11)
In order to simplify the analysis a two dimensional problem will be consid-

ered. The tensor of material properties, expressed in the principal directions,
reads (Fig. 4.12):
C= (~1 ~2) (;l,:, ,;f2) (4.115)
Assume that the load is applied in the direction !b inclined at angle () with
respect to direction (1). Thus the stress tensor can be expressed by:
with (n, m) being the principal directions of stress. Now, the principal direc-
tions of damage rate iJ as a function of ratio between the principal components
of tensor C : CdC2~ill be identified. Since damage evolution may lead to
redistribution of stresses, it is assumed that the principal directions of iJ are
searched at the instant when the damage threshold is reached: -
P=PD (4.117)
Thus, the following tensor will be brought to its principal directions:
VD = ~I =CYCT (4.118)
P=PD
where V D is expressed by:

(4.119)
Here, t denotes the principal direction of damage and voP stands for the initial
(p = PD) damage rate intensity. The principal direction of damage t has been
illustrated in Fig. 4.13 for several CdC2 ratios and as a function of angle e.
1.0
\
, ,
'(l.
~
<> <> 8=31t/8
1 \
,
0.8 o 8=1t/4
\ ,.,,,
,(')
1
\(')
'.~ o 8=1t/8
.(") \"\\ .(')
I Nil .....
0.6
• V>
19
19
1 0
.
I
Q
I
0.4
'-'-'~'-O C
I
-·-.1""2c
_ .....~
0.2 ....
'li1
,
-Gl ....
,
....
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Fig. 4.13. Evolution of initial normalised damage rate intensity vector 12. as a func-
tion of plastic strain at 4.2 K
Next, the normalised damage rate intensity vector 1l. is introduced (see
Fig. 4.13):
Vo
Q=--t (4.120)
VO max
where Vo max is the maximum damage rate intensity, obtained always in the
direction of highest C component (;1:1 if Cl > C2 and ;1:2 if C 2 > Cd. It
is worth pointing out that for Cl = C2 (isotropic case) Vo = VO max and
vector Q has always length equal to 1. Also, the principal directions of stress
and damage rate are fully colinear. Finally, the illustration shows that the
colinearity is obtained also in the case when vector 11 is parallel to directions
(1) or (2), that means the load is applied in one of the principal texture
directions. Such formulation of damage orthotropy is suitable not only for
materials with strong texture but also for generalised composite materials,
containing fiber orientation.
Identification of Material Tensor at Cryogenic Temperatures
A similar method as in the case of isotropic damage can be applied in order

to identify the principal components of the tensor C. In the simple two di-
mensional case (thin-walled plates and shells) two values Cl, C2 have to be
found from two independent tensile tests in the principal directions. Here, the
following formula holds:
2E(1- Di)2 ~
i = 1,2 (4.121)
a'f
Identification of the parameters Cl, C 2 is illustrated in Fig. 4.14. The method
is general and holds both for room and for cryogenic temperatures. Identi-
fication of the tensor C is sufficient for further analysis of evolution of the
orthotropic damage provided that the curves Di = Di(P) can be linearised.
D,
D. ------------------------
'"
p
Pier
Fig. 4.14. Orthotropic damage: identification of parameters Oi, i = 1,2.

4.3 Accumulation of Damage due to Cyclic Loads 103
4.3 Accumulation of Damage due to Cyclic Loads. Effect

of Large Mean Plastic Strain on the Number of Cycles
to Failure
A stable hysteresis loop at the level of a point within a cyclically loaded
structure is very often reached after preceding progressive deformation. Such
a situation occurs, for example, as an effect of the transient ratchetting phe-
nomenon, often characterised as plastic shakedown after finite progressive
deformation. It turns out that during certain limited number of cycles the
hysteresis loop deforms due to cyclic softening or hardening, moves along the
stress axis due to the mean stress relaxation effect and moves along the strain
axis due to the progressively increasing mean plastic strain (ratchetting, cf.
Skoczen 1996). The ratchetting induced mean strain and the mean strain rate
depend on the structure, the boundary conditions and a loading program com-
prising usually a sustained load with a superimposed variable repeated load.
Failure of the structure is then caused by the fatigue crack propagation and it
is a fundamental problem for a designer to develop the fatigue life prediction
technique.
Recent works concerning modelling of the ratchetting phenomenon are di-
rected towards establishing new complex constitutive equations, taking into
account all the above described effects. Let us mention here the publications
by Chaboche (1991) and Chaboche et al. (1991). These new constitutive de-
scriptions of various elastic-plastic materials enable us to simulate ratchetting
behaviour at the level of a point or, which is more complex, at the level of a
structure. However, the numerical simulations, based usually on the finite el-
ement codes, are extremely time consuming and often hardly reliable because
of the numerical error accumulation due to large number of cycles to failure.
A simple way out of this situation is to estimate the parameters of the stable
hysteresis loop (plastic shakedown) either in a numerical or an experimental
way and to develop a simple formula for calculating the number of cycles to
failure.
If the mean strain for the stabilised hysteresis loop is small when compared
to the strain amplitude and can be ignored the life prediction technique is
based on the classical Coffin (1954), parametrical relationship known also as
Manson-Coffin equation (cf. Manson 1953):
(4.122)
where NfO denotes the fatigue life, L\cp the plastic strain range; C, (3 are the
material constants. The constant C is related to the tensile ductility in simple
tension CfO (true fracture strain) in the following way (Coffin 1970):
C = (0.25)/3 CfO , (4.123)
Thus, Manson-Coffin equation depends exclusively on the plastic strain

amplitude and not on the mean plastic strain cpm. Several efforts have been
made to obtain a generalised Manson-Coffin equation for the case of mean

strain. Let us mention again the paper by Coffin 1970, who explored the ef-
fects of simultaneously applied cyclic and large monotonic strains for annealed
Nickel A samples. A quasi-linear failure criterion was developed. Another pa-
per by Ellyin 1985, was dedicated to the effect of tensile mean strain on cyclic
properties and fatigue life of ASTM A-516 Grade 70 carbon low alloy steel.
The fatigue tests were conducted with the tensile mean strain up to maxi-
mum 6 percent and maximum cyclic strain range of 3 percent. The effect of
the mean strain on the fatigue life turned out to be negligible because the
mean strain values in the tests were of the order of the strain range. As a
result the following conclusion was formulated: the mean strain of the order
of the fatigue ductility coefficient is required in order to observe a significant
reduction of the fatigue life.
4.3.1 Accumulated Mean Strain of the Order of the Tensile

Ductility
Let us refer once again to the paper by Coffin (1970). The investigation per-
formed by the author was unique because of very carefully prepared strain pro-
gram, that involved superposition of cyclic and monotonic (linearly changing
with time) strain. The hourglass shaped specimens of Nickel A were subject to
push-pull loading. Diametral strain, large enough to cause localised necking,
was measured. The diametral strain limits were defined as:
Cdl = -Kl - K 2 (N + 0.25), (4.124)

Cd2 = Kl - K 2 (N + 0.75), (4.125)
where K 1 , K2 denote the diametral strain amplitude and the mean diametral
strain per cycle, respectively. The accumulated mean strain at failure was of
the order of the tensile ductility provided that the monotonic strain rate was
large enough. Since the large strains were considered, the logarithmic strain
measure (true strains (see Skrzypek and Wr6blewski 1985)) was introduced:
(4.126)
where do, d 1 , d2 denote the initial diameter and the diameter limits, respec-
tively. In order to control the diameter cycle program a special strain pro-
grammer was used, because the diameter limits d 1 and d2 are nonlinear with
N. As a result of the assumption that the elastic strains are negligible when
compared to the plastic strains (large strains) the incompressibility was pos-
tulated (Poisson's ratio equal to 0.5) in the analysis. This implies the longi-
tudinal strain limits to be twice the diametral strain limits, since:
l Ao d~ d
cl = In - = In - = In - 2 = -21n - = -2cd (4.127)
lo A d do '
where la, l denote the initial and the current gauge length; Aa, A are the
initial and the current areas of section; do, d are the initial and the current
diameters of section. Under these conditions the locally measured diametral
strain was converted to the local longitudinal strain.
The author reported on a mixed mechanism of failure of the samples: in
the extreme cases either by a sudden separation when failure was by ductile
fracture or by rapid decrease in load capacity with cycling when the failure
was by fatigue. From the classical tests, with mean strain equal to zero, Coffin
obtained (for Nickel A) the following equation:
(4.128)
where cm denotes the measured true fracture longitudinal strain equal to 1.59.
On the other hand, for the mixed failure, the author proposed an analogous
formula based on the assumption that the actual ductility is reduced by the
amount of accumulated mean strain at fracture Cf:
(4.129)
where Nf denotes the number of cycles to failure due to the mixed mechanism.
Combining Eqs. (4.128) and (4.129) one obtains:
1.2
Nickel A
o Kl~·01l25
/':,. Kl~·OO5
1.0
o Kl~.OO2
0.8 0
~
-'t
'"
e
0
0.6
~
0
~
:l
Cl
0.4
0
0
0.2
0.0 -+-.---.,--r----r--,--,---,--,-----,r---lil1O
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Life ratio (Nf/Nro)O.563
Fig. 4.15. Experimental data and Coffin's approximation for mixed mechanism of
cyclic and monotonic straining.
(Nr/Nro)f3 = 1 - (cr/cro); f3 = 0.563. (4.130)
Comparison between the experimental data reported by Coffin and Eq. (4.130)
for various values of the diametral strain amplitude (Kl) is presented in
Fig. 4.15.
Note that the test data for Kl = 0.1125 are scattered above the linear fit
whereas the data for Kl = 0.002 are situated below this line along a smooth
curve. This observation leads to conclusion that Eq. (4.130) proposed by Coffin
forms rather a rough approximation to the solution of the problem.
4.3.2 Solution Based on the Kinetic Law of Damage Evolution
A solution of the above presented problem may be found within the framework
of the ductile damage mechanics. A unified formulation of the kinetic laws of
damage evolution leads for the one dimensional case and s = 1 to the following
equation:
(4.131)
Here a denotes the uni-axial stress, cp is the plastic strain and cpD is the
damage threshold). Calculation of the damage parameter increment per cycle
dD / dN requires an integration of iJ over the cycle. To this aim the following
assumptions are made (Skoczeii. 1996):
• large plastic strains expressed in the logarithmic measure and true stresses
are considered,
• elastic strain components are negligible when compared to the plastic
strains,
• the incompressibility is assumed (Poisson's ratio equal to 0.5),
• description of the hysteresis (Fig. 4.16) is based on the power plastic hard-
ening model (the Ramberg-Osgood stress-plastic strain relations),
• the strain equivalence principle (Lemaitre 1992) is applied,
• the micro-cracks nucleation is instantaneous, once the plastic deformation
starts (cpD = 0),
• the mean stress after stabilisation of the hysteresis is negligible when com-
pared to the stress range,
• variation of the damage parameter is negligible for the integration over
one cycle.
The simplified model of a stabilised hysteresis, based on the power plastic
hardening law, is presented in Fig. 4.16.
The lines B - C and D - A are assumed to be straight and perpendicular to
the strain axis. According to the strain equivalence principle the constitutive
equation for the damaged material is the same as for virgin material except
that the stress a is replaced by the effective stress if = a / (1 - D). In this light
the following description of the line A - B has been assumed:
~ cr
cr=--
I-D
B
amax - -- - -- -- - -- -- - --- - --1- - - - -,---
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
c
I
cr min
D
Fig. 4.16. Simplified model of a hysteresis based on the power plastic hardening
law.
a
1- D = K cp - cpmin
( )1/n
, (4.132)
where cpmin is the lower plastic strain limit for the hysteresis. Line C-D may
be described in a similar way since la-mini = la-maxi. This constitutive model
leads to the experimentally confirmed cyclic relationship:
L1a ] n
L1cp = [ A(l - D) , (4.133)
where L1cp = cpmax - cpmin, L1a = a max - amin denote the plastic strain
range and the stress range, respectively. Here A = 2K and n are the material
constants.
Performing the integration of D over cycle, one obtains:
dD
dN =
j. Ddt = j a- 2 (cp). dt =
2ES cp
1 cycle 1 cycle
1 CjPmax [ 1/n] 2
2Es2 K (cp - cpmin) dcp, (4.134)
Epmin
eventually, after some calculations, one arrives at:
dD _ A2 1/(3 n
dN - 4ES f3L1c p , f3=n+2· (4.135)
It turns out that the increment of the damage parameter per cycle depends
exclusively on the plastic strain range and does not depend on the mean
plastic strain cpm . However, it is obvious that the damage rate should be
different for various levels of the mean plastic strain, providing that cpm is of
the order of the tensile ductility CfO. In particular the damage rate should tend
to infinity when the mean plastic strain approaches CfO. Hence, the following
reformulation of the kinetic law of damage evolution for cyclic loading (with
plastic ratchetting effect incorporated) has been proposed (cf. Skoczen 1996):
cpm =
Cpmax + cpmin (4.136)
2
For cpm = 0 we obtain the previous formula, whereas for mean plastic strain
approaching tensile ductility cpm ---- CfO the increment of the damage param-
eter per one cycle tends to infinity (Fig. 4.17).
The value of the damage parameter after N cycles may be eventually
calculated in the following way:
D= JN
dD dN = A2 (3L1c 1/{3
dN 4ES p
J[1-
N
cpm(N)] -a dN
CfO '
(4.137)
o 0
where cpm(N) is a given function of mean plastic strain vs. the number of
cycles.
15.0
dDlf AI! &;1113\J
dN \4ES p
12.5
10.0
7.5
5.0
2.5
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Fig. 4.17. Increment of damage per cycle versus the ratio of mean plastic strain to
tensile ductility.
4.3.3 Linear Evolution of the Mean Plastic Strain as a Function of

Time
Let us assume, after Coffin (1970), that the evolution of the mean plastic
strain is expressed by:
cpm(N) = kN, (4.138)
where k is a given constant. Substituting the latter to the Eq. (4.137) one
obtains:
N
D = A2 (311c 1/(3/ (1- ~N)~<> dN (4.139)

4ES p cm '
o
and after integration:
D = ~(311c1/(3 (1 - aN)l~<> - 1
(4.140)
4ES p a(a - 1) ,
where: a = kjcfO. At failure, when the damage parameter reaches its critical
value D = Dc, the number of cycles is equal to N f • Hence, the Eq. (4.140)
may be rewritten in the form:
D = A2 (311c 1/(3 (1 - aNr)l~<> - 1

(4.141)
c 4ES p a(a - 1) ,
and after simple transformations one obtains the number of cycles to failure
with ratchetting effect incorporated:
Nf = -;;,1 { 1 - [1 + a(a - 1)C 1 /(3 11c~l/(3 ] 1/(1~<»} , (4.142)
where C = ( 4ESDc)
A2 (3
(3 .
. Commg back to the classical Manson~Coffin equa-
tion one obtains:
NfO = C 1 /(3 11c~l/(3 , (4.143)
that may be substituted into the equation for N f , Eq. (4.142):
Nf = ~ { 1- [1 + a(a - 1)Nml1/(1~<»} . (4.144)
Note that with a ----t 0 one obtains Nf ----t NfO.

Performing simple re arrangements one arrives at:
(4.145)
where ef = kNf denotes the mean plastic strain at fracture.

Assume for example that a = 2. In this case one obtains a simple equation:
Nf - 1 - ~ (4.146)
NfO - efO '
that is equivalent to:
k
Nf _ NfO .
- 1 +aNfO'
a-
- - . (4.147)
efO
An illustration of the effect of k on the number of cycles to failure is given
in Fig. 4.18.
1200 Nr
o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Fig. 4.18. Effect of the mean plastic strain rate on the number of cycles to failure.
4.3.4 Comparison with the Experimental Results
Coffin's approximation of the experimental data (for Nickel A) consists in

formulation of a linear relation between the life ratio (Nr/NfO )o.563 and the
ductility ratio er/efO. On the other hand, the equation for Nr/NfO , Eq. (4.145),
turns out to fit well to the experimental data (see Fig. 4.19) for various values
of the parameter a, that should be regarded as a function of the longitudinal
plastic strain amplitude Llep:
(4.148)
1.20 --,
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00 - + - r - - - , - r - - , - r - - , - r -....----,,..::~........,-_,
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
Fig. 4.19. New approximation to the experimental data.
The best fit curves for the results obtained by Coffin are presented in
Fig. 4.20, that is a slightly modified version (life ratio is taken as Nd N fO )
of Fig. 4.19. Three values of a (2.5; 3.5; 8) correspond to three levels of the
plastic strain amplitude. Assuming that the elastic strains are negligible when
compared to the plastic strains and longitudinal strain limits are twice the
diametral strain limits an approximation of the function a has been plotted
in Fig. 4.21. It turns out that the larger strain amplitude L1Ep the lower value
of a. This is due to the fact that the effect of mean plastic strain must be
referred to the effect of the plastic strain amplitude. The larger mean plastic
strain when compared to the plastic strain amplitude the more pronounced
its influence on damage (larger values of a). It appears however, that for
sufficiently large amplitudes L1Ep parameter a tends to a certain stable level.
This stabilisation may be interpreted as a saturation of rate of damage over
one cycle for plastic strain amplitudes, which tend to infinity.
4.3.5 Generalised Manson-Coffin Formula. Constant Mean Plastic

Strain (Finite Ratchetting)
As a conclusion from the previous pages the following one dimensional dam-
age law for cyclic loading with an effect of the mean plastic strain may be
postulated (Skoczeri 1996):
(4.149)
1.20
Er
Ero
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
Fig. 4.20. The best fit curves (ductility ratio versus life ratio) for the test results
for Nickel A.
10.0
Cl
9.0 -
8.0
7.0 \
\
6.0 \
\
5.0
\
\
'*. . . -
4.0
3.0~
20l
--,---,---,-----,------,-----,-
1.0l
0.0 +-~-'i
o 0.01 0.02 0.03
Fig. 4.21. Parameter 0: as a function of the longitudinal plastic strain amplitude

Llc: p •
4.4 Numerical Modelling of Damage Accumulation 113
dD
where D~ = dN. Hence, the rate of damage per cycle depends on two pa-
rameters describing a stable hysteresis: the plastic strain range L1cp and the
mean plastic strain cpm. Let us stress that cpm is assumed positive (ten-
sile mean plastic strain). Finite (transient) ratchetting phenomenon leads to
the so-called plastic shakedown (alternating plasticity) which means that the
hysteresis loop at a given point of structure after a number of initial cycles
stabilises and both the mean plastic strain over cycle and the plastic strain
amplitude may be estimated. Thus, assuming cpm=const and L1cp = const
one obtains the following equation:
_ A2
Dc - 4ESfiL1cp
1/i3( 1 _c pm )-'" NI ,
CfO (4.150)
which leads to the formula:
(4.151)
where
c= (4ESDc) i3 n
fi=n+2· (4.152)
A2fi '
Substituting the classical Manson-Coffin formula into the latter one arrives
at the generalised Manson-Coffin parametrical relationship:
Nf =NfO ( cpm
1--
CfO
)'" (4.153)
If the ratio cpm/ CfO is small when compared to 1, that was the case reported
by Ellyin (1985), the influence of the mean plastic strain on the fatigue life
Nf is negligible. On the other hand, if cpm is of order of CfO the reduction
of number of cycles to failure when compared to the classical Manson-Coffin
formula may be considerable. A similar equation has been proposed by Sachs
(1960), and by Libertiny (1967-68), who investigated the effect of mean strain
on the fatigue life of different ductile materials. Some important remarks on
this subject were also presented by Libertiny in the discussion to the paper
by Dubuc (1970).
The above presented results, verified on the experimental data for Nickel
A, can be applied to the materials showing high level ductility both at room
and at cryogenic temperatures. Stainless steel grades 304L, 316L and 316LN
belong to this family.
4.4 Numerical Modelling of Damage Accumulation
The numerical approach to accumulation of damage under static and cyclic

loads will be presented on the basis of the rate independent plasticity. The
elasto-plastic material with linear kinematic hardening, partially coupled with

damage, is used here as an example. Nevertheless, this approach can easily be
extended to the nonlinear formulation of hardening and to the visco-plastic
material description.
4.4.1 The Partially Coupled Approach to Plasticity-Damage

The formulation that takes into account damage evolution is as follows:
• Small strains are considered:
(4.154)
• The elastic law:

(4.155)
where G = G(l- D) denotes the effective Kirchhoff modulus for damaged

material.
• The single coupled potential of dissipation:
F {g,X, Y; (~e,g,D)} = Fp {g,X; (D)} + Fo {Y; (D)} , (4.156)
with
Fp {g, X; (D)} = J2(g - X) (4.157)
F _ S (Y )S+l
o-(s+l)(l-D) S
( 4.158)
• Damage coupled yield surface:
f (g, X) = J2(g - X) -0"0 = ~ [(~ - X) : (~- j;,)] 1/2 -0"0 = 0, (4.159)

or
~ [(~ - X(l- D)) : (~- X(l- D))]1/2 - 0- 0 = 0, (4.160)
where 0- 0 = 0"0(1- D) is the effective yield strength.

• Flow rule:
dc P = of d)' = ~ §. -.K _1-d)' (4.161)
= og 2h (g - X) 1- D '
with d)' = (1 - D)dp
• Linear kinematic hardening (evolution of the back stress):
2 2 -
dX = -Cdc P (l - D) = -Cdc P ( 4.162)
== 3 = 3 ='
where C is the hardening modulus and {; = C(l - D) is the effective
hardening modulus, and
(4.163)
. = (y)S
• Damage evolution:
D S pH(P - PD) (4.164)
4.4.2 The Uncoupled Approach to Plasticity-Damage Analysis
The uncoupled approach consists in the elasto-plastic analysis of the structure

as the first step and integration of the kinetic law of damage evolution as the
second step. This approach seems to be particularly suitable for structures
subjected to cyclic loads, where the integration of plastic deformation over
one cycle can precede the computation of damage increment over this cycle.
The simplest approach is shown in the Table 4.2. Here, the elastic strain
energy density release rate is given by the following formula:
Y = -IEee
cc = -l E - 1 aa.
--
(4.165)
2 == 2 ==
Since the damage increment is given by the equations (here: for the elasto--
plastic material with linear kinematic hardening):
dD = (~) sdp, (4.166)
dA
dp = 1- D' (4.167)
1 S-X da
dA= - - - - (4.168)
C Jdg - X) 1 - D '
by combining them one obtains:
(4.169)
Calculation of damage increment - in case of the uncoupled approach -

is based on the elasto--plastic solution (without damage) denoted by "*". The
state of stress and deformation as well as the accumulated plastic strain are
used to compute strain energy density release rate Y as well as the other
functions (see Table 4.2).
Table 4.2. The uncoupled approach to plasticity damage.

Hypothesis Function Y Function D
fe = §..e*
fP = f P' Y = y' = ~E ce·ce•
2-- - D = (~'r p'
p=p'
The uncoupled approach leads in the case of monotonic loads to integra-

tion of the elasto-plastic equations on the current load step and to further
calculation of damage increment in post-processing. For instance, if the ap-
proach based entirely on the elastic and plastic strains (as shown in Table 4.2)
is used, the increment of damage is computed as follows:
• At the time instant ti the known functions are: Q.*(ti), [e*(ti), [P*(ti),
P*(ti), D(ti ) - - -
• The equations of plasticity are integrated from ti to ti+l,
• At the time instant ti+ 1 we compute: Llp* = p* (ti+ d - p* (ti),
LlD = (Y*~ti)) Llp* (4.170)
• The damage function is updated: D(ti+l) = D(ti) + LlD,

• Finally, the material moduli are corrected according to damage develop-
ment:
G = 0(1- D), Uo = 0"0(1 - D) , C= C(l- D). (4.171)
Another possible complementary algorithm (Skoczeri. 2002) is based on

direct integration of damage evolution law with the linear interpolation of the
equivalent and the hydrostatic stresses on the time step (parameter s has been
assumed equal to 1, for simplicity):
• O"~ (t)Rv(t)
D = 2E~(1 _ D)2P(t) for p 2 PD (4.172)
(4.173)
(4.174)
assuming linear interpolation:
(4.175)
one obtains:
(4.176)
where:
(4.177)
and al, bl , a2, b2 have to be computed from the elasto-plastic solution.

The linear interpolation of the equivalent and the hydrostatic stresses
over the time step yields the solution more precise. Similar approach can
be adopted in the case of cyclic loads where the increment of damage is calcu-
lated for the entire cycle. The idea has already been presented for a uni-axial
stress state in the previous chapter. This approach, applied to the multi-axial
stress state, is based on the following assumptions:
• The increment of damage on cycle is relatively small,
• The hysteresis loops are stabilised (after initial cyclic hardening or soften-
ing),
• When entering a new hysteresis loop the states of stress and deformation
as well as the state of damage are known,
• The equations of plasticity are integrated over the entire cycle,
• The increment of damage on cycle is computed from the known elasto--
plastic solution for this cycle,
• The material functions are updated after each cycle to account for the
actual state of damage,
• Since it is often difficult (from the numerical point of view) to update the
functions in every point of the structure, a division into a number of sub-
domains is introduced and an average value of damage per sub-domain is
computed,
• The state of damage is observed in the points where the damage equivalent
stress lT~ = lTeq$v reaches its maximum when compared to the rest of
the structure,
• The process is terminated when the peak value of damage reaches locally
the critical value D cr .
An example of algorithm that can be applied to compute increment of
damage on cycle for a stabilised hysteresis is shown in Fig. 4.22. Numerical
implementation of the algorithm to the evolution of damage in the bellows
convolutions and the corresponding results are presented in the next chapters.
elasto-plastic analysis of the first stabilised cycle for a given

temperature T (4 K, 77 K, 293 K)
N=l; P=PD; D=O
r
N=N+1 Storage of strains and stresses for the
N-th cycle
Integration of damage increments in J points per sub-domain and

calculation of the average values for all M sub-domains
(post-processing) :
DN = D N - 1 + l1D i , i = 1, ... , M
Storage of the calculated values
Identification of the peak value of damage

in the structure: D'N ax
Modification of the material moduli in the sub-domains according to

the calculated damage levels:
ji;i = Ei(l - D~), ab = ab(1- DN), (ji = C i (l - D N )
i = 1, ... ,M
Simulation of a new cycle with the computed material data

elasto-plastic analysis
If: D'N ax = Dcr (crack initiation)

Then: STOP
Fig. 4.22. Example of a numerical integration of damage over stabilised cycles, for
a structure subdivided into M domains.
5
Strain Induced Martensitic Transformation at
Low Temperatures
5.1 Constitutive Models of Steels Exhibiting Strain

Induced Martensitic Transformation
As already mentioned in the previous chapters, the Fe-er-Ni stainless steels
are commonly used to manufacture components of superconducting magnets
and cryogenic transfer lines since they retain their ductility at low temper-
atures and are paramagnetic. The nitrogen strengthened stainless steels of
series 300 belong to the group of met astable austenitic alloys. Under certain
conditions the steels undergo martensitic transformation at cryogenic temper-
atures that lead to a considerable evolution of material properties and to a
ferromagnetic behaviour. The martensitic transformations are induced mainly
by plastic strain fields and amplified by high magnetic fields. Spontaneous
transformations due to the cooling process - identified with respect to some
alloys - are not observed in the most often used grades 304L, 304LN, 316L,
316LN. The stainless steels of series 300 show at room temperature a classical
,),-phase of face centred cubic austenite (Fee). This phase may transform ei-
ther to a' phase of body centred tetragonal ferrite (BeT) or to a hexagonal E
phase. The most often occurring')' - a' transformation leads to formation of
martensite sites dispersed in the surrounding austenite matrix. In the course
of the strain induced transformation the martensite platelets modify the Fee
lattice leading to local distortions. The amount of the martensite depends on
the chemical composition, temperature, stress state, plastic strains and ex-
posure to magnetic field. It is well known that the solutes like Ni, Mn and
N considerably stabilise the ,),-phase. For instance the strain induced marten-
sitic content in the grades 304LN, 316LN at low temperatures is much lower
than in the grades 304L, 316L for the same level of plastic strain (Morris
et al. 1992).
The increase in martensite fraction promoted by plastic deformation can
be detected by measuring the magnetic permeability /-L. The evolution of /-L
at low temperature corresponding to monotonic straining as well as to the
cyclic loads for 304L and 316L stainless steels was investigated by Suzuki
120 Strain Induced Martensitic Transformation
et al. (1988). Tensile properties of stainless steels at low temperatures are

strongly influenced by the plastic strain induced martensitic transformation.
As a result of the transformation the initially homogenous ')'-phase loses its
homogeneity because of the inclusions of the harder martensite phase. The
martensite platelets embedded in the soft austenite matrix provoke local stress
concentration and block the movement of dislocations. Therefore the onset of
martensitic transformation leads to an increase in strain hardening. Results
showing the increase of a' martensite with strain for 304L and 304LN stainless
steel at 77 K have been reported by Morris et al. (1992). Similar studies for
304L and 316L stainless steels at 77 K and at 4 K were carried out by Suzuki
et al. (1988).
Transformation kinetics has been developed by Olson and Cohen (1975).
The authors attribute the strain-induced martensite nucleation sites to the
shear-band intersections (the shear bands being in the form of c' marten-
site, mechanical twins or stacking-fault bundles). The analysis leads to the
following equation for the volume fraction of martensite versus plastic strain:
~QI = 1- exp {-,8 [1 - exp (-acP)t} , (5.1)
where a represents the rate of shear-band formation, ,8 represents the prob-

ability that a shear-band intersection will become a martensite site and n is
a fixed exponent. The transformation curves (volume fraction of martensite
versus plastic strain) show a typical sigmoidal shape with saturation levels
below 100% (Fig. 5.1).
1. -------------------------------
I
o.
.sa 0.8
'0;
c:
~ 0.7
(\l
!:o 0.6
c:
~ 0.5
(\l
~ 0.4
Q)
E
.2 0.3
g
0.2
0.1
o.o-+.&.......:::;,--"""!"=-,-----.--....-----,
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Total strain
Fig. 5.1. Volume fraction of martensite versus plastic strain at cryogenic tempera-
tures (304 stainless steel).
5.2 Transformation Kinetics at Cryogenic Temperatures 121
Constitutive modelling of steels exhibiting strain~induced martensitic

transformation was initiated by Narutani et al. (1982). The constitutive model
predicting 0'(10, E, T) for metastable austenites has been developed taking into
account transformation kinetics and flow properties of both phases. A more
complex constitutive model has been developed by Stringfellow et al. (1992).
Here an isotropic hypo-elastic formulation based on large strains was used.
The inelastic stretching was decomposed into two parts: slip in the austenite
and martensite phases and the nucleation component resulting from the trans-
formation process. Local and global stress and strain components were linked
by using the Eshelby (1957), solutions for incompressible spherical inclusions
in an infinite, incompressible isotropic matrix. The model was successfully
validated on the experimentally obtained set of data. The next complex con-
stitutive modelling has been developed by Levitas et al. (1999). The phase
transformation model is based on the mesoscopic continuum thermodynam-
ics. Generalisation of the Prandtl~Reuss equations with isotropic hardening
to the case of large strains for elasto-plastic isotropic materials was used. The
deformation gradient was decomposed into three parts: elastic, plastic and the
transformation one. Elastic strains were assumed small when compared to in-
elastic strains. A difference between phase transformation under displacement
and stress controlled boundary conditions was demonstrated.
The constitutive models mentioned above were based on the assumption
of large inelastic strains. However, if the strain~induced transformation oc-
curs at very low temperatures (liquid nitrogen 77 K, liquid helium 4.5 K)
then the steep part of the transformation curves (see Fig. 5.1) remains in
the domain of relatively small strains (below 0.2). In such a case constitu-
tive modelling can be considerably simplified and remains within the scope
of the classical theories of plasticity. The relevant elasto-plastic model with
linear mixed (isotropic/kinematic) hardening including the effect of strain in-
duced martensitic transformation has been developed by Garion and Skoczen
(200la), (2002a).
5.2 Transformation Kinetics at Cryogenic Temperatures
Olson and Cohen (1975), developed a one dimensional model for the kinet-
ics of martensitic transformation, called the OC model. The evolution of the
volume fraction of martensite as a function of plastic strain is derived by con-
sidering shear band formation, probability of shear~band intersections and
probability of an intersection generating a martensitic embryo. In this model,
only temperature and plastic strain control martensite evolution. Different im-
provements have been brought to this model, covering the influence of stress
state (Stringfellow et al. 1992) and strain rate (Levitas et al. 1999). However,
a considerable number of parameters has to be identified for these models.
Finally, based on the considerations presented in the previous pages, a simpli-
fied model has been developed by Garion and Skoczen (2002a), for cryogenic
applications. Generally, the volume fraction of martensite ecan be presented

in the following form:
e= e(p, T,~P,g) , (5.2)
where p is the accumulated plastic strain defined by:
(5.3)
with fP the plastic strain rate and Q. the stress tensor. Under isothermal condi-
tions and for a given strain rate, the classical sigmoidal curve has the following
form (Fig. 5.2):
~ 1.0
0.9 I 11 III
- - - ~L
.El 0.8
·00
c
~ 0.7
ca
E 0.6
'0
§ 0.5
~
~ 0.4
Q)
E
.2 0.3
g
0.2
0.1
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Total strain
Fig. 5.2. Volume fraction of martensite eversus plastic strain cp.
The curve may be decomposed into 3 regions:

• Region I that corresponds to a nonlinear increase of the martensitic content
with strain (primary phase),
• Region 11 where the a' volume fraction (~) is linearly related to plastic
deformation (lOP) (secondary phase),
• Region III that corresponds to a saturation effect (tertiary phase).
A simplified evolution law for the martensite content for the region 11 reads
(5.4)
5.3 Constitutive Modelling of Plastic Flow 123
where A is a function of temperature, stress state and strain rate, PE" is the
accumulated plastic strain threshold (to trigger the formation of martensite),
~L is the martensite content limit, over which the martensitic transformation
rate is considered equal to 0, and H represents the Heavyside function. The 3
regions shown above are thus simplified in the following way:
• Region I: no martensitic transformation until PE" is reached.
• Region Il: the volume fraction of martensite (~) is linearly related to ac-
cumulated plastic strain (p) until ~L is reached.
• Region Ill: no martensitic transformation above ~L'
Stringfellow et al. (1992), show that the stress state dependence is well
represented by the triaxiality E, defined as the ratio of the hydrostatic stress
and the equivalent stress.
1 tr [g]
E----
- 3 O'eq , (5.5)
with O'eq = J~!J. :!J., where!J. is the deviatoric stress.
5.3 Constitutive Modelling of Plastic Flow in the

Presence of Strain Induced Martensitic Transformation
at Cryogenic Temperatures
In the present section a mesoscopic model, capable of representing the hard-
ening work and the evolution of martensite content for the material under
different types of loads (monotonic or cyclic) is developed. The model, is
sufficiently simple to be easily integrated into a finite element code. The con-
stitutive model is based on a classical approach to the plastic flow, that is
on linear mixed hardening. Since the material (stainless steel), containing a
limited amount of martensite, can be described as a ductile austenitic ma-
trix b-phase) containing rigid inclusions (cl-phase), dispersed in the whole
volume of the RVE, it is obvious that the material retains its ductility also
at cryogenic temperatures. As long as the plastic flow mechanism is based
mainly on the motion of dislocations (no serrated yielding), classical models
can be applied.
Generally, the model is based on the following assumptions:
• The rate of increase of the volume fraction of the martensitic phase, is e,
given by:
e
= A (T,g,~P) pH [(p - PE,,) (~L - ~)l , (5.6)
• Small strains are considered (linear additive rule)
The total strain is given by:
£ = £e
- -
+ -£P + -£th + -£bs , (5.7)
where §.e denotes elastic strain, §.p and §.th stand for plastic and thermal strain
tensor~ respectively. §.bs is free-deforn~·ation called bain strain. It can be ex-
pressed in terms of relative volume change Llv, due to the phase transforma-
tion, as
1
Ebs = -LlvI (5.8)
= 3 ='
with
Llv = Vm ~ Va , (5.9)
where Va and Vm represent the unstressed specific volumes occupied by the

austenite and the martensite, respectively, and I is the identity tensor. The
value of .::1v is about 0.02-0.05, depending on the alloy composition (Tomita
and Iwamoto 1995). The expression for the thermal strain is given as a function
of the dilatation tensor of the bi-phase material g, by the general formula:
(5.10)
Considering both phases isotropic and under the assumption of global

isotropy of the material, the tensor g can be reduced to:
(5.11)
with a h the homogenised dilatation coefficient. The constitutive law is given

by:
(5.12)
For isotropic material, the elastic stiffness tensor E is expressed in the

form:
(5.13)
with
Jijkl = ~c5ijc5kl , 1
(5.14)
{
K = L -4 and I ijk1 = "2 (c5ik c5jl + c5il c5jk ) ,
E E
and where J.l = ( )' k = ( ) are shear and bulk moduli, respec-
2 1+v 3 1- 2v
tively. To simplify the equations, we assume that the elastic properties of the
bi-phase material are not modified by the martensitic transformation (the
elastic properties of the martensite and of the austenite are quite similar).
Nevertheless, the elastic properties of the austenite + martensite structure,
i.e. the elastic coefficients, can be obtained by homogenisation. The yield sur-
face is defined as:
le (g, X, R) = h (g - X) - ay - R = O. (5.15)
Here, X is the back stress tensor and ay, R stand for the yield point and the
isotropic hardening parameter, respectively. It is assumed that the material
obeys the normality rule with the yield function postulated as the plastic
potential. The plastic flow rate is given by:
3 s-X
dq;P = -2 ==( =) dA , (5.16)
- J 2 Q. - X
where A is the plastic multiplier. The hardening variables Rand X are altered
by the presence of martensite and the corresponding evolution laws were pos-
tulated in the following form:
dR =F (~) dp, (5.17)

2
dX = 3Cd~P + G(Od~P . (5.18)
Here, we assume that the back stress increment is the sum of a classical term
that corresponds to the behaviour of the austenitic phase and a new term
related to the presence of martensite.
The Bee martensite is much harder than the Fee austenite. The marten-
site platelets do not have the same orientation as the initial lattice. If the
movement of the dislocations occurs (plastic flow) then the dislocations are
mobile in the austenitic matrix and are supposed to be stopped by the marten-
site inclusions. Thus, an elasto--plastic matrix and elastic inclusions are the
principal components that constitute the bi-phase material model. A simple
linear kinematic hardening law may be used to model the plastic behaviour
of the pure austenite phase:
. 2
X = -C,oi
= 3 - •
P (5.19)
Here Co represents the hardening modulus for the austenitic phase without the
presence of martensite. For the bi-phase material, the hardening modulus Co
is replaced by the modulus C. The coefficient C is higher than Co because of
the interactions between the dislocations in the austenite and the martensite
inclusions. Generally, a function 'P (~) is defined (Fig. 5.3)
(5.20)
with 'P (0) = l.

For the sake of simplicity, the function 'P (~) has been linearised and takes
the form:
'P (~) = h~ + 1 , (5.21 )
where h is a parameter that depends on the material. The function 'P (~)
represents this part of the hardening process that is related to the increase
in volume fraction of martensitic inclusions and enhanced probability that a
dislocation will be stopped by an inclusion. Here the martensite platelets are
c
y+a,'
CL O
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
CJ)
:::l
"S I
"0
o I
E
Cl I
c: /
'c:Cl) /
"E /
III
J:
~L
Volume fraction of martensite ~
Fig. 5.3. Evolution of the hardening modulus as a function of the martensite con-
tent.
regarded as infinitely rigid small objects, embedded into 'Y phase, that act
as the stoppers of motion of dislocations. Thus, the amount of plastic work
corresponding to the same total strain considerably increases. For the pure
austenitic phase, a linearisation of the constitutive equations of plastic flow in
the vicinity of the current state leads to the following formula (provided that
the process of plastic flow is active)
LlQ:
-
a = -Et: Ll~,
-
(5.22)
where Et denotes the tangent stiffness tensor. If the same strain increment is
applieclto the austenite/martensite structure, the stress increment is obtained
by homogenisation:
Llga+m = EH : Ll~, (5.23)
The increment of hardening (for the bi-phase material) implied by the

presence of the martensite is given by:
(5.24)
The homogenisation theory has been developed for elastic materials (ma-
trix and inclusions). The matrix is considered isotropic. In the domain of
plastic deformation (active processes) the linearisation in the vicinity of the
current state allows us to apply the homogenisation technique. Thus, over
one load increment the matrix (, phase) is represented by the corresponding

tangent modulus:
E to = 3ktOJ + 2/-LtO K , (5.25)
& & EC
Where /-LtO = 2 (1 + v)' ktO = 3 (1 _ 2v) and Et E + C· It is assumed
that the inclusions are isotropic and elastic. The corresponding modulus of
elasticity is given by:
(5.26)
E E
where /-Ll = and kl = . Furthermore, the inclusions are
2(1+v) 3(1-2v)
supposed to be spherical and uniformly distributed in the austenite matrix.
The Mori-Tanaka homogenisation (it is assumed that the interactions between
inclusions are reduced to a homogeneous strain field in the inclusion) reads:
(5.27)
where
(5.28)
In what follows, it is assumed that the strain increment is mainly due to

the plastic strains: L1~ "=' L1~p. Thus, Eq. (5.24) becomes:
(5.29)
As the plastic strains are represented by a deviatoric tensor (the trace is

equal to 0) then: J : L1~P = ~ and K : L1~P = L1~p. Finally, the hardening due
to martensite formation becomes:
(5.30)
In order to obtain a sound response under cyclic loads, hardening has to

be expressed in terms of plastic variables: R, the isotropic hardening, and
X the kinematic hardening. If pure kinematic hardening is considered, the
increment of the back stress due to the martensite is obtained by:
(5.31 )
which leads to the equation:
(5.32)
If pure isotropic hardening is considered, the increment of the hardening

parameter is obtained by the second invariant of the stress tensor:
(5.33)
with .:1p = J~ .:1g;P : .:1g;p. Hence, one obtains:
dR = 3 (/-LMT -/-LtO) dp. (5.34)
This formulation is valid exclusively for a small martensite content (at the
beginning of the strain induced transformation). Since region 11 at cryogenic
temperatures corresponds approximately to c;P ::; 0.2 and the saturation level
of the martensite content is reached a more general formulation of isotropic
hardening has to be applied. The generalisation leads to the following model:
R= (Reo (~) - R)p. (5.35)
This approach is compatible with the model of isotropic hardening with a

saturation level Reo included, as proposed by Chaboche (1993). The lineari-
sat ion of equation (5.35) in the vicinity of the initial state leads back to
equation (5.34). The contributions from kinematic and isotropic hardening
are controlled by the parameter (3 defined by 0 ::; (3 ::; 1. Therefore, for mixed
hardening, the following model is postulated:
x = 2b(~)(3 (/-LMT - /-LtO) ~P , (5.36)

R = b(~) (1- (3) (Reo (~) - R)p, (5.37)
or in expanded form:
x = 2(3(1 - ~) (/-LMT - /-LtO) ~P , (5.38)

R = (1 - ~)(1 - (3) [3 (/-LMT - /-LtO) - RJ p. (5.39)
Here, the term b (~) = 1 - ~ is added in order to compensate for the strong
assumption that the martensite inclusions are elastic. It tends to 0 for high
content of martensite. In reality the martensite inclusions shall be rather con-
sidered elasto-plastic. Therefore, their contribution to the hardening of the
bi-phase material is slightly smaller. Also, it is assumed that when ~ = 1 ('"Y
phase entirely replaced by the a' phase) the process of hardening linked to
the phase transformation is terminated. For the sake of simplicity the relevant
function b(~) has been defined as linear function of~. The experimental curves,
obtained under kinematically controlled cycling (Suzuki et al. 1988; Sadough-
Vanini and Lehr 1994), show that, for symmetric strain loading, the compres-
sive stresses are higher than tensile. This indicates a strong Bauschinger effect
that can be described in terms of the parameter introduced by Zyczkowski

(1981). The parameter (3 is related to the stress level at unloading (0-') and
the stress level associated with the reverse active process (0-'-), see Fig. 5.4.
It is defined by the following formula:
0-' + 0-'-
(3 = -2-:-(0--'---0--0-'-) . (5.40)
It varies between 0 for the isotropic hardening (no Bauschinger effect) and 1
for the kinematic hardening (perfect Bauschinger effect). Thus, it allows to
describe the ratio between isotropic and kinematic hardening. This parameter
has to be determined experimentally (see Table 5.1).
cr
Strain S
Fig. 5.4. Illustration of the unloading and the reverse loading processes.
Table 5.1. Set of data for 304L at 77 K (Suzuki et al. 1988).
E v ay Co h A p~ eL (3 Llv
[GPa] [MPa] [MPa]
190 0.3 580 750 1.9 4.23 0.004 0.9 0.45 0.05
The final set of the constitutive equations reduces to:

• Kinetics of the martensitic transformation
(5.41)
• The constitutive law:
(5.42)
• The yield surface:
le (g, X, R) = J~ (g: - X) : (g: - X) - ay - R = 0, (5.43)
• The normality rule:

3 s-X
dc: P =- = = d>' (5.44)
= 2 h (g - X) ,
• The hardening laws:
. 2
X = :3 [e + 3f3 (1 - e) (/LMT(e) - /LtO)] ~P ,
(5.45)
R = (1 - e)(1 - f3) [3 (/LMT(O - /LtO) - R] p.
5.4 Combined Model of Plastic Strain Induced Damage

Evolution and Martensitic Thansformation
As already stated in the previous chapters a combined general constitutive

model, comprising both the kinetic law of damage evolution and the evolution
law of volume fraction of martensite can be developed to compute the plastic
strain induced phenomena at cryogenic temperatures (Garion and Skoczen
200lb). The variables associated with the state functions can be derived from
a state potential. It is assumed that the state potential is assimilated with
the Helmholtz free energy and that for an elasto-plastic material and an
isothermal process it can be expressed as:
(5.46)
or, in the developed form:
(5.47)
where £:PTis the distortional strain field associated with the phase transfor-
mation~ H is the kinematic hardening modulus, Q is the back strain and tJir
stands for the part of the Helmholtz potential associated with the isotropic
hardening. Here, the assumption is made that both the density p and the
elastic stiffness tensor E depend weakly on the volume fraction of martensite
e. Based on the Helmholtz state potential the following set of constitutive
equations can be derived:
5.4 Combined Model of Plastic Strain Induced Damage 131
• kinetics of the martensitic transformation:
(5.48)
• kinetics of damage evolution:
. (y)S
D= s pH(P-PD) , (5.49)
• the constitutive law:
(5.50)
• the yield surface:
(5.51 )
• the normality rule:
droP = -
3
= =
s- X dA
(5.52)
= 2 Jdg - X) 1 - D '
• the kinematic hardening:
(5.53)
where
H(~) = C(~) + 3(J(1 - ~) [J-LMT(~) - J-LtO] , (5.54)
• the isotropic hardening:
R = b(O(l- (J)[Roo(~) - R]p(l - D) = b(~)(l - (J)[Roo(~) - R]i, (5.55)
where
b(~) = (1 - 0, (5.56)
Roo(~) = 3 [/LMT(O - /LtO] . (5.57)
Here, C(~) is the hardening modulus of bi-phase material, (3 stands for the
Bauschinger parameter and J-LMT denotes the tangent modulus resulting from
the Mori-Tanaka homogenisation. It is worth pointing out that no coupling
between the evolution of damage and volume fraction of martensite is assumed
at the level of the kinetic evolution laws. This assumption may turn out to be
too strong and therefore needs to be verified via further experimental research
under cryogenic conditions.
5.5 Integration of the Constitutive Equations and

Comparison with the Experimental Data
The model defined in the Section 5.4 has been implemented in the FE code
CASTEM. The method of the type "radial return" is used to integrate the
constitutive equations for an active plastic process (Ortiz and Simo 1986).
The radial return algorithm is bascd on the elastic-plastic split, by first
integrating the elastic equations to obtain an elastic predictor, which is used
as initial condition for the plastic return. The numerical algorithm can be
illustrated in the following way:
• Current state variables corresponding to step n: Q.n, f:~, X n, Rn, ~n' Pn.
• Elastic predictor (iteration 0 for the step n + i) obtained from a total
o
strain increment: g~+l' ~~+l = ~~, X~+l = X n, R~+l = Rn, ~~+l = ~n,
P~+l = Pn·
• Test if the new state is elastic or not.
• If not (fgn+l > 0), the increments £1p and £1~P are computed.
• The increment £1~ = A£1p is calculated.
• The state variables (q = {g, ~P, X, R, ~,P }) are updated from the evolu-
tion law (q~~ll = q~+l + £1q)
• The condition ~~~ll ::; ~L is checked. If ~~~\ > ~L' no further accumulation
of martensite takes place.
• The iterative process stops for f~~;, ::;
O.
For initial validation, the model has been compared to the experimental
results obtained on 304L samples tested at 77 K (Morris et al. 1992), under
tensile monotonic loading (Fig. 5.5).
1600 0.9
\ 0.8
1400 Experimental \
martensite \
1200 \
0.7 +-'
c
Experimental Q)
stress 0.6 C
~ 1000 0
<..l
~ 0.5 2
en 800 0.4 .~
en stress
Q) Q)
L..
600
U5 0.3 ~
~
400 0.2
200 0.1
0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Strain
Fig. 5.5. Tensile test for the grade 304L stainless steel at 77 K.
5.5 Integration of the Constitutive Equations 133
The simulation is terminated just after having reached the strain level 0.2
which corresponds approximately to the martensite content saturation level
(end of region 11).
Figure 5.6 shows that the model is equally applicable to cyclic loads, even
if the full set of experimental data allowing determination of the material
parameters is not yet available. The results were obtained from the set of
data presented in Table 5.1.
1000 Stress [MPaj
-1000
Fig. 5.6. Hysteresis loops under cyclic loading.
Next, the model has been compared to the experimental data of Iwamoto
et al. (1998). Figure 5.7 shows the comparison between the numerical and
the experimental results for monotonic loading of SUS304 samples, tested at
128K. Here, inelastic strain corresponds to the plastic strain lOP and the bain
strain ~cbs.
The results were obtained from the set of data presented in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2. Set of data for grade 304 stainless steel at 128K (Iwamoto et al. 1998),
(T stands for tension and C stands for compression) .
E v ay h {3 Co .1v
A ~L p~
[GPa] [MPa] [MPa] TIC TIC
190 0.3 600 1.8 0.45 1200 0.05 0.97 6.31 6.3 2.81 0.5
In both cases (Fig. 5.5 and Fig. 5.7) the numerical model shows good
correlation with experimental data for total strain not exceeding 0.2.
Clearly, the above presented model, based on the linear relation between
the rate of martensite content and the accumulated plastic strain rate, has
the following advantages:
2500
-
,-
...
" Iwamoto: Tensile
,...
2000 Model: Compression ,. ,.
~
m ~ ,.
a.. I" Iwamoto: Compression
61500 /.
III
III
~
(;j 1000
Q)
~
500
O-r------.------r------.-----~
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Inelastic strain
Fig. 5.1. True stress as a function of the inelastic strain for grade 304 stainless steel
at 128 K.
• the equations are based on the classical theory of plasticity with mixed
kinematic/isotropic hardening,
• the approach based on small strains (cP :::; 0.2) turns out to be good enough
to describe the region II of the martensitic transformation at cryogenic
temperatures,
• the model can be implemented in any FE code,
• the approach is uncoupled therefore the increment of volume fraction of
martensite (L1~) for a given load step can be computed in post processing,
• the constitutive equations were validated on two different sources of exper-
imental data (Morris et al. 1992; Iwamoto et al. 1998) and seem to yield
coherent results,
• the model is easily applicable in the structural analysis developed for cryo-
genic conditions (superconducting accelerators, cryogenic transfer lines),
• both kinematic and isotropic hardening are obtained from the theory of
homogenisation applied to a bi-phase material composed of the austenitic
matrix Cl' phase) and the martensitic inclusions (0:' phase).
5.6 Combined Model of Plastic Strain Induced

Orthotropic Damage and , ~ 0.' Phase 'Iransformation
The final set of the constitutive equations (cf. Garion and Skoczen 2003) rep-
resenting both the 'Y --t 0:' phase transformation and the orthotropic micro-
damage evolution (see Section 4.2.5) in ductile materials at cryogenic temper-
atures takes the following form:
• kinetics of martensitic transformation Cl' --t 0:'):
5.6 Combined Model of Plastic Strain 135
~ = A (T,g) pH [(p - Pt;) (eL - e)] (5.58)
• kinetic law of damage evolution:
(5.59)
• the constitutive law:
(5.60)
• the stress-effective stress relation:
fl=M:fi (5.61)
with the damage effect tensor in the form:
(5.62)
• the yield surface:
(5.63)
(6)
• the associated flow rule:

dc: P = 8fc d ).. (5.64)
= 8fl
• the evolution laws for the hardening parameters:
. 2
X = 3g(e)~p (5.65)
R=f(e)p (5.66)
Here, once again the size of the yield surface and its motion depend on the
rate of phase transformation ('Y ---7 a'). The initially isotropic and homogenous
material becomes highly heterogeneous and shows - due to the motion of the
yield surface - basic" anisotropy" features. However, in the above presented
formulation it is assumed that the shape of the yield surface is not affected
neither by the texture of the material nor by the phase transformation. No
plastic flow induced distortion of the yield surface has been taken into ac-
count. Furthermore, it is assumed that the main contribution of the model
of inelastic deformation to the kinetic law of damage evolution Eq. (5.59) is
reflected by the rate of the accumulated plastic strain p. Therefore, the model
of orthotropic damage is to some extent decoupled from the model of plastic
flow, the latter being a source of the accumulated plastic strain. The principal
directions of damage are defined by the combination of tensors e y eT. Such
a formulation is convenient from the point of view of identification of the ma-

terial parameters at cryogenic temperatures. Identification of the parameters
Cl, C 2 has been performed on the 316L stainless steel fine gauge samples,
extracted from a thin sheet in the longitudinal and in the transverse direc-
tions. Typical values of parameters Cl, C2 , corresponding to two orthogonal
directions, measured at three temperature levels are presented in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3. Parameters Cl, C 2 as a function of temperature T
Temperature [K] 293 77 4.2

Cl (longitudinal) 1.51 1.0 0.90
C 2 (transverse) 1.43 -
0.88
It is worth pointing out that the laminated fine gauge stainless steel sheets
initially do not show a major difference between the directions (1) and (2) in
terms of damage evolution. However, after a process of large plastic deforma-
tion in one or in both principal directions, the deformation induced damage
orthotropy is much more visible.
6
Stability of Corrugated Axisymmetric Shells

(Bellows)
6.1 Mechanism of Buckling of the Corrugated Bellows
The main mechanism of instability of the bellows expansion joints consists in

the so-called column buckling. The pressurised bellows behaves like a flexible
Euler's column and the mode of buckling corresponds to the column mode.
Such a response can be modelled by using a slender pressurised thin-walled
tube (Haringx 1952). This equivalent tube subjected to inner pressure and
supported at the extremities buckles again like a column subjected to axial
stress (Fig. 6.1).
p".
LLL::J .
~,,
,,
I
I
I
I
,
I
I
./'
~
Fig. 6.1. Mechanism of column buckling of corrugated bellows.
In order to calculate the buckling load the following reasoning is developed:

• Critical load for axially loaded and rigidly fixed column:
138 Stability of Corrugated Axisymmetric Shells
p _ 1T2 (El) L
E - L2 '
r
Lr ="2' (6.1)
where (El) denotes the flexural stiffness of the column.

• Critical load for a column of annular cross-section (tube):
2D2
P =~Ftb F tb = (EA)
E 2L ax' ax L' (6.2)
where F~~ stands for the axial stiffness of the tube and Dm is the mean
diameter.
• A similar formula is postulated for the bellows expansion joint. The axial
stiffness F~~ is replaced by the bellows axial stiffness F~~:
(6.3)
where Pn denotes internal pressure in the bellows and Dm stands for the
bellows mean diameter. Thus, one obtains:
2
Dm 2D2
1T _ 1T mF bl
Pn-4--~ ax' (6.4)
and, finally,
21T bl
Pcr = LFax. (6.5)
Here Pcr is the critical buckling pressure for the corrugated bellows ex-
pansion joint. It is proportional to the bellows axial stiffness (axial rate)
and inversely proportional to the bellows length. The Eq. (6.5) has been
confirmed experimentally and incorporated into the international standard
EJMA, (1995).
The above given reasoning is based on the assumption that both for a thin-
walled tube and for a bellows the ratio flexural-to-axial stiffness only weakly
depends on the thickness (or depth of convolutions) and mainly depends on
the square of the mean diameter. It can be shown (see Axelrad 1976) that for
majority of the corrugated bellows this assumption is good enough and leads
to a correct estimation of the critical buckling load. Since the axial stiffness
depends strongly on temperature (see Chapter 1) the critical buckling pressure
turns out also to be temperature dependent.
6.2 Reissner-Meissner Equations Applied to Corrugated

Axisymmetric Shells
As a matter of fact, corrugated bellows belong to a special class of rotationally

symmetric, highly flexible thin-walled shell structures subjected to combined
6.2 Reissner-Meissner Equations Applied to Corrugated Axisymmetric Shells 139
loads (axial and transverse forces, torque, inner or outer pressure and a tem-
perature field). Each of these load components is sufficient to cause either
an overall loss of stability (bifurcation buckling, snap-through), that depends
strongly on the global boundary conditions, or the phenomenon of local wall
instability (root bulge), independent of the support conditions. High axial
flexibility of bellows implies the necessity of formulating some of the instabil-
ity problems within the theory of finite deflections and rotations. The classical
papers by Hamada et al. (1968; 1970; 1971; 1971; 1976) present an investi-
gation of the structural behaviour of bellows based upon the finite-difference
method. Here, the Clark and Reissner equations for large deflections of shells
ofrevolution were applied. Boyle and Spence (1984) developed a procedure for
the large deflection analysis of bellows of arbitrary convolution profile, under
axial loads and inner pressure, with a deviation from circularity and uniform
thickness given by a Fourier representation. Some limited problems of insta-
bility of bellows have been discussed by Axelrad (1976) on the ground of the
small displacements and small strains theory. In order to calculate the critical
force, a simplified concept of the equivalent column, based on the bending
stiffness (EI)eq obtained from the Meissner-type equations, was introduced.
The buckling load for the equivalent column was described by the traditional
Euler formula:
p = 7r 2 (EI)eq
(6.6)
(JL sl)2 ,
where JLs depends on the support conditions. Buckling behaviour of corrugated
bellows has also been investigated by Snedden (1979) from the theoretical as
well as experimental point of view. type-U configurations have been analysed
in order to obtain the longitudinal and the transverse bellows stiffness. The
calculations were carried out by using the finite element method. A particu-
larly interesting early study of the effect of bellows bifurcation buckling due
to internal pressure has been published by Haringx (1952). Haringx presented
an experimental evidence for column buckling by showing that a bellows sub-
jected exclusively to inner pressure and installed between two rigid walls may
lose stability if the magnitude of pressure is sufficient. The same effect has
been investigated by Hamada et al. (1984), Tsukimori et al. (1988) as well as
by Broyles (1989). The authors succeeded in developing some simple formu-
lae for the critical pressure corresponding to the elastic column squirm. Also,
a simplified analysis procedure for inelastic buckling of bellows was proposed
by Tsukimori et al. (1988). The formula for the buckling pressure in the elastic
range was combined with the bending stiffness in the elastic-plastic domain.
Another approach was presented by Broyles (1989), who suggested a linear
approximation for the critical unit load above the proportional limit. The
problem of column buckling of relatively long type-U bellows, subject to an
axial compressive force, was studied by Hamada et al. (1984). The theoretical
and experimental data were compared and the design diagrams both for the
case of axial force and internal pressure were presented.
A comprehensive analysis of the so-called in-plane squirm (root bulge) of

bellows has been presented by Becht and Skopp (1981). This local plastic fail-
ure mechanism, occurring due to over-pressurisation of the shell, was studied
in both theoretical and experimental way.
In the majority of publications dedicated to the problem of buckling of
bellows, second order geometrical effects are neglected. The investigations are
usually based on the simple geometrically linear theories and consequently the
change of length of the structure as well as evolution of the bending flexibil-
ity along the equilibrium prebuckling path are not taken into account. Such
approach is justified for bellows of large length-to-diameter ratio. However,
in the case of a moderate length-to--diameter ratio this may lead to some
discrepancies between the theoretical and experimental results.
Two overall instability phenomena are discussed in the present chap-
ter: snap-through and bifurcation buckling. In order to investigate bifurca-
tion buckling of corrugated bellows, the equivalent column concept is ap-
plied. A column characterised by the same axial and bending stiffness as
in the case of the corrugated shell is defined (Skoczen and Skrzypek 1992).
Large axi-symmetric deflections and the axial stiffness of bellows are anal-
ysed by using the equations based on the Reissner nonlinear geometrical re-
lations (Reissner 1981). The set of basic equations is reduced to two coupled,
second order, differential equations for the increment of slope of tangent to
the mid-surface .10: and the stress function V, defined in terms of the stress
resultant perpendicular to the axis of symmetry of the shell. Similar equations
were derived, within the framework of the Love hypothesis, for finite displace-
ments by Reissner (1950) and later extended to finite strains Reissner (1972).
Linearisation with respect to the increment of slope of the normal to the
mid-surface reduces them to the Reissner (1912) and Meissner (1913) equa-
tions. Another similar set of two second order, nonlinear differential equations
was presented for various loading configurations by Axelrad (1976), under the
assumption of large deflections of shells of revolution.
In order to solve problems for which the deformations do not satisfy the
assumption of rotational symmetry, a general two dimensional shell theory
has to be applied. The linear problem of small transverse bending of axially
compressed bellows may be solved by using Meissner-type equations and the
bending stiffness can be effectively computed. Equations of the same type,
applied to rotationally asymmetric problems of thin shells of revolution, were
derived by Novozhilov (1948). A similar set of equations for shells subjected
to combined loads, based on the expansion of the generalised stresses, strains
and displacements into the Fourier series with respect to the circumferential
coordinate, was again presented by Axelrad (1976).
6.2.1 Geometry of Typical Corrugated Bellows
Type-S bellows consists of a number of identical, thin-walled, rotation-

ally symmetric shell segments linked along the axis of the whole struc-
ture (Fig. 6.2). The convolution profile of a single segment resembles the
letter S and is composed of two circular arcs of angle P. Thus, the geometry
of the segment may be represented by toroidal fragments. The following set
of geometrical parameters describes the bellows:
Rm - bellows mean radius
R</> - convolution radius
P- convolution angle
h- wall thickness
c)
M,) Q<p
N<p
<l>
Q;p+dQ;p
Fig. 6.2. (a) Geometry of bellows and loading configuration (b) type-S bellows
segment - half of the convolution and boundary conditions (c) Convention for
generalised stresses in the case of nonlinear axisymmetric bending.
The convolution angle P is usually designed to be within the range (90° -

140°). The system of Lagrangian coordinates is introduced in the original
configuration in order to describe the position of a material point: 1> stands
for the meridional angular coordinate, () represents the circumferential angular
coordinate, and ( denotes the coordinate normal to the middle surface. The
Lagrangian meridional coordinate 1> ranges from 0 to 2p, between the crest
and the root of segment, and is defined as the following ratio:
cp = ~:c , (6.7)
where L are denotes the length of arc of the convolution in the original con-
figuration. The relationship between cp and two independent, local angular
coordinates CPl and CP2, describing both sub~arcs of the convolution (Fig. 6.2),
is given by:
cP = CPl , CPl E (0, p) ,
(6.8)
cP = 2p - 7r + CP2 , CP2 E (7r - P, 7r) .
In addition, a normalised Lagrangian meridional coordinate is introduced:
cP E (0, 2P) . (6.9)

°
Thus ~ varies along the convolution between and 1. The slope of the
tangent to the middle surface in the reference configuration is related to the
meridional coordinate cP by the following formulae:
er = cP, cP E (0, p) ,
(6.10)
er = 2p - cP, cP E (p, 2P) .
The distance between a middle surface point and the axis of revolution
(Fig. 6.2b) is given by the relations:
R = Rm + R</> [coscp - cosp] , cP E (0, p),
(6.11)
R = Rm + R</> [coscp - cos(2P - cp)] , cP E (P,2P) .
The original length of segment may be calculated in the following way:
Ls = 4R</> sin P . (6.12)
Usually, the results are presented in terms of an alternative set of geometric
parameters:
Rm h .
A= -2- - torOldal shell parameter
R</>
p= - R</> . 0 f rad··
- ratlo 11
Rm
The boundary conditions are assumed to be the conditions of symmetry at
the root as well as at the crest of the segment. The structure is subjected to
the internal pressure Pn, axial force N and global bending moment M.
6.2.2 Rotationally Symmetric Deformation (Large Displacements,

Small Strains)
It is assumed that not only the geometry of shell and the material properties
but also the loads and the boundary conditions do not depend on the cir-
cumferential coordinate (), for each step of the deformation process. Thus, the
following relation holds:
8~~) = O. (6.13)
Moreover, the Love-Kirchhoff hypothesis governs the deformation of the

element of the wall. The increment of slope of the tangent to the middle
surface, for large displacements and rotations, is expressed by:
(3 = Llo: = cl - 0: , (6.14)
and will henceforth be denoted by (3. Here cl denotes the current value of the
slope of tangent to the middle surface with respect to the main axis of the
shell. The principal strains in the middle surface (cf. Axelrad 1976) are equal
to:
e~ = - [1 + R~:l 1' (6.15)

LlR
ei) = R'
where
( , )' = d ( ... )
... de/> (6.16)
81 = sin cl , LlR=R-R,
R is the current radius of the circumferential circle and R~ is the radius of

meridional curvature. The increments of the middle surface curvatures are
described by the formulae:
(3'
x~=R'
~
(6.17)
Lle
Xi) = R'
where
Lle = e1 - e = cos cl - cos 0: • (6.18)
The principal strains are defined as follows:
e~ + x~(
c~ = ('
1+-
R~
(6.19)
ei) + Xi)(
Ci) =
1 +-.l
Ri)
where Ri) is the radius of circumferential curvatures. Differentiation with re-

spect to e/> of the relation between R and R:
(6.20)
leads, after the inclusion of some geometrical relations, to the simple compat-
ibility equation:
(6.21)
where
L\s = SI - S = sin a - sin a . (6.22)
The convention for generalised stresses, for rotationally symmetric deforma-
tions of shells of revolution, is shown in Fig. 6.2. The following generalised
stresses are considered:
N<p' Ni}, Q<p, Q{), S<p{), S{)<p normal, shearing and tangent force result ants
M<p' M{), M<p{), M{)<p moment result ants
In accordance with Fig. 6.2 the equilibrium equations, with the nonlinear
terms retained, may be reduced to the following three equations:
(RN<p)' + R<pN{)Sl + RQ<pa' = 0,

(RQ<p)' - R<pN{)C1 - RN<pa'= -RR<pPn, (6.23)
(RM<p)' + R<pM{)Sl - RR<pQ<p = o.
The elastic constitutive equations, for generalised stresses, may be written

in the form:
N<p =B + ve{)) ,
(e<p
M<p = D (x<p + VX{)) ,
(6.24)
N{) = B (e{) + ve<p) ,
M{) = D (X{) + vx<p) ,
where
Eh 3
D= . (6.25)
12 (1 - v 2 ) ,
Following the analysis by Reissner (1912), Meissner (1913), Reissner (1963)
as well as Axelrad (1976), one finds the primary integrals of equilibrium and
compatibility equations that lead, after some rearrangements, to a set of two
second order nonlinear differential equations of the Meissner type:
(rV')' - (rsi - pvs~) V + f.LL\s + rys1F1b - pvF{b = 0,

(6.26)
(r{3')' + SI bL\c + pv{3') + pv (L\c)' - f.L (Cl V + F2 b) = 0,
where
R
r=- (6.27)
Rm'
Here {3 denotes the previously defined displacement function, whereas V is
introduced as a stress function, defined by the following relations:
RN<p = Fl - SI Va ,
V/
No = Ra ,
<p
(6.28)
RQ <p = F2 + Cl Va ,
V=~
VDEh'
Furthermore, the axial force resultant:
(6.29)
may be expressed by the formula:
J
1>
Nz = Nz (qya) - ~ RR<pSlPn dqy . (6.30)
1>0
The auxiliary functions F l , F2 are determined in the following way:
J
1>
Fl = SI RR<pClPndqy + RclNz ,
1>0
(6.31)
J
1>
F2 = -Cl RR<pClPndqy + RslNz .
1>0
Both were converted to a dimensionless form:

Fl
FIb = VD Eh '
(6.32)
F2
F 2b = VDEh'
The boundary conditions at the crest (~ = 0) as well as at the root of the

segment (~ = 1) are the conditions of symmetry:
(6.33)
This nonlinear analysis for arbitrary large displacements and rotations of

shells of revolution was performed by Axelrad (1976). Equations (6.26) may
easily be transformed to the set of two second order differential equations pre-
sented by Reissner (1963) for toroidal shells of circular cross-section, subjected
to the uniform, normal pressure. Next step consists in the linear analysis of
small, overall bending of the previollsly deformed structure.
6.2.3 Overall Small Bending (Small Displacements, Small Strains)

Large axisymmetric deformation, studied in the previous section, is charac-
terised by a significant change of geometry of the shell under consideration.
This deformation is represented by the set of state functions:
[J1(r/J) , V(r/J)] , (6.34)
which may easily be converted into another state functions vector:
(6.35)
where u, v, w are components of the displacement vector. Having identified
the parameters of the deformed structure, one may now impose upon this state
a perturbation in the form of a small overall bending. The aim is to calculate
the bending flexibility of the segment. The geometrical relations of the linear
theory of shells (rotationally symmetric in the original configuration) are as
follows (cf. Axelrad 1976):
(6.36)
!l
Fig. 6.3. Convention for generalized stresses and the system of unit local base
vectors for overall, small bending.
where :g, X denote the linear and angular displacement vectors, whereas 4,
n are the unit local base vectors (Fig. 6.3)
IiJ'
(6.37)
where e<p, eiJ stand for the principal strains in the middle surface and e<piJ
represents the in-plane shear strain:
(6.38)
where x<p, XiJ are the increments of the middle surface curvatures and x<piJ
denotes the increment of twist of the middle surface.
In the next stage the equilibrium equations will be formulated. The con-
vention for generalised stresses is presented in Fig. 6.3.
For the linear overall bending of the shell of revolution the following rela-
tions hold true (cf. Axelrad 1976):
(6.39)
Here
aa
a,q, = aqy ,
RR<pT-o =
a (R 2)
R1 aqy a
H + aB (R<pM-o) ,
1 a 2 a dR
RR<pT<p = R<p aB (R<pH) + aqy (RM<p) - M-o dqy , (6.40)
M<p-oa,q, C
S = S-o<p - R = S<p-o - M-o<p R '
<p
1
H = 2" (M-o<p + M<p-o) .
Let us refer once again to the constitutive relations of the elastic body:
N<p = B (e<p + ve-o) ,

M<p = D (x<p + vx-o) ,
N-o=B(e-o+ve<p) ,
M-o = D (x-o + vx<p) , (6.41)
I-v
S = -2-Be<p-o ,
H = (1 - v) D x<p-o .
If the loading is symmetric with respect to the plane B = 0 (Fig. 6.2), the
generalised stresses may be expanded into Fourier series in the following way:
L
00
[N<p, N-o, M<p' M-o, Q<pl = [N~, N~, M~, M~, Q~l cos (iB) ,
i=O
[S<p-o, S-o<p, M<p-o, M-o<p' Q-ol = [S~-o, s3<p' M~-o, M2<p' Q3l + (6.42)
L [S~-o,S~<p,M~-o,M~<p,Q~l sin (iB) .

i=l
The case i = 0 corresponds to the symmetric state of deformation. The

overall bending leads to the antisymmetric state of deformation. In view of
the fact that the required bending stiffness may be determined as the ratio of
the bending moment M to the arbitrary small angular displacement 'lj;, the
above relations are reduced to the case i = 1. Thus, one obtains:
[N<p, N-o, M<p, M-o, Q<pl = [N~, NJ, M~, MJ, Q~l cosB,
(6.43)
[S<p-o, S-o<P' M<p-o, M-o<p, Q-oJ = [S~-o, SJ<P' M~-o, MJ<p' Q1l sinB.
A reduction to the Meissner-type equations again becomes possible upon
introducing two auxiliary functions w, [} defined by the formulae:
Xl - u l
W = <.p z
R
d
d4> (RDo) = RN{}1 + cM{}1 , (6.44)
D= Do
ylDEH'
and
X<.p = X~ cos () ,
u = u; cos().
z
(6.45)
Here, the symbol u!/ R stands for the angle of rotation of the plane 4> =
const with respect to the plane of symmetry of the segment 4> = 0, which is
in harmony with the Bernoulli hypothesis; X~ denotes the increment of the
rotation angle of the tangent to the convolution () = 0, and Do is the stress
function. Finally, after some calculations, one obtains the Meissner-type set
of two coupled, nonlinear, second order ordinary differential equations:
(rD')' - 2p2(1 + S2) D + fJ,CW = 0,

r (6.46)
2 W M
(rw)" -2p(1+s)--fJ,cD=-s-,
2
r r
where the dimensionless global bending moment is defined as follows:
(6.47)
A constant thickness of the wall has been assumed (cf. Axelrad 1976) and
the following terms have been neglected as small when compared to 1:
h h
Rq, ex,q, . (6.48)
R'
In fact, the problem under consideration is reduced to the same formalism as
in the case of rotationally symmetric deformation of the shell. Moreover, for
small deflections the same boundary conditions as in the previous paragraph
may be applied, as far as pure bending is concerned. The angular displacement
'I/J, of the single bellows segment for pure overall bending may be calculated
in the following way (Fig. 6.4):
Jw~q,S
7r
'I/J = - d4>. (6.49)

o
a) N
-+ _ _--1.LlO
Fig. 6.4. Ca) Support conditions for the equivalent column. Cb) Small, axially asym-
metric bending deformation of a single segment. Cc) "Direct" approach to calculate
the buckling force in the presence of prebuckling nonlinearities.
6.2.4 Numerical Solution
Both for the rotationally symmetric large deflection analysis and for the over-
all linear bending of the previously deformed segment, the same two point
boundary value problem has to be solved. The sets of two second order differ-
ential equations (6.26) and (6.46) can be replaced by the sets of four first order
differential equations and completed by the appropriate boundary conditions.
To this end, in both cases, two auxiliary functions are introduced:
r(3' = (31 ,
rV' = Vi,
(6.50)
rw' = Wl,
rn' = nl.
6.3 Concept of Equivalent Column 151
Hence, Eqns (6.26) are replaced by the following set:
V{ = {--ysi - pvsD V - /.",1s - ,,(SlF1b + PVF{b ,

V'-
- V ,
r (6.51)
(3~ = -SI (--yLlc + pv(3') - pv(Llc)' + J.L h V + F2b) ,
(3' = (31 ,
r
whereas Eqns (6.46) can be transformed into the following form:
[2' _ [21
- ,
r (6.52)
w sM
w~ = 2p2 (1 + s2) - + J.LC[2 + cT - - ,
r r
, W1
W =-
r
which is convenient from the numerical point of view. In order to find the com-
ponents of the vectors [VI, V, (31, (3l and [[21, [2, W1, W 1the shooting technique
can be applied. Taking into account the boundary conditions, the unknowns
(3, V as well as w, [2 are determined at the root and at the crest of the segment.
Thus, starting at one point (by injecting the unknown values of (31, VI and
W1, [21) and integrating the equations (Runge-Kutta IV) along the convolu-
tion the known conditions at the opposite boundary are satisfied. The proper
solution is, in both cases, obtained by the Newton-Raphson procedure.
6.3 Concept of Equivalent Column in the Stability of

Corrugated Axisymmetric Shells
6.3.1 The Equivalent Column Concept
A bellows consisting of a number of segments (n 2: 3) will lose stability due

to bifurcation buckling in the same way as a column, provided that its slen-
derness ratio is high enough. Therefore, application of the equivalent column
concept can simplify stability analysis of the corrugated bellows (Fig. 6.4).
It is assumed that the elastic response of the bellows and the equivalent col-
umn to the compression and bending is the same, for the same set of external
loads. Thus, the properties of the equivalent column are uniquely defined by
the same compression and bending rigidities as for the bellows under consid-
eration. In the case of large deflection analysis the current axial stiffness Ca
may be formulated in two different ways. The secant axial stiffness is defined
as follows:
c~ = :; Ls , (6.53)
a
where Ls denotes the original length of segment and L1a stands for the total
deflection of the segment due to the axial force N. On the other hand, the
tangent axial stiffness reads:
(6.54)
Both c~ as well as c~ are functions of the deflection L1a. The current length
of the segment may be calculated by means of one of these parameters:
-1 ~n '
is = Ls (1- ~) ,
(6.55)
I. ~ L. ( 1
where N denotes the current value of the axial force. The bending stiffness is
expressed in the similar way:
(6.56)
For small deflections and rotations the secant and the tangent versions
are not distinguishable. Both the axial as well as the bending rigidities are
nonlinear functions of the total axial force N.
6.3.2 Model of the Equivalent Column
In order to calculate the critical force it is necessary to consider the appropri-

ate boundary conditions for the equivalent column in relation to the support
conditions for the bellows. In view of the fact that bellows are usually in-
stalled within pipelines, an elastic interaction between the main pipe and the
bellows is assumed. The corresponding model of the boundary conditions is
presented in Fig. 6.4. It is now possible to analyse arbitrary conditions by
selecting the proper elastic coefficients kl' k2' k3, according to the stiffness of
the real support.
The general differential equation of bending has the following form (cf.
Timoshenko and Gere 1961):
(6.57)
or the equivalent form:

d4 y 2 d2y
dx 4 +k dx 2 = 0 ,
(6.58)
k2 = N .
Cbg
The following solution is assumed:
(6.59)
and general boundary conditions (see Zyczkowski 1991):
(6.60)
where lb denotes the current bellows length (the length in the initial configu-
ration is denoted by Lb). After simple calculations one obtains the following
nonlinear equation:
2 - [2 + (k 1 + k 2) (1 + k3k21~) k21~J cos(k1b)+

(6.61)
[-1 + kl + k2 + k21~ (klk2 - k3 + klk2k3k2Zm k1b sin(k1b) = 0,
for the eigenvalues kl b • The critical force is given by the formula:
(6.62)
where:
IT = /-Ls1b ,
7r (6.63)
/-Ls = k1b '
/-Ls is the coefficient of stiffness of the support and can be determined by using
the Eq. (6.61).
6.3.3 Strategy for Computation of the Critical Force
Two possible approaches to calculate the critical bifurcation force are devel-
oped. The first "direct" approach enables the critical force for a bellows of a
given geometry to be found. The shell is subjected to the constant internal
pressure Pn and the quasi-statically increasing axial force N. At each step
of the loading process the current geometry as well as the current bending
stiffness are calculated. It means that the appropriate equivalent column is

constructed at each step and the buckling force for this column N er is esti-
mated. In general, for an arbitrary equilibrium point, this critical force differs
from the current axial force acting on the bellows. However, for the point
of bifurcation of equilibrium the critical force calculated on the basis of the
equivalent column becomes equal to the current axial force. An illustration of
this process is presented in Fig. 6.4. The nonlinear equilibrium path is repre-
sented by the curve 1, whereas the evolution of the critical force is illustrated
by the curve 2. This strategy is rather inefficient in the light of the fact that
the time consuming step-by-step analysis results in the calculation of only
one critical force for one given geometry. Thus, an "indirect" approach turns
out to be more effective than the "direct" one.
A single bellows segment of a given initial geometry is considered. The
original length of the segment is denoted by Ls. We now load it with constant
pressure and axial force of a certain magnitude and ask how many segments
are necessary to build a bellows that will lose stability due to the assumed
load. In other words, one asks for the critical current length of the bellows for
a given axial force. From formula (6.62) it follows that:
2 ebg
h= 7r~, (6.64)
erf.L s
Thus, following the nonlinear equilibrium path N = N(L1) and identifying

N er = N, one may calculate for each point (L1a, N) the appropriate critical
current length of the bellows h. We further note that the current length lb
may easily be transformed into the original configuration by using the axial
contraction ratio 'TJ = Ls/ls, which is also a function of the segment axial
deflection L1a. The original length of the bellows is given by the formula:
Lb = 'TJlb = ( ~: ) lb , (6.65)
For the sake of simplicity, the original length Lb may be replaced by the
number of segments:
(6.66)
It is now possible to build a diagram presenting the critical bifurcation

buckling force N er versus the number of segments n for each kind of type-S
segment (of a given original geometry) subjected to internal pressure Pn of a
given magnitude.
For squat structures, one often faces the problem that bifurcation buckling
doesn't take place. The equilibrium path terminates with a point associated
either with the contact of the internal surfaces of segments (the geometrical
constraint, Fig. 6.5, point D), or with the maximal load (Fig. 6.5, point B).
The latter leads to another instability mechanism within the class of rotation-
ally symmetric deformations, provided that the process is load controlled. An
snap-through contact
N
D
~~ __________________ --.~o
Fig. 6.5. Instability within the class ofaxisymmetric deformations (snap-through)

and the geometrical limitation of large elastic deflections of bellows.
example of the snap-through phenomenon for a bellows of type-S convolution

is presented in Fig. 6.5. The continuation of the post-critical nonlinear equi-
librium path leads to the geometrical constraint as well. On the other hand,
for a deflection controlled process (often met in the standard applications
of bellows) the maximal load should not be regarded as the limit load. The
deformation process may continue until the geometrical constraint is fulfilled.
6.3.4 Simple Applications -- type-S (Toroidal) Convolutions
Consider a class of type-S bellows segments of constant weight and having

the same internal radius Rp as the radius of the main pipe. For the sake of
simplicity it is assumed that the internal pressure Pn is equal to O. Hence,
the segments are subjected to the axial compressive force, exclusively. From
the condition of constant weight one may calculate the convolution radius, for
various convolution angles qy E (90°,140°):
.1 R~ + 27r (1 - COSqy) Rq,o (Rp + Rq,o)

V 2qy - Rp
Rq, = -'-------=2-::(--:=1""'--c-o-s--=qy-:C-)- - - - - , (6.67)
where Rq,o denotes the convolution radius associated with the angle eI>0 = 900 .
The bellows mean radius is calculated also in terms of eI>;
Rm = Rp + Rq,(l - coseI» , (6.68)
and the original length of the segment: Ls = 4Rq, sin eI>. The additional dimen-
sionless geometrical parameters are given by the formulae:
Rq,
R -
p = ~ =--.lL.. (6.69)
Rm Rm'
h
where Rq,/h and Rm/h are the dimensionless radii.
25
Fig. 6.6. "Indirect" approach. The curves show the axial buckling force versus
number of segments for various convolution angles cjj; internal pressure pn = O.
Curves of N er versus n, presented in Fig. 6.6, are plotted for the following
data:
(6.70)
The complementary parameters, calculated for if! = 90 0 are equal to:
Rm = 200 Ls = 80 A = 0.5, p = 0.1. (6.71)

h ' h '
In order to obtain a dimensionless quantity, the axial force N is referred
to Eh 2 . Each curve is limited from above either by the stability constraint
(maximal force on the equilibrium path, snap-through) or by the geometrical
constraint (contact of internal surfaces of the segment).
It is now fundamental to perform the analysis of the axial and the bending
flexibilities. Following Donnell (1932) and Wilson (1984), the bellows segment
will be replaced by a smooth tube of the same mean radius R m , length Ls
and wall thickness h. Furthermore, it is assumed that the response of the
equivalent tube to compression and bending is the same as the response of
the segment:
Ll _ NLs
a - E F'
a
(6.72)
1/J= ML s
Ebg I '
where Ea, Ebg are the equivalent compression and bending moduli, and EaF
and Ebgl denote the equivalent compression and bending rigidities, respec-
tively. It is now possible to calculate the moduli in terms of global forces and
displacements:
- NLs
Ea = FLla '
(6.73)
- MLs
Ebg =¥,
where F = 27rRmh and I = 7rhRm (R~ + h 2 /4). Eventually, the formulae for
the axial (secant and tangent) and the bending flexibilities are obtained:
K S _Eh _ Lla EFh

a - EaRm - N LsRm '
Kt = dLl a EFh
(6.74)
a dN LsRm'
Kbg = _ Eh =::t. Elh .
EbgRm M LsRm
All the parameters are nonlinear functions of the axial deflection Ll a .

The evolution of K~ and K bg is presented for various types of S-segments
in Fig. 6.7. Strong nonlinearity observed in the diagrams leads to the conclu-
sion that the linear approximation, applied to bending flexibility up to the
bifurcation point, may cause a considerable error as far as the calculation of
the critical load is concerned.
An interesting comparison of the theoretical and experimental results for
relatively long type-U bellows subjected to axial compressive load has been
presented by Hamada et al. (1984). In order to describe the effect of buckling
the authors applied a simplified approach based on Euler's formula for the
buckling of a column simply supported at both ends. They assumed that both
the flexural stiffness of the column and its length in the critical state are equal
to the flexural stiffness and length of the bellows in the initial configuration,
Kt
a
40
<1>=90° snap-through
35
30
25
20
~---I
15
10
25~
a
2.0
1.5
1.0
~.
0.5
0 5 10 15 20 25
Fig. 6.7. Evolution of axial and bending fiexibilities along the equilibrium paths
for chosen types of type-S segments (<1> = 90°; 100°; 120°).
respectively. This simplification may have been responsible for the fact that
the experimental buckling load, quoted by the authors, was approximately
two times higher than the theoretical one. In fact, the analysis of the bending
flexibility of the bellows for convolution angles greater than 90° (Fig. 6.7,
cjj = 120°) may support the above mentioned opinion, because the bending
stiffness increases with the axial deflection.
It is worthwhile mentioning that the theory used, based on the geomet-
rically nonlinear relations, allows us to find the critical force or length for
an arbitrary bellows. For squat bellows subjected to axial load and moder-
ate internal pressure either bifurcation buckling or the complementary global
instability phenomenon (snap-through) takes place. Over-pressurisation of
the bellows convolutions may lead to the third instability phenomenon called
root-bulge (plastic buckling). However, it may also happen that the bellows
doesn't lose stability at all. In this case the process of deformation terminates
with contact of the inner faces of the shell wall (geometrical constraint).
6.4 Effect of Relaxation of Boundary Conditions on Buckling 159
6.4 Effect of Relaxation of Boundary Conditions on

Buckling of Systems Containing Corrugated Bellows
Local instability in systems containing bellows (Skoczen 1999) may be anal-
ysed by using the equivalent column model (Fig. 6.8). Here a column of axial,
transversal and angular stiffness equivalent to the bellows stiffness represents
the expansion joint. The elastic support of the equivalent column (system of
springs) represents the pipeline segments of length L l , L2 situated between
the bellows and the closest guides. The larger distance Li the weaker support
of the bellows ends, which is in the model reflected by reduced stiffness of
springs.
a) b)
Fig. 6.S. The equivalent column with elastically supported ends.
The stiffness of each of the angular springs (kl' k 2 ) is equal to the flexural
stiffness of the pipe segments, respectively:
(6.75)
whereas the stiffness of the lateral spring (k3) has been defined as equivalent
with respect to the transverse stiffness of the pipeline segments ( Cl, C2):
(6.76)
where
(6.77)
Definition of k3 is based on the assumption of an identical post-buckling

form for the model with two lateral springs and the model with one lateral
spring. For simplicity the non-dimensional parameters 'l/Jl, 'l/J2, "Y are intro-
duced:
Cbg Cbg Cbg
'l/Jl = klLb ' 'l/J2 = k2 L b ' "Y = k3L~ , (6.78)
where Cbg denotes the bellows flexural stiffness (F:ng =

These parame- Cb g ).
Lb
ters are used to formulate the appropriate boundary conditions for the column
and to solve the eigenvalue problem that takes the form of the following tran-
scendental equation:
2- [2 + ('l/Jl + 'l/J2) (1 - "Yk2 L~) k 2L~] cos (kLb) +

[-1 + 'l/Jl + 'l/J2 + k 2L~ ('l/Jl 'l/J2 + "Y - "Y'l/Jl 'l/J2 k 2L~)] kLb sin (kLb) = 0
(6.79)
where kLb are the eigenvalues. Having solved Eq. (6.79) for eigenvalues one
obtains the reduced length of the equivalent column:
(6.80)
that depends on the initial length Lb and on the parameter J1, calculated as
(6.81)
Now, using the Euler' equation
(6.82)
one may compute the critical buckling force for the perfect equivalent column,
elastically supported.
The Euler critical force may be converted to instability pressure for the real
bellows by using once again the equivalent column concept (Skoczen 1997).
The bellows post-buckling forms are assumed to be identical with the post-
critical forms of the equivalent column, provided that the support conditions
are the same. The following relation between the bellows critical pressure and
the Euler buckling force holds:
N er
Per = 1f R2' (6.83)
m
where Rm denotes the bellows mean radius. Finally, the buckling pressure is
given by the equation:
2 2
1f Cbg 1f Cbg
Per = L2R2 = J1, 2L2R2' (6.84)
r m m
6.5 Shear Deformation versus the Bifurcation Buckling Load 161
-·-·-·-·2·-I\~~\~/~mJl·-·-Z-·-·-·-·-··
I
Model
Fig. 6.9. Effect of guidance-to-bellows distance on the critical buckling pressure.
The eigenvalue analysis carried out for a typical tube-bellows-tube guided

interconnect and with variable guidance-to-bellows distance leads to the dia-
gram shown in Fig. 6.9. Two principal branches of the solution correspond to
two buckling modes: buckling of bellows (mode I) and buckling of the entire
interconnect (mode n). The intersection of these two branches determines a
critical guidance-to-bellows distance and a transition from mode I to mode n.
If the critical pressure associated with mode I turns out to be stable it is the
opposite for mode n. For guidance-to-bellows distance larger than the crit-
ical value the buckling pressure decreases rapidly along a very steep path to
stabilise at a level much lower than the initial buckling load.
6.5 Shear Deformation versus the Bifurcation Buckling

Load
In the previous sections it was assumed that the column buckling is entirely de-
termined by the flexural stiffness of bellows convolutions. However, the global
reaction forces (at the bellows ends) reduced in the post-buckling state to the
centres of bellows segments show, among the others, also shear components.
Hence, a certain amount of post-buckling shear deformation may exist which
yields a hypothesis that buckling pressure may depend on the shear stiffness.
It is again assumed that the corrugated bellows of convoluted length L b ,
accompanied by the neighbouring segments, is guided at distances L 1 , L 2 ,
respectively. Again the bellows may be considered as elastically supported.

Hence, the convolutions represented by an equivalent column are suspended
on a system of springs, as shown in Fig. 6.8. The angular stiffness parameters
kl' k2 and the relative transversal stiffness k3 are given by the Eqs. (6.75,6.76).
6.5.1 Eigenvalue Problem for the Column with a Finite Shear

Stiffness
Ziegler (1982), has widely discussed effect of shear on buckling of straight

bars and helical springs. Considering two approaches: the Engesser (1891),
approach and the so-called modified approach (Haringx 1948-49) he showed
that the first was superior for bars and columns whereas the second was
suitable rather for springs. Since deformation of bellows convolutions under
shear forces is close to deformation of a column the Engesser approach seems
to be justified and has been applied in the present analysis.
v
Fig. 6.10. Angular displacements due to bending and shear deformation.
Assume that N denotes the initially axial force (spatially fixed) acting
on the column, 1'1, 1'2 denote angles of inclination of the deformed column
axis due to bending and shear, respectively (Fig. 6.10). The local angle of
inclination of the column axis is given by:
dy
dx = 1'1 + 1'2, (6.85)
where
Q
1'2 = -. (6.86)
Ct
Here M bg , Cbg and Q, Ct denote bending moment, bending stiffness and shear
force, shear stiffness, respectively. The Engesser approach applied to the elas-
tically supported column leads to the following expression for 1'2:
(6.87)
where Qo represents the lateral force in spring k 3 . Thus, the angle of inclina-
tion amounts to:
dy
dx~
~1'1 (1+~)
Ct-N
-~ Ct-N'
(6.88)
whereas the local curvature is given as follows:
_ _C_t_ M bg ~ Mbg
(6.89)
Ct - N Cbg - (EI)s .
Here the substitutive flexural stiffness (EI)s is defined in terms of the "clas-
sical" bending stiffness Cbg and the shear stiffness Ct:
(6.90)
Effect of shear on the value of the critical force for statically determinate
support m~des can be evaluated from the second order differential equation
(Timoshenko and Cere 1961; Ziegler 1982; Zyczkowski 1991):
(6.91)
On the other hand, in the case of static indeterminability it is more conve-

nient to use a more general equation of bending with the shear deformation
taken into account (see Ziegler (1982); extension of the beam axis has been
neglected) :
d4 y N d2 y
-
dx
+
4
-=0
cbg(l - N/ct) dx 2 .
(6.92)
This equation can be transformed to a compact form:
(6.93)
with the general solution given in terms of four constants:

y = Cl sin(kx) + C2 cos(kx) + C3 + C4 , (6.94)
where
2 N
k = (EI)s . (6.95)
The solution is determined by the following four boundary conditions:
y(O) = 0, (6.96)
kl'Yl (0) - (EI)sY" (0) = 0, (6.97)
k 2 ,dLb ) - (EI)sY" (Lb) = 0, (6.98)
(EI)sY'''(Lb) + Ny'(L b ) - Qo = 0, (6.99)
or in a more convenient form:
(6.100)
(6.101)
(6.102)
(6.103)
where
(6.104)
(6.105)
(6.lO6)
The Eqs. (6.94) through (6.106) lead to a set of four linear homogenous
algebraic equations:
[A]L = Q, (6.107)
where
(6.108)
The condition of non-triviality of the solution leads to the equation:
det [A] = 0, (6.lO9)
that, eventually, takes the following form (Skoczen 1999):
2(1 +0 - + 0 + ('l/Jl + 'l/J2)(1 -1')V2X2)X2] cos(X)+

[2(1
+ [-1 + (1 + ~)( 'l/Jl + 'l/J2) + X2( 'l/Jl'lh + 1')V2 - T/V2'I/Jl 'l/J2X2)] X sin(X) =0,
(6.110)
where
N
1]=1--, (6.111)
Ct
and the eigenvalues are represented by:
(6.112)
e
It is worth pointing out that if Ct - t CXl consequently - t 0 and 1] - t 1
so that the above presented transcendental equation Eq. (6.110) reduces to a
similar equation presented by Zyczkowski (1991), for the fiexural deformation
only (Eq. (6.79)).
6.5.2 Definition of Bending and Shear Stiffness of Corrugated

Bellows
Since a corrugated bellows constitutes a set of identical axisymmetric segments

both bending and shear stiffness have to be defined first with respect to a single
segment. The bending stiffness (bellows angular rate) may be calculated with
a sufficient precision by means of the EJMA Standards (1995):
(6.113)
where Dm denotes the bellows mean diameter, q is the bellows pitch, ne is

the number of convolutions and F:x stands for the bellows elasto-plastic axial
stiffness:
(6.114)
with fl depending on the temperature and on the plastic strain range.

Since there is no commonly agreed formula for the shear stiffness of bellows
convolutions a finite element model was used to provide the necessary infor-
mation on the amount of shear deformation under transversal loads. Shear
stiffness is computed as:
(6.115)
where Qb denotes transversal force applied to bellows segment (single con-

volution). Again the shear stiffness can be defined as elastic (initial tangent)
or elasto-plastic (secant) stiffness. Thus, this parameter is deformation and
temperature dependent:
(6.116)
Finally, it is assumed that both the bending and the shear stiffness calcu-
lated for a single segment and distributed uniformly over the whole bellows
length define the response of the equivalent column.
Typical shear deformation of bellows segment subjected to a transversal

force is shown in Figs 6.11 and 6.12. Both the bottom and the top edges of the
segment are guided in the planes perpendicular to the bellows axis. Significant
local bending of the shell wall is observed all around the segment.
Fig. 6.11. Shear deformation of type-U bellows segment.
Fig. 6.12. Deformation of bellows profile under shear forces .
6.5.3 Effect of Shear on Buckling of Short Corrugated Bellows
Combining the following equations:
d2y _ _C_t_ Mbg

(6.117)
dx 2 Ct - N Cbg
2 N (6.118)
k = (EI) s'
X = kLb, (6.119)
a formula for the buckling force (pressure) can be derived:

N Ocr
Cbg , (6.120)
l+-X
Ct
where
(6.121)
and N Ocr represents buckling of a column with infinite shear stiffness. Hence,
the shear effect is determined by the factor:
-x
Cbg
, (6.122)
Ct
which for a clamped- clamped bellows is equal to:
Cbg 41T2
(6 .123)
-;- L~ .
Effect of shear deformation on buckling of bellows composed of 5, 10 and

20 convolutions is shown in Fig. 6.13. It is particularly pronounced for short
bellows (small number of convolutions) and large q/2w (close to 1). The reduc-
tion in critical force (pressure) may reach 30 % and more if q/2w approaches
1 (semicircular profile of convolutions ~ toroidal bellows).
1.0 NOcr 20 convolutions

~------~---------o
0.9 ~
0.8
0.7
q!2w
0.6 -t----,----r--,.---,----,,--r----.
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Fig. 6.13. Reduction in bellows buckling load (pressure) due to shear effect.
Geometry and stiffness parameters of bellows that were numerically anal-

ysed are shown in Tables 6.1 and 6.2.
Table 6.1. Bellows configurations chosen for numerical study.

Din 80 [mm]
q 8 [mm]
w 4.5; 6; 8; 10 [mm]
t 0.3 [mm]
n 1
6.5.4 Stability of Systems Equipped with Short Bellows:

Relaxation of Support Conditions and Shear Effect.
A reasoning similar to this presented in the Chapter 6.4 may now be devel-
oped with the effect of shear taken into account. It has a vital importance
Table 6.2. Stiffness components calculated for segments of different convolution

depth.
Convolution depth Axial stiffness Bending stiffness Shear stiffness
w fiu Cbg Ct
[mm] [N/mm] [Nmm2/rad] [N/rad]
4.5 3926.5 25531429 1449275.5
(3762) (27052692)
6 1875.5 12566250 1136363.5
(1900) (14150611)
8 892 6186461.5 751879.5
(871.5) (6794989.5)
10 496 3590357 549450.5
(469.5) (3828345.5)
for the systems containing short expansion joints. The support conditions
of corrugated bellows (represented by the equivalent column) depend on the
guidance-bellows distances. Increase of L1 and L2 induces a relaxation of the
support conditions which results in a radical change of the form of mechanical
instability. As an example a bellows composed of 10 convolutions (q = 8 mm,
w = 6 mm, t = 0.3 mm) installed between 1 mm thick tubes (Din = 80 mm)
is considered. Buckling analysis (data at 293 K) reveals again two basic insta-
bility modes corresponding to short and long guidance-bellows distances (see
Fig. 6.9).
Assume that the considered configuration is symmetric: L1 = L2 = L. In
this case one obtains two sets of critical curves (Fig. 6.14):
• for the flexural effects only (infinite shear stiffness, dashed lines),
• for both the flexural and the shear deformations included (solid lines).
Each set of curves corresponds to the above discussed two principal modes
of instability.
The buckling pressure of bellows:
4Ner
Per = D2' (6.124)
7r m
is calculated as the ratio of buckling force of the equivalent column to the

bellows mean cross-sectional surface (Dm denotes the bellows mean diameter).
The reference buckling pressure POer corresponds to the buckling pressure of
a clamped-clamped bellows calculated with the flexural effects only (infinite
shear stiffness). Thus, the parameter Per/POer is equal to 1 for L = 0 (clamped-
clamped bellows), if the shear effects are neglected.
The flat horizontal curves in Fig. 6.14 correspond to buckling mode I for
which the eigenvalues X are close to 27r. On the other hand, the steep curves
for larger L/ Din values correspond to the buckling mode II for which the
Pc/POer I buckling mode

1.0 - ...... - ...... _ _ - -
0.8
11 buckling mode
0.6
0.4 - + - - - , - - - , - - - , - - - , - - - , - - - - , - - - , - - - - - ,
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
Fig. 6.14. Decrease in buckling pressure caused by change of buckling mode for
small and moderately large bellows-to-support distances.
eigenvalues X cover the range l.4w -;- 27r. The curves for mode II indicate
a large sensitivity of the critical load with respect to L. It is not clear how
"sharp" is the transition from mode I to mode II in the real structures and
whether a third intermediate form may exist.
Since, generally, the buckling load is given by the equation:
N Oer
N er = Cb' (6.125)
1 + ----'f
CtX
it is the ratio Cbg/Ct that determines the effect of shear on the bifurcation
buckling. Both at room and at low temperatures this parameter depends on
the amount of plastic deformation:
(6.126)
where
(6.127)
The above listed functions have to be found for each particular expansion
joint and at all temperature levels (293 K, 77 K, 4 K).
6.6 Effect of Torsion on Bifurcation Buckling of

Corrugated Bellows (Torque/Pressure Interaction
Curves)
Another problem arises for corrugated bellows subjected simultaneously to
torsion and internal pressure. It turns out that even small angles of twist
cause a decrease of the pressure capacity of bellows resulting in a premature
buckling. In addition, large shearing stresses constitute an important com-
ponent in formation of the plastic strain fields in the bellows, which may
considerably decrease the fatigue life of the structure (Skoczen et al. 1995).
In order to solve this problem the equivalent column concept is now ex-
tended to torsion of bellows. Hence, a column of the same bending and tor-
sional stiffness as for a given bellows is considered. The column is subjected to
torque and compressive axial force (equivalent to the pressure resultant) and
carries the same boundary conditions as the bellows. Two types of supporting
conditions for the equivalent column are taken into account: clamped ends (1)
and clamped ends with possible transverse offset (2). In the latter case the
possible offset should be regarded as a free transversal displacement of one
end with respect to the other, resulting from the buckling mode. Analysis of
stability of the equivalent column with the appropriate boundary conditions
consists in solving the relevant eigenvalue problem. The loads are conservative
and the static stability criterion is sufficient to determine their critical values.
However, the so-called kinetic criterion offers a more general approach to the
problem of instability of a mechanical system. Instability of the elastic, pris-
matic columns subjected to torsion and compression was analysed - from the
point of view of the kinetic criterion - by Greenhill (1883), Troesch (1952),
and Ziegler (1956). The differential equation of motion (vibrations) for the
considered column is as follows:
(6.128)
where r = x + iy represents a complex space variable (directions x and y are

perpendicular to the initial axis of the column), rH, rIll, rrv denote differen-
tiation with respect to z (coordinate along the column axis), f stands for the
second derivative with respect to time (t). Here N and M denote the axial
force and the torque, respectively, whereas Cbg, J.Lm stand for the flexural stiff-
ness and the mass distributed homogeneously along the column. Postulating
that r(z, t) be separated into the following parts:
r(z, t) = R(z)T(t) , (6.129)
one obtains two differential equations:
(6.130)
and
6.6 Effect of Torsion on Bifurcation Buckling 171
.. 4
/-LmT + Cbg'" T = 0, (6.131)
where Cbg",4 is the separation parameter. A solution of the first differential
equation is searched in the form:
R(z) = Aexp(az) , (6.132)
which leads to the following characteristic equation:
(6.133)
A solution for the time dependent part is predicted as:
T(t) = Al exp(i),t) + Bl exp( -i),t) , (6.134)

4
where ),2 = Cbg'" . Formulating the boundary conditions related to the sup-
/-Lm
port conditions of the column:
case 1 :
R(O) = 0,
RI (0) = 0,
(6.135)
R(L) = 0,
RI (L) = 0,
case 2
R(O) = 0,
RI (0) = 0,
RI (L) = 0, (6.136)
( RIII _ i M Rn + ~ RI) I = 0,
Cbg Cbg z=L
one obtains two eigenvalue problems that, eventually, lead to the interaction
curves of torque versus axial force, associated with the critical states (insta-
bility). Here, L denotes the length of the column. Following the notation by
Ziegler (1956), the non-dimensional parameters:
NL2
n--- (6.137)
- 7r2Cbg ,
ML
m=--, (6.138)
7rCbg
represent the values of the axial force N and the torque M, respectively. The
interaction between the corresponding critical values (n, m) for the support
conditions 1 and 2 is presented in Fig. 6.15. The critical values of n for pure
compression are equal to 4.0 and 1.0, respectively, whereas the critical values
of m for pure torsion are equal to 2.86 and 2.0, respectively. According to
these results free transverse offset leads to a different buckling mode and to a
considerable reduction of both the critical torque M and the critical axial force
N. The upper curve 1 in Fig. 6.15 is described with a reasonable accuracy by
the following approximate equation (Troesch 1952):
3
3 -
n+r:;;m2 =4, (6.139)
2y7l"
whereas the lower curve 2 in the same figure is given by the formula:
(6.140)
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
£2.5
~
.E 2.0
co
~ 1.5
1.0 --,-_~
0.5
0.0 -+-~---,------,---30r---r-~-r-----"
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

Torque (m)
Fig. 6.15. Axial force versus torque interaction diagram (Ziegler 1956).
The solutions for the equivalent column may be transferred from the model
to the bellows (Skoczen et al. 1995). For this purpose the following formulae
are useful:
M = Ctrip, (6.141)
where p denotes the inner pressure, Rm the bellows mean radius, r.p the angle of
twist, and Ctr stands for the stiffness of free torsion. Both the flexural stiffness
Cbg and the stiffness of free torsion Ctr should be calculated and confirmed
6.6 Effect of Torsion on Bifurcation Buckling 173
by the appropriate tests. The length L is interpreted as the length of the

corrugated part of bellows. Finally, combining the above equations one obtains
the relations between the critical pressure p and the critical angle of twist r.p
for both cases of the support conditions:
3
2 L2
Rm 3 3 ( Ctr L )-2 - 4
-2
p--+r.p -- -- -, (6.142)
7rCbg 2V1F 7rCbg
and
R~L2
p--+r.p 2 ( Ctr L )2
- - =1. (6.143)
7rCbg 27rCbg
Interaction curves in terms of (p, M) are obtained for case 1 of boundary

conditions in the following form:
3
(6.144)
3
Bl-_3 (~)2 (6.145)
- 8V1F 7rCbg
If a free lateral movement of one end with respect to the other is allowed for
(boundary conditions 2) the interaction curve is given by the equations:
(6.146)
L2
B2 = 4 2 -? • (6.147)
7r Cb g
Both curves are presented in Fig. 6.16. They are compared with the exper-
imental data for a single ply stainless steel (316 L) bellows of the following
dimensions:
Din/ Dout = 55 mm/71.6 mm, L = 115 mm, q = 5 mm, t = 0.3 mm,
where q denotes the pitch and t is the nominal thickness of ply.

The experimental curves reflect boundary conditions closer to (1) rather
than to (2). The extremities of tested bellows were practically blocked against
the transverse movement, however some micro-transverse and angular move-
ments can not be excluded. The discrepancy between the experimental curves
and the theoretical one (corresponding to boundary conditions 1) can be ex-
plained by the following factors:
• theoretical curve corresponds to bifurcation buckling of the initially prefect
and perfectly supported equivalent column,
• tested bellows contained geometrical imperfections (geometrically non-
homogenous convolutions, local deformations),
• due to the necessity to rotate one bellows extremity with respect to the
other it was impossible to reach perfect boundary conditions,
• the torque was imposed by using a single lever arm,
• shell effects consisting in the local deformation of the bellows convolutions
due to the combined pressure/torque loads were not taken into account in
the above presented analysis.
Thus, the measurements indicate clearly a necessity of further research
in this domain. It is very likely that a model with imperfections would yield
the theoretical results more coherent with the measured values. Finally, it is
worth pointing out that both curves are valid only as long as the torque is
linear with respect to the angle oftwist (dashed vertical line in Fig. 6.16).
Internal
16 pressure (bar)
o theoretical curves
experimental curves for

12 [] lateral deflection of 0.75-1.5 mm
o 40 80 120
Fig. 6.16. Interaction curves for a single ply stainless steel bellows: internal pressure
versus torque.
7
Material and Fatigue Induced Structural
Instabilities of Corrugated Bellows at Low
Temperatures
7.1 Introduction to the Phenomena Observed in

Corrugated Bellows at Low Temperatures
The corrugated bellows work often in extremely severe service conditions com-
prising temperature variations between ambient and operational level, high
internal pressure, large cyclic axial offset and different types of misalignment
offsets. This implies development and evolution of plastic strain fields in these
components subjected to thermo-mechanicalloads at low temperatures. The
evolution of plastic strain fields is usually accompanied by two phenomena:
ductile damage and strain induced martensitic transformation (already dis-
cussed in the previous chapters). Cryogenic temperatures catalyse the process
of opening of micro-cracks and micro-voids shifting simultaneously deforma-
tions towards the elastic domain (considerable increase of yield strength).
Nevertheless, the behaviour of corrugated bellows, highly optimised with re-
spect to their size and stiffness, is affected by the low cycle fatigue phenomena.
Ductile damage is described by the classical kinetic law of damage evo-
lution Eq. (4.76). Here, the assumption of isotropic distribution of damage
(micro-cracks and micro-voids) in the RVE is made. Formation of the plastic
strain induced martensite (irreversible process) leads to the presence of quasi-
rigid inclusions of martensite in the austenitic matrix. The amount of marten-
site platelets in the RVE depends on the intensity of the plastic strain fields
and on the temperature. The evolution of the volume fraction of martensite is
governed by a kinetic law based on the accumulated plastic strain Eq. (5.4).
Both these irreversible phenomena, associated with the dissipation of plastic
power, are included into the constitutive model of stainless steels at cryogenic
temperatures. The model is than applied to predict the evolution of damage
and volume fraction of martensite in the bellows convolutions.
Evolution of damage in the convolutions may have a significant influence on
the local and the global stability of cryogenic systems containing the expansion
joints. Indeed, the pressurised corrugated bellows subjected simultaneously to
176 Material and Fatigue Induced Instabilities
cyclic thermo-mechanical displacements, evolve from cycle to cycle in terms of

the axial stiffness. This process may give rise to a local or a global instability
resulting from the evolution of stiffness and the corresponding bifurcation
buckling pressure.
7.2 Mechanisms of Plastic Adaptation in Bellows under

Combined Loads
Combined loads to which the bellows are subjected depend strictly on the ser-
vice conditions. Generally, the load consists of three components: axial force,
internal pressure, and a temperature field. Each of these components may vary
within a certain range, so that the structure is subjected to cyclic loads. The
process of cyclic loading and unloading beyond the elastic limit leads to en-
ergy dissipation and the formation of a sequence of plastic strain fields inside
the shelL The question of whether the energy dissipation is bounded or not
is of highest importance for engineers, since it is equivalent to the question
whether the structure will shake down or collapse.
The elastic response of bellows has been investigated by many authors,
among them Calladine (1974), Findlay and Spence (1979), and Boyle and
Spence (1984). Some elasto-plastic results were reported by Turner and Ford
(1957), based on experimental studies. The fatigue strength of type-U bel-
lows under axial loading in both elastic and plastic ranges was studied by
Hamada and Takezono (1967b). Hamada and Tanaka (1974) also presented
a comprehensive analysis of the low cycle fatigue failure of type--U bellows
under a deflection controlled cyclic loading. A finite difference technique for
large deflection problems of elasto-plastic shells of revolution was applied. The
extended Manson-Coffin formula was used to estimate the number of cycles
to failure.
Basic adaptation (Melan 1938) and inadaptation (Koiter 1958) theorems
were derived under the assumption of geometrically linear theory. The ex-
tension of both theorems to large displacements was proposed by Weichert
(1986) and applied to the analysis of shell structures (Weichert 1989). The
static and kinematic criteria enable determination of lower and upper bounds
of the shakedown domain. They do not explain, however, the failure mech-
anisms for a specific structure. The problem of failure mechanisms can be
solved by examining the structural response to the cyclic loads by means of a
step-by-step procedure.
In the present chapter a numerical analysis of geometrically nonlinear elas-
tic perfectly plastic shells of revolution, subjected to combined cyclic loads,
is performed. It is assumed that bellows are subjected to constant internal
pressure and cyclic axial force. Variations of pressure and temperature, which
may be of some importance for structural safety, are not taken into account
in the present analysis.
7.2 Mechanisms of Plastic Adaptation in Bellows under Combined Loads 177
Since the limit analysis theorems can be considered as a special case of the
adaptation and inadaptation theorems and since the phenomena they describe
are similar in nature, one can expect that a similarity between the collapse
mechanisms under quasi-static and cyclic loads will be observed.
The present chapter aims at:
• explaining the plastic collapse mechanisms for quasi-statically loaded bel-
lows (limit analysis) on the ground of geometrically and physically non-
linear theory,
• comparing the mechanisms of failure of bellows subjected to cyclic, com-
bined loads with those for quasi-statically loaded bellows,
• constructing adaptation (shakedown) and inadaptation (incremental col-
lapse) domains for bellows expansion joints.
7.2.1 The governing Equations for Elastic-Perfectly Plastic

Bellows
Fig. 7.1. The substitutive sandwich section - convention for generalized stresses.
As in the previous chapters it is assumed that the bellows consists of a

number of identical, thin-walled, rotationally symmetric shell segments, linked
along the same axis. Once again, it is assumed that the convolution of each
shell segment corn prises two circular arcs (I and 11) of the angle CP, as shown in
Fig. 7.1. Thus, the geometry of S-shape bellows segment may be represented
by means of the relevant toroidal portions. For both arcs, two independent
Lagrangian angular coordinates CPl, CP2 are introduced. The normalised La-
grangian coordinate ~ is again calculated as the ratio of the length of the arc
to the total length of convolution. Due to rotational symmetry, the circum-
ferential coordinate () will be used only as a subscript.
The initial length of the bellows is expressed by the formula,
L = 4nRcf> sin cp , (7.1)

where n denotes the number of bellows segments and tilde indicates a di-
mensional quantity. For the numerical calculations carried out in the present
chapter, the angle ([> = 7r /2 has been assumed.
In order to simplify the elasto-plastic analysis, the substitutive sandwich
section, considered as a discrete approximation of the uniform section of the
wall, has been introduced, as shown in Fig. 7.1. The sandwich section is char-
acterised by half distance between the working layers and their thickness in
the following way:
H = Hoh(~) , t = tot(~). (7.2)
Here 2Ho is the reference distance between the working layers and the
majority of the geometrical quantities is normalised to Ho. The tensile and
bending rigidities of the sandwich wall are assumed the same as for the uniform
wall. Thus, these two conditions lead to the following relations:
T. _ Hu
0- 2 ' (7.3)
H
where Hu = ~ represents the thickness of uniform bellows wall.
Ho
According to the idea of the substitutive sandwich section, the loading is
carried by the working layers only. The core is perfectly rigid in the direction
normal to the middle surface (the distance between the working layers does
not change) and perfectly flexible for bending. The transverse shear strain
components are not taken into account. The thickness of the working layers
and the distance between them are assumed to be constant during the de-
formation process and the Love-Kirchhoff hypothesis is applied. Moreover,
for the numerical examples presented in this chapter, it is assumed that the
thickness of working layers and the distance between them do not depend on
the meridional coordinate ~; i.e.,
h(~) == 1, t(~) == 1. (7.4)

The third order theory of large displacements and rotations with small
strains, based on the Reissner nonlinear geometrical relations (Reissner 1974),
is used to describe the rotationally symmetric deformation of the bellows seg-
ment. Nonsymmetric deformation of the bellows, due to transverse bending,
is not taken into account. Therefore, strains and stresses, as well as displace-
ments, depend only on the meridional coordinate cP. The shell is subjected
to normal, internal hydrostatic pressure and to cyclic axial force. Pressure is
assumed as the follower, with normality retained, and its magnitude is kept
constant during the process. Load control with respect to the axial force pa-
rameter is applied. The material of working layers is assumed to be perfectly
elastoplastic and incompressible, as described by the associated flow rule and
the Huber-Mises-Hencky (HMH) yield condition. The following geometrical
relations are introduced for the principal strains and middle surface elonga-
tions, based on the Love-Kirchhoff hypothesis (Skrzypek 1980; Reissner 1981):
± e<.p ± iIx<.p
c<p = iI'
1 ±-=-
R<p
± e,J ± iI Xf}
cf} = iI
1 ±-=-
Rf} (7.5)
•
SIn,/,
A,
--=-
u;
R<.p U;. U;
e<p = ---,-----"- - 1 = - -=- sm'P + --- cos 'P + cos 'P - '/' - 1 ,
(A,)
sin 'P R<p R<p
UT
ef} = --=- .
R
The relations for principal curvatures are as follows:
_ 'P' - 4J' cos 'P - cos 4J
x<p = -_- , X,J = _ (7.6)
R<p R
The current radii of curvatures and the angle of slope of the normal to the
middle surface are expressed as:
R<.p (1 + e<p) - (1 + ef) ) cos 4J R-f},
r = ---'-"------'-'-
<p rf}=
'P' cos'P
• A,
sm,/,- U;
-_- (7.7)
R
tan'P = -<p
U'
cos4J + ~
R<p
Converting the kinematic relations to incremental form:
(7.8)
A particular case in which the change of the unit toroidal angle vanishes
(Ko = 0) is considered in the present chapter. The following system of inter-
nal equilibrium equations, derived in the incremental form by applying the
principle of virtual work Skoczen et al. (1992), is considered:
15 ( RN<p)' + R<p [N'}i5ip cos ip + i5N,} sin ip] + R [Q<pi5ip' + ip'i5Q<p] = 0,

15 ( RQ<p)' - R<p [-N,}i5ip sin ip + i5N,} cos ip] - R [N<pi5ip' + ip'i5N<p] +
RR<p [(1 + e<p) (1 + e,}) i5pn + (1 + e<p)Pni5e,} + (1 + e,}) Pni5e<pl = 0, (7.9)
15 (R.M<p )' + R<p [M,}Jip cos ip + i5M,} sin ip] +

RR<p [(1 + e<p) JQ<p + Q<pJe<p] = 0,
where
The plastic flow rule associated with the Huber-Mises-Hencky (HMH) yield
condition leads to the following set of equations:
, ± =
uc<p,,} 1 (2'-±
2E '-±) +"31 (2-±
ua<p,'} - ua,},<p -±) u/\
a<p,'} - a,},<p ,,± , (7.11)
_±)2 + (_±)2
(a<p a,} _ (-±)
a<p (-±)
a,} -_ ao,
-2 (7.12)
for the plane stress state in the working layers. The non-negative scalar factors
i5).± are determined from the yield condition Eq. (7.12).
7.2.2 The Reduced Set of Equations and the Boundary Value

Problem
The equations of equilibrium (7.9) combined with the geometrical relations

given by Eq. (7.8), definitions of generalised stresses (7.10) and constitutive
equations (7.11), (7.12) lead, after some transformations to the following re-
duced set of six nonlinear, coupled differential equations, linear with respect
to the first derivatives of increments of the state functions 8'P, BUT , 8Uz , 8N<p,
8Q<p,8M<p:
(8'P)' = R<p8x<p,
(BUT )' = - R<p [8e<p sin 'P + (1 + e<p) 8'P cos 'Pl ,
(8Uz )' = R<p [8e<p cos 'P - (1 + e<p) 8'P sin 'Pl ,
(8N<p-
)' - _ R' 8N<p + R<p [N1?8'P cos 'P + 8N1? sin 'Pl _ Q 8 I _ '8Q
R <p'P 'P <P'
(7.13)
(8Q <p )/ -__ R<p[8N1?cos'P-N1?8'Psin'Pl-R'8Q<p

R +
N8 I
<p'P+'P
'8N
<p
+ e1?)Pn8e<p + (1 + e<p)Pn8e1? + (1 + e<p) (1 + e1?) 8Pnl
- R<p [(1 ,
(8M<p)' = _ R' 8M<p + R<p [M1?8'P cos 'P + 8M1? sin'Pl_
R
R<p [Q<p8e<p + (1 + e<p) 8Q<pl ,
where
(7.14)
The above equations are written in dimensionless form according to the fol-
lowing rules:
• all the linear quantities (distances, radii, displacements) are referred to
Ho,
• other dimensionless quantities are defined as follows:
-±
± (J<p,{J
(J,n {J = --- ,
,.., (Jo
N _ N<p,{J
<p,{J - 2':;; - ,
.Lo(Jo
E= E
0-0 '
where tilde over a symbol means dimensional quantity.
~=O ~ = 1/2 ~=1

Or.pl = 0 Or.p2 = -Or.pl Or.p2 = 0
oUr! = ? OUr2 = oUrl oUr2 = ?
Integration Integration
oUzl = 0 ---> OUz2 = -oUzl ---> oUz2 = 0
1 step 2 step
oN",l = ? oN",2 = oN",l oN",2 =?
OQ",l = 0 OQ",2 = -OQ",l OQ",2 = 0
oM",l = ? oM",2 = -oM"'l oM",2 = ?
Newton-Raphson algorithm
Fig. 7.2. Shooting method combined with Runge-Kutta IV integration.
h2
Notice that the terms RiRj have been neglected, as they are small when
compared to 1. This reduced set of equations, supplemented with the bound-
ary conditions, creates a two point boundary value problem that may be
solved by using one of the classical numerical techniques. It is assumed that

each of the rotationally symmetric bellows segments is of the same geome-
try, is subjected to the same combined loads (pressure and axial force), and
works under the same boundary conditions. Thus, one single segment will
be analysed. Eqs. (7.13) are integrated between the crest (~ = 0) and the
root (~ = 1), where the conditions of symmetry are imposed. At the point
~ = 1/2 the continuity conditions are applied. The solution of the problem
can be obtained by applying the so-called shooting technique, according to
the following algorithm (Fig. 7.2). The shooting method, combined with two
step integration technique based on the Runge-Kutta IV procedure and com-
pleted with the Newton-Raphson algorithm, constitutes the basis of a PC
computer code. The coupled initial-boundary value problem is separated into
the initial problem and the two point boundary value problem of type 3 x 3.
The increments of the state functions are calculated and stored for each step
of the time-like loading parameter.
7.2.3 Limit Analysis
xl00 N
axial force
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
axial deflection d
0.0 +---....,-----,-"-T---,--.--....
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 xl0
Fig. 7.3. Limit analysis for quasi--static loading: Load Carrying Capacity.
Consider a bellows subjected to constant internal pressure and to quasi-

statically increasing axial force. In the presence of geometry changes, the load
carrying capacity (LCC) may be understood as an effect of reaching maximal
value of the load parameter at a certain point on the equilibrium path. This
phenomenon is often called the maximal carrying capacity (MCC). The ex-
tension of the load controlled process beyond this point, if possible, may lead
to instability of the structure, as shown in Fig. 7.3. On the other hand, it is
well known that the elasto--plastic deformation of shells usually concentrates
locally. This fact yields another mechanism of failure for the quasi-statically
loaded bellows. The collapse mode corresponds in this case to the forma-
tion of an axisymmetric plastic hinge in the zone where the localisation of
plastic strains takes place. The hinge usually coincides with the root or the
crest of convolutions. The accumulation of positive strains in the outer layer
and negative in the inner layer (or vice versa, depending on the direction of
the meridional bending moment) yields the eventual discontinuity of slope
of the normal to the middle surface shown in Fig. 7.4, called sometimes the
decohesive carrying capacity (DCC). In fact, the phenomenon is equivalent
to formation of a local discontinuity of normal displacement (or its rate) in
the layers, inadmissible from the point of view of continuum mechanics. From
the similarity of deviators and the HMH yield condition (Eq. 7.12) for the
elastic-perfectly plastic material one obtains:
± p± 2O'<p± - ±
O'f)
oc~ = oCf) ±
20'f) -
±'
O'<p
(7.15)
±
81:'1'
Fig. 7.4. Initiation of local normal displacement discontinuity due to plastic hinge
formation.
The initiation of the discontinuity in the structure starts once the stress
profile reaches one of the two parabolic points on the yield ellipse,
or
(7.16)
Due to the fact that the denominator in Eq. (7.15) vanishes at these points,
whereas oc~± does not, a singularity of the plastic meridional strains Oc~±
occurs. This implies an inadmissible discontinuity of displacements. On the

ground of small strain theory, this criterion must be regarded as purely math-
ematical. The singularity of the solution leads to divergence of the numerical
procedure. As a matter of fact, only the initiation of the process of plastic
strain accumulation may be allowed. However, this is sufficient from the point
of view of the limit analysis with the formation of plastic hinges as main
mechanism of failure. In order to describe a more advanced process of strain
localisation, a finite strain theory has to be applied.
It is worth pointing out that, from a practical point of view, the mere
initiation of the plastic strain accumulation seems to be an important factor
in the safety design of structures. An example of the stress profiles within
the yield ellipse (for both layers) due to the formation of the local normal
displacement discontinuities is presented in Fig. 7.5 (for p = 0.1, >. = 2.0).
Formation of the plastic hinge terminates the equilibrium path before the
point of maximal load is reached. The occurrence of either the first or the
second limit state mode depends on the geometry of segment and on the
magnitude of pressure applied.
Fig. 7.5. Stress profiles for the case of initiation of displacement discontinuities.
7.2.4 Mechanisms of Adaptation and Inadaptation to Cyclic

Loading
Assume a complex cyclic load comprising the internal pressure Pn (of a con-
stant magnitude) and the cyclic axial force N (the dimensionless global axial
force is defined as N = N / (E H~) ). For certain pairs of pressure and axial
force (Pn, N), the structural behaviour, after some plastic deformation in the
initial load cycles, eventually becomes elastic. As a result of cycle-by-cycle
decreasing dissipation of plastic energy, the permanent axial deflection of the
shell stabilises and the structure shakes down, as illustrated in Fig. 7.6. In
other words, if the structure shakes down, the total amount of plastic energy
x100
1.0 N
-3.5 -2.5 -1.5 -0.5 0.5
-1.0
-5.0
-6.0
Odqvist's
10.0 parameter
0.75 7.5
6
5.0
2.5
number
of c cles 0.0 -t---,.-,---,.----"'r"--'"!
4.0 5.0 6.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Fig. 7.6. Shakedown due to cyclic loads: (a) load-deflection diagram; (b) evolution
of permanent deflection; (c) evolution of the Odqvist parameter.
dissipated within the process of elasto-plastic deformation must be finite. The

adaptation criteria, developed to ensure the limitation of either the plastic en-
ergy or the maximum plastic strain, have been formulated at the level of a
point or a body (cf. K6nig 1987). The basic local criterion,
Jg~PdT
t
< 00, (7.17)

o
was followed by the condition of limitation of the maximum plastic strain,
(7.18)
which is equivalent to the previous condition. Another local criterion imposes

a limit on the functional expressing length of the trajectory in the plastic
strain space, namely to the Odqvist parameter,
JJ~p~PdT
t
< C. (7.19)
o
The basic criterion expressed by Eq. (7.17) follows from the latter if C = 00.
A global shakedown criterion can also be applied (cf. K6nig 1987):
JJg~P
t
~ dT , dV < C, (7.20)
v 0
where C is a material constant. The above condition means that the structure
shakes down if the basic local criterion holds at each point of the structure.
Hence, if the structure shakes down, then the inequality (7.19) is satisfied at
each point of its volume. If the increment of the Odqvist parameter is now
calculated at a given point, separately for each cycle, its magnitude is supposed
to be a monotonic function of the number of cycles and eventually, after a
finite number of cycles, approach zero. If the same phenomenon takes place
at each point, the structure shakes down. Typical evolution of the Odqvist
parameter, calculated cycle-by--cycle at the crest of bellows for positive axial
force increments only, is plotted in Fig. 7.6 for the following data:
N
p = 0.1, A = 1.0, Pn = 0.4, Ne = 1.05,
Pe
where Pe, Ne denote the elastic carrying capacity under pure pressure and pure
axial force, respectively. It is observed that the increments of the Odqvist
parameter and the width of each plastic zone decrease from cycle to cycle.
Hence, the response of the structure eventually becomes purely elastic.
On the contrary, if the elasto-plastic structure does not shake down, it
will finally collapse, due to an inadaptation process. Generally, the mecha-
nism of inadaptation is based either on the alternating plasticity or on the
incremental collapse phenomenon. If both phenomena occur simultaneously,
the effect of nonsymmetric alternating plasticity (mixed alternating plasticity
and incremental collapse) is observed. The plastic failure mechanism of bel-
lows, subjected to inner pressure and to cyclic axial force, depends strongly
on the pressure contribution. At lower pressures, the nonsymmetric alternat-
ing plasticity can be expected, whereas at higher pressures the incremental
collapse (ratchetting) should occur. Thus, two basic collapse modes may be
distinguished:
• ultimate load mechanism associated with the nonsymmetric alternating
plasticity
• formation of plastic hinge associated with domination of the incremental
collapse (ratchetting)
Ultimate Load Mechanism
The load controlled cyclic process mentioned in the previous paragraph will
first be discussed. The ultimate load mechanism for cyclic loading may be
regarded as analogous to the effect of reaching the maximal load for a quasi-
statically loaded bellows. After a certain number of cycles, the presumed axial
force level cannot be reached (Fig. 7.7). The process of plastic flow is localised
at the crest and at the root of the bellows segment. Plastic strain increments
increase at the root, from cycle to cycle, both in the inner and in the outer
layers (Fig. 7.7) and simultaneous expansion of the plastic zone around the
root is observed. Structural softening due to the intensive plastic flow yields a
decrease of the carrying capacity. From the point of view of the load controlled
process, the shell shows a plastic failure. Fig. 7.8 illustrates the meridional
strain plotted as a function of the meridional coordinate at the root of each
working layer separately. The evolution of strain for ~ = 1 indicates formation
of a plastic hinge accompanied by the increase of size of the plastic zone. The
incremental collapse phenomenon is observed in the outer layer. The evolution
of the meridional strain as a function of the number of cycles is presented in
x100
4.0 Axial
force
2 810
3.0
2.0
1.0
Axial deflection L1
r-------r-------.-~~~~------,_----~x10
-5.0 -3.0 3.0 5.0
-3.0
8_·_· .-
. - ........
'-.
.......j\J'.'
-4.0
N ;-N
Fig. 7.7. Inadaptation to cyclic loads: (a) ultimate load mechanism; (b) collapse
mechanism due to the kinematically controlled process.
X104
10.0 e; 12
8.0
External layer
6.0
4.0
2.0 9
5.6
0.0 -F~~"'--.--.--4--'--'---++"""""-,:,·1. 2
1.0
-2.0 ~
-4.0
Internal layer
5.0
0.2
-5.0
-10.0
-15.0 12
Fig. 7.8. Plastic strain localisation in the layers due to ultimate load mechanism.
Fig. 7.9, both for the internal and for the external working layers. A mixed
type inadaptation mechanism, consisting of the alternating plasticity and the
incremental collapse, occurs. The Odqvist parameter, calculated both for the
positive and the negative axial force increments, and the permanent axial
deflection as a function of number of cycles are shown in Fig. 7.10.
Note that the collapse is preceded by a strong increase of the Odqvist
parameter in the outer and the inner layers (reverse points 9-10), which in-
dicates an increase of the dissipation of energy per cycle. The reverse point
12, which terminates the load controlled process, corresponds to the ultimate
load effect. The Figs. 7.7 through 7.10 were plotted for the following set of
data:
N
p = 0.1, >. = 1.0, Pn = 0.0, - = 1.08.
Pe Ne
collapse
8.0
6.0
4.0 External layer (root)
2.0
Number of
reverse point
0.0
1.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 11.0
X104
10.0
7.5
5.0
2.5
-5.0
-7.5
-10.0
-12.5
Internal layer (root)
-15.0
collapse
Fig. 7.9. Evolution of the meridional strains at root.

x10e5
35.0
30.0
~ 25.0
2Q)
E 20.0
~
Cl)
a.
(j) 15.0
.;;:
0-
"0
o 10.0
5.0
Number of
O.04-__, -__,--,__~~,,__, -__,--,__~rTev~e~rs~erP~o~int
1.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 11.0
x10
1.00
§ 0.75
U
Q)
~
C 0.50
Q)
c
to
E
~ 0.25
Number
of cycles
0.00 +---~---,----,---,-----,--'-----,
o 2 3 4 5 6
Fig. 7.10. Evolution of the Odqvist parameter at root. Nonlinear increase of per-
manent deflection.
Formation of Plastic Hinge
The same mechanism that terminates the process of quasi-static loading of

bellows for higher magnitudes of pressure, also appears in cyclic loading. The
analysis of the meridional strain distribution for each cycle leads to the con-
clusion that the width of plastic zone around the crest of the bellows segment
does not change. Plastic strain increments accumulate within the zone, where
various strain concentration in both working layers appears (Fig. 7.11). Strong
concentration of positive strains in the inner layer around the crest results in
the discontinuity of slope of the normal to the middle surface (plastic hinge).
This phenomenon is limited to a reasonably narrow and stable zone of yield-
ing at the crest. In the case shown in Fig. 7.11 the failure is associated with
a predominance of the incremental collapse. Here, the following data were
applied for the numerical analysis:
Pn
p = 0.1, A = 1.0, - = 0.5 , -N = 1.06 .
Pe Ne
x10e4
15.0 E;
10.0
5.0
0.0
o
-5.0 3
-10.0
-15.0
x10
1.00
+
3
collapse
0.75
0.50
0.25
Number
of cycles
3 4 5 Ni -N -Ni N
Fig. 7.11. Mechanism of inadaptation: formation of a plastic hinge.

7.2.5 Adaptation and Inadaptation Domains
In order to find the entire region of safe work of a structure subjected to

cyclic loads, the elastic response domain should be completed with the so-
called adaptation domain. Here, the adaptation domain is understood as such
combination of pairs (Pn, N) that fulfils the condition of shakedown to fully
elastic behaviour. Various domains ofresponse of the corrugated bellows (p =
0.1, >. = 1.0) are presented in Fig. 7.12. The domain of pure elastic response
of the structure is limited by the elastic carrying capacity (ECC). For low
pressure magnitudes (as compared to the elastic carrying capacity Pe for pure
NINe mixed alternating plasticity

1.2 and incremental collapse
L.C.C
1.0 l-==::::::::=~!!!!:
formation of
plastic hinge
0.8
Q)
~ D.C.C
.E 0.6
!ii
elastic domain
~
0.4
0.2
PiPe
0.0 +----,--,--------,---,------,-,----.--,----,--------l--
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Internal pressure
Axial
force
N------
.-... Pn
pressure
-N - - - - - -
Fig. 7.12. Shakedown and inadaptation domains for corrugated type-S bellows.
pressure loading), yielding initiates at the root. For higher pressures, yielding
starts at the crest.
For a quasi-statically loaded structure, limit analysis allows determination
of two curves, related to the collapse mode: either the load carrying capacity
(Lee) or the formation of plastic hinge (DeC). Both mechanisms of failure
are based on plastic strain localisation, either at the root or at the crest of the
shell. The region between the initial yielding curve and both curves obtained
due to the limit analysis contains all possible magnitudes of pressure and axial
load that lead to elasto-plastic response of the structure. This domain com-
prises adaptation (shakedown) and inadaptation (nonsymmetric alternating
plasticity and incremental collapse) sub-domains. Both the elastic response
domain and the shakedown domain form the region of safe work of the bellows.
The complementary area of inadaptation contains two sub-domains, defined
according to the failure mechanisms. Their nature is similar as in the case of
quasi-static loading. At lower pressures, the ultimate load mechanism associ-
ated with the nonsymmetric alternating plasticity predominates, whereas for
higher pressures formation of plastic hinge, associated with incremental col-
lapse, is observed. Both phenomena are based on the plastic strain localisation
and unlimited dissipation of plastic energy.
7.3 Plastic Strain Induced Damage Evolution and

Martensitic Transformation in the Bellows Convolutions
at Cryogenic Temperatures
The model presented in Section 5.6 has been applied to analyse evolution
of damage and volume fraction of martensite in the convolution of a typical
thin-walled stainless steel corrugated bellows (Garion and Skoczen 2002b).
Geometry of the shell and the relevant loads are presented in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1. Bellows geometry and the corresponding set of loads.
Wall thickness (t p ) 0.15 mm
Dout/Din 98/82 mm
Bellows pitch (q) 5mm
Axial deflection per pitch 100%
(relative to the bellows pitch) elongation
Int.j ext. pressure vacuum/vacuum
Temperature 77K
7.3 Plastic Strain Induced Damage Evolution 195
Axis
Fig. 7.13. Model of half convolution of a cryogenic bellows.
Half convolution of the bellows under consideration is shown in Fig. 7.13

(axisymmetric FE model). Accumulation of plastic strains and the correspond-
ing evolution of the volume fraction of martensite is shown in Fig. 7.14 and
Fig. 7.15, respectively. The magnetic permeability (corresponding to the field
of 1000 Oe) is presented in Fig. 7.16. Finally, the evolution of damage param-
eter along the convolution is shown in Fig. 7.17.
A B C o
I I I
2.0,..---.---t-----,----,,---,-----,----'-r--.......- - - - t , - - - ,
?ft 1.5
c:
~
j
Co 1.0
~
"5
E
g
..: 0.5
Intemal-
0.0 L-_-'-_-+-----""--'-_---'_ _.J.-_--'""'~-T-'-_--I._E_xt_.m_a'_I-_-__'
o 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10
Curvilinear Abscissa [mm)
Fig. 7.14. Accumulated plastic strain along the convolution.
In the thin-walled corrugated stainless steel shells, hydro-formed at room

temperature and loaded at cryogenic temperatures a strong damage or-
thotropy is observed. The difference in micro-damage evolution along the
principal directions of damage favourites the macro-crack propagation in one
direction only. When testing a thin-walled structure (for instance a bellows),
A c, 0,
'if'. 5
Internal--
OL-_-L_~r-_-L_~~_~_~ __ ~-L~ _External-
_~_~ -
o 2 4 5 6 7 8 10
Curvilinear Abscissa [mm]
Fig. 7.15. Martensite content along the convolution.
A B C o,
I
1.6
1.5
~ 1.4
:0
''""
E
"Cl.
1.3
"
~
"Cl
'"
::;; 1.2
1.1 Basic lavel

1.005
Internal--
External- -
1.0
0 3 4 8 9 10
Fig. 7.16. Magnetic permeability along the convolution.
under cyclic loads at cryogenic temperatures, one obtains a statistical evidence

of such phenomenon.
The combined constitutive model including orthotropic damage (see Sec-
tion 5.6) has been numerically tested on thin-walled stainless steel corrugated
bellows (cf. Garion and Skoczen 2003)). The bellows convolutions form a set
of waves obtained from a hydro-forming process, that induces an initial state
of plastic deformation. The intensity of the plastic strain fields depends on the
ratio between the depth of convolutions and the pitch (the wave length). Since
A B D,
0.40
0.35
,, ,
0.30 /'
\
\ I •
0.25
~
"~ 0.20
ro
Cl
0.15
0.10
0.05
Intemal-
Extemal- -
4 5 6 8 10
Fig. 7.17. Damage along the convolution (PD is assumed equal to 0).
the plastic strain intensity may locally exceed 0.1 after the forming process it
is assumed that an initial state of orthotropic damage, represented by dam-
age tensor D, already exists before the structure is subjected to monotonic or
to cyclic loads. Deep hydro--forming process induces also significant harden-
ing that can be measured by using the micro--Vickers method. Typically, the
micro--hardness for 0.2 mm thick 316L stainless steel bellows ranges from 200-
400 RV under 0.1 kg load. The micro--hardness is usually measured along the
longitudinal section of several convolutions and shows 15-20% higher values
at crest when compared to the root of convolutions. In the present chapter,
the initial state of hardening and forming induced damage is not accounted
for. During the monotonic or cyclic loading, the plastic strain fields develop at
the root and the crest of the convolutions. This is mainly due to the fact that
the maximum meridional bending moments in the shell are localised at root
and at crest. As a consequence of this highly localised bending and the rele-
vant distribution of strain across the wall, the plastic strain fields develop on
the external and the internal surfaces of the shell. They are accompanied by
the damage fields containing micro-cracks and micro--voids. A micrograph of
a typical zone with high intensity damage, extracted from the root of bellows
convolution, is shown in Fig. 7.18.
As an example, half convolution of a typical type-U bellows is considered
(Fig. 7.13). The bellows is subjected to an axial displacement cycle between
-25% and +62.5% of its initial free length ("-" denotes compression and "+"
denotes extension). Initially, in order to simulate the isotropic case, the param-
eters of the damage evolution law have been set equal in all three directions,
C = 0.9. The simulation has been performed for the temperature T=4.2 K.
The evolution of damage in the meridional, circumferential and normal direc-
tions is shown in Figs. 7.19a, b. Fig. 7.19a illustrates damage profile along the
50J.lm
Fig. 7.18. Micrograph showing the evolution of micro-cracks.
convolution (from point A to point D) both on the internal and on the exter-
nal surfaces, whereas Fig. 7.19b presents the damage evolution through the
wall thickness(with respect to the mid- surface). The most intensive damage
accumulation occurs at root and at crest (Fig. 7.19a), where a strong local-
isation of plastic strains takes place. As expected with respect to the shell
theory, damage in the normal direction is negligible when compared to the
other directions (Fig. 7.19a). In Fig. 7.19b, the meridional damage represents
an almost parabolic function due to the bending moment at the root and at
the crest. Generally, the meridional damage field seems to dominate when
compared to the circumferential direction.
To illustrate the deformation induced damage orthotropy the parameters
Cl, C2 (after hydro-forming of bellows at room temperature) have been set
to 1.1 and 0.9, respectively. The relevant profiles of damage evolution at 4.2 K
are shown in Figs. 7.20a, b.
Now, the difference between the meridional and the circumferential direc-
tions in terms of damage evolution is much more pronounced. In particular
the intensity of damage fields in the meridional direction (expressed by the
damage tensor eigenvalue D l ) is much higher than in the circumferential direc-
tion. This means that the micro- cracks and the micro- voids are located in the
plane orthogonal to the direction (1) , which explains well the experimentally
confirmed fatigue induced propagation of macro- cracks in the circumferential
(hoop) direction of bellows convolutions (either at root or at crest).
a)
0.06
0.05
Q) 0.04
Cl
ca Me'Unt -
E Men_ext ---
ca Cire_int ••••
00.03
Cire_ext _._.
Nonnjnt _.. _.
Nonn_ext-··_·
0.02
0.01
2345678 10
Curvilinear abscissa 1] [mm]
b)
0.06
0.05
0.04 i
Q) I
Cl I
ca I
I
Me'LRoot -
E
ca 0.03 I
I Me'LC,est -_.
0 I Cire_Root ••••
I Cire_Crest _.-
I
0.02 I
I
I
I
I
I
0.01 I
.{..::::.~~:--:-.-.
0.0~.06 0.06
Fig. 7.19. Evolution of damage at 4.2 K (isotropic case): a) along the convolution
(from point A to point D) b) through thickness (0 corresponds to the mid-surface)
a)
0.06 i
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Cl) 0.04 I
Cl I MerUnt
tIl I MerLext
E I
Circjnt
tIl I
Cl 0.03 I
I
eire_ext
I Norm_int _ .. _.
I Norm_ext --._.
0.02 I
I
I
I
0.Q1
I
/ :/
I :
I:
".~/.
,'.'
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Curvilinear abscissa 1"] [mm]
b)
I
0.06 I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Cl) I Meri_Root-
Cl I
tIl I Meri_Crest--·
I
~ 0.03 I
eirc_Root ----
Cl I eirc_Crest ---
I
I
0.02 ". I
I
I
I
I
f
0.01 f
0.00 L--_--'-_ _....L..::""""'-:..:..:..:'"'--=---,l.,...,-_--'-_---'

-0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0.0 0.02 0.04 0.06
Curvilinear abscissa 1"] [mm]
Fig. 7.20. Evolution of damage at 4.2 K (orthotropic case): a) along the convolution
(from point A to point D) b) through thickness (0 corresponds to the mid-surface)
7.4 Mechanism of Fatigue Induced Structural Instability
Assume, for example that we deal with a slender bar of length L subjected
to the axial load P. The bar is subjected simultaneously to kinematically
controlled elasto-plastic cycling of the amplitude Ll (Fig. 7.21).
7.4 Mechanism of Fatigue Induced Structural Instability 201
- /1 +/1
,~------------~~~~I : p
Fig. 7.21. Stability of a slender bar subjected to kinematically controlled cycling.
Assume also that the slenderness ratio>. of the bar is such that the buck-
ling, induced by the load P, occurs exclusively in the elastic domain. An
interesting question arises: how does the critical buckling load evolve with
the number of cycles N. The answer can be formulated on the basis of the
ductile damage theory. As already explained in Chapter 4, Fig. 4.8, the evo-
lution of elastic modulus from cycle to cycle - both under tension and under
compression - follows accumulation of ductile damage (Fig. 7.22) .
.-
Fig. 7.22. Evolution of hysteresis loops for 316L at 293 K (Lemaitre 1992).
The major part of the curves shown in Fig. 4.8 can be linearised - apart
from the very end of the process where the damage accumulation enters into
highly nonlinear phase. A simplified linearised evolution of the elastic effec-
tive modulus under compression can be developed in the following form (see
Eq. (4.80)):
(7.21 )
Since, in the absence of the mean plastic strain and under the assumption
of constant plastic strain range on cycle (Eq. (4.135)) the following relation
holds:
(7.22)
the evolution of damage parameter as a function of the number of cycles reads:

A2 ') H(N - No),

D = N ( 4ES(3L1Eg (7.23)
where No stands for the damage threshold expressed in terms of the number
of cycles (equivalent of po). Thus, in the case of N ~ No, the elastic effective
modulus is given by:
(7.24)
An example of linear evolution of the elastic effective modulus under com-

pression, computed for the following set of parameters: A=984 MPa, (3=0.5,
E=200 GPa, S=7 MPa, is shown in Fig. 7.23.
ff-
1.0 -Er-:-"==:::::===:::======~=€~p ===0=.0=5
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
I A2N o A2 N
--
4ES 4ES
0.0
0 4 8 12 16 20
Fig. 7.23. Effective elastic modulus versus number of cycles for a given temperature
T (parameters A, E, Sand f3 identified for 316L at 293 K).
The critical buckling stress for a slender bar reads:

7r 2 jj;-
(ler =~, (7.25)
where
7.4 Mechanism of Fatigue Induced Structural Instability 203
). = Lr.
~
, i=fE· (7.26)
Here, I, As are the inertia and the sectional area of the bar, respectively. The
parameter f1 depends on the boundary conditions. Finally, one obtains:
(7.27)
Hence, it becomes clear that the bifurcation buckling load depends on the
number of cycles, provided that the cycling is associated with dissipation of
plastic power.
In case of presence of the constant mean plastic strain on cycle the evolu-
tion of damage as a function of number of cycles can be derived directly from
the Eq. (4.136):
(7.28)
0.6
0.4
Fig. 7.24. Column buckling stress versus number of cycles in the case of constant
mean plastic strain on cycle (a=2, C: pm /C:fO=0.25).
which, in the case of N ~ Nn, leads to:
(7.29)
The corresponding non-dimensional column buckling stress versus number

of cycles as a function of the plastic strain range Llc: p is presented in Fig. 7.24.
Finally, in case of ratchetting and under assumption of linear increase of the
mean plastic strain as a function of the number of cycles:
C:pm(N) = kN, (7.30)
one obtains (see Eq. (4.140)):
D = A2 (3Ll b (1 - aN)l-o. - 1 H(N _ N ) (7.31)

4ES C: p a(a-1) n .
Again, in the case of N ~ Nn, the critical buckling stress reduces according
to the following formula:
""zcrer
n2 E
1.00-,-........
0.96
0.92
0.88 2 er =1- (~Llf:~

Acr I ~ J 2 (I-aN,'i-a -1
n2E p 4ES a(a-l)
0.84
I A2N D A2N
--
I 4ES 4ES
0.80
0 4 8 12 16 20
Fig. 7.25. Column buckling stress versus number of cycles in the case of linear
increase of the mean plastic strain on cycle (0=2, a=O.OOl, Llcp=O.l).
7.5 Evolution of Plastic Strain Fields and Damage 205
(7.32)
where: a = ~. Here, the critical buckling stress is a nonlinear function of the

CfO
number of cycles N and depends on the parameter a (see Fig. 7.25).
The above presented analysis can serve as a basis for the formulation of the
equivalent column concept for corrugated bellows. Also, it is worth pointing
out that Eqs. (7.27, 7.29) and (7.32) are highly temperature dependent and
that the evolution of buckling load at cryogenic conditions is different than at
room temperature.
7.5 Evolution of Plastic Strain Fields and Damage in the

Corrugated Bellows under Cyclic Loads at Cryogenic
Temperatures
7.5.1 Simplified Constitutive Model of Stainless Steels at

Cryogenic Temperatures
The material model applied in the present sections (Skoczen 2001) concerns
the cryogenic fatigue properties of austenitic stainless steels, with special focus
on the grade 316L. It is worth pointing out that the grades 304L and 316L
exhibit very similar fatigue properties, therefore the model may be regarded
as applicable to both of them. As an example, the mechanical properties of
0.3 mm fine gauge 316L stainless steel sheets are presented in Table 7.2 (data
for 293 K were measured at CERN). Stainless steels exhibit strong cyclic
hardening at low temperature in the initial tens of cycles (Suzuki et al. 1988).
The curves of maximum stress versus number of cycles indicate three phases
of cyclic hardening: a slow increase (up to 5-10 cycles), a rapid increase (from
5-10 cycles to 10 -;- 50 cycles) and a stabilisation (above 10-50 cycles up to
rupture). In order to account for the effect of cyclic hardening a simplified
stepwise linear model has been developed. The model is aimed at a qualitative
analysis of the evolution of plastic strains in bellows convolutions at cryogenic
Table 7.2. Data for grade 316L fine gauge sheets at cryogenic temperatures.
Temperature Young's Yield Hardening Tensile
modulus strength modulus for strength
5% strain range
[K] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa]
300 191000 340 1800 650
77 206000 495 7000 1517
4 206000 678 7870 1771
temperatures under cycling loads. Three phases (I, H, IH) are represented by
three lines of different slopes (Fig. 7.26). Simplified curves are plotted for the
total strain range: 1%, 1.5% and 2%. The evolution of the hysteresis loops
for stainless steel at low temperature (Suzuki et al. 1988; Sadough-Vanini and
Lehr 1994) indicates clearly that before the hysteresis stabilises (which usually
takes place after around 20 cycles) the material properties change quickly
during the phase 11 of cyclic hardening. In view of this fact a bilinear elasto-
plastic model (linear kinematic hardening) with cycle--to--cycle evolution of
moduli (in phase H) seems to be a reasonable approximation (Fig. 7.27). Also,
it has been assumed that the yield strength ao evolves in the same way as the
maximum stress a max • Furthermore, it has been assumed that the hardening
modulus H also evolves linearly during the phase H. This simplified model is
a good approximation for the first 20 cycles and a rough approximation for
the subsequent cycles.
,,"ox
8Kl ,,"ox
I77KI
2358 ---+----- +----1:2% 1944 --T-----
I I
1822 --1"--- - .71""----11.5% 1521 -_-L. ___
I
- I
1.5%
I
1394 - - 1 - 1268 --+- 1%
I I I
1072 845
, I
, I
I
I
I
I
I
5 15 20
I
5
I
15
"' IN
20
Fig. 7.26. Simplified cyclic hardening curves for stainless steel 316L at 77 K and
at 4 K.
n·th cycle
k·th cycle
1-st cycle
Fig. 7.27. Bilinear model as applied to cyclic loads.

7.5.2 Numerical Simulation of Evolution of the Plastic Strain

Intensity in Bellows Convolutions at Cryogenic Temperatures
In order to analyse the process of evolution of plastic strain fields at room

and at cryogenic temperatures under cyclic loads a typical corrugated bellows
has been selected. The bellows is characterised by the geometry shown in
Table 7.3.
Table 7.3. Bellows geometry and the relevant loads.

Dout/Din 71.6/55 mm
Convolution radius 1.25 mm
Axial deflection ±1.136 mm per pitch
Internal pressure 0.8 MPa; 2.0 MPa
Temperature 293 K, 4 K
The computational strategy chosen for this problem was based on the
incremental plastic analysis and consisted in two general steps:
• incremental increase of pressure up to the required level,
• application of suitable axial deflection increments under the constant pres-
sure.
The evolution of the plastic strain intensity defined as:
eP = (~eP
I 3= =
:eP) 2 ' (7.33)
is plotted for the inner and the outer faces at the root (A, B) and at the
crest (C, D) of convolutions (Fig. 7.28) for the temperatures 293 K and 4 K,
respectively.
Another sequence of computations has been performed for the same cor-
rugated bellows subjected to the internal pressure of 2.0 MPa superimposed
with the same cyclic axial deflection as before. This numerical test was aimed
at analysing the effect of the mean plastic strain (resulting from the relatively
high internal pressure) on the fatigue life of compensation units at room and
cryogenic temperatures. The evolution of plastic strain intensity is presented
in Fig. 7.29 for the temperatures 293 K and 4 K, respectively.
(*10**-2) (*10**-3)
3 8.8
2.75 8
B
~ ~
en 2.5
enz 7.2
ffi2.25 w 6.4
I- I-
~ 2 ~ 5.6
z z
~ 1.75 ~ 4.8
B
I- I-
en 1.5 en 4
() () A
i= 1.25 i= 3.2
en en
~ ~ 2.4
n. A n.
.75 1.6
.5 0 40 .8 0
(*10**-2) (*10·*-3)
2 5
1.8 C 4.5
~ ~
enz 1.6
enz 4
w 1.4 w 3.5
l- I-
~ 1.2 D ~ 3 C
z z
~
I-
~
l-
2.5
en .8 en 2 D
() ()
i= .6 i= 1.5
~
n.
.4 ~n.
.2 .5
o 0 o0
Fig. 7.28. Evolution of the plastic strain intensity in the convolutions of an in-
terconnection expansion joint at 293 K (upper plots) and 4 K (lower plots) under
0.8 MPa internal pressure.
Here, the presence of the so-called "local shakedown phenomenon" (local

decay of plastic yielding) is observed at 4 K. The fatigue life, computed with-
out (the classical Manson-Coffin) and with the effect of mean plastic strain
on cycle (the modified Manson-Coffin, see Chapter 4) is given in Table 7.4.
In both cases shown in Figs 7.28 and 7.29 the elastic shakedown at the crest
of convolutions (points C and D) at 4 K is visible in the form of the horizontal
straight lines. On the other hand, the oscillations of the effective plastic strain
at root indicate further plastic straining and continuous dissipation of plastic
power leading finally to a fatigue crack propagation. Thus, it is rather the
inner part of the convolutions that is a carrier of a potential fatigue failure at
cryogenic temperatures (confirmed by experiments).
(*10**-1 ) (*10**-2)
1.5 2
1.375 1.875
~ 1.25 ~ 1.75
z f51.625
~1.125 I-
B
B ~ 1.5
z Z
~ .875 ~1.375
tii .75 A tii 1.25
(J (J A
i= .625 i=1.125
~~ .5 ~c..
c..
.375 .875
.25+'0:--r--"r::-r-~"'--r.::":-r--r.:7T-' .75+.:'-"'--r.:'-r~:'::"'T--"r::-:-r-T.:':''''--'
(*10'*-2) (*10'*-2)
8 1.25
7.2 C 1.125 IV'V'----- C
~ 6.4
1ii ~
1ii
ifi 5.6 ifi.875
,..__---------0
l- I-
D
1!; 4.8 1!; .75
z z
~
I-
4 ~.625
I-
(/) 3.2 (/) .5
(J (J
i= 2.4 ~.375
(/)
~
c..
1.6 :5c.. 25
.8 .125
0
0 o0
Fig. 7.29. Evolution of the plastic strain intensity in the convolutions of an in-
terconnection expansion joint at 293 K (upper plots) and 4 K (lower plots) under
2.0 MPa internal pressure.
Generally, a shift of the mechanical response towards elasticity, resulting

mainly from a considerable increase of the yield point at low temperatures, is
Table 7.4. Number of cycles to failure for 2.0 MPa internal pressure.
Temperature Nro Nf
Classical Modified
[K) Manson-Coffin Manson-Coffin
300 278 202
77 10000 9082
4 52245 49198
observed. Thus, the fatigue life of stainless steel corrugated bellows at cryo-
genic temperatures is usually much higher than at room temperature.
7.5.3 Numerical Simulation of Damage Evolution in Bellows

Convolutions at Cryogenic Temperatures
In order to trace the evolution of damage in the convolutions of a corru-

gated bellows a single convolution has been modelled (see Table 7.5) by using
the finite elements (see Section 4.4). The corresponding model (Skoczen and
Tokarz 1999) is presented in Fig. 7.30 and the relevant loading program is
shown in Fig. 7.31.
Table 7.5. Bellows geometry and the relevant loads.

Dout/Din 71.6/55 mm
Axial deflection ±1.136 mm per pitch
Internal pressure 2.0 MPa
Temperature 293 K, 77 K, 4 K
~ Thermal displacement
+~
Root
~--r--A3---'---1~
p (pressure)
8 [bar]
20 [bar]
Axis B
Crest
Fig. 7.30. Sub-domains defined for a Fig. 7.31. Loading program for the ex-
single convolution (half pitch): AI-A2 at pansion joint.
root, A3-central part, A4-A5 at crest.
It is assumed, for the sake of simplicity, that the damage threshold cor-
responds to the accumulated plastic strain at the end of the 20 th cycle
(ND = 20). This assumption is not critical and the correct value can be mea-
sured for all temperature levels. Hence, with the first stabilised cycle (2Pt)
damage starts accumulating until it reaches its critical level D cr . The convo-
lution is subdivided into 5 sub-domains (areas AI-A5) and the corresponding
average values of damage parameter per sub-domain are computed (DI-D5).
7.6 Fatigue Induced Evolution of Bellows Axial Stiffness 211
Also, a maximum value of damage D6 at root is monitored and evaluated to

the critical level Dcr = 0.8. Evolution of the force-displacement hysteresis
loops at three temperature levels (293 K, 77 K, 4 K) and the corresponding
evolution of the damage parameters Dl through D6 is shown in Figs 7.32
through 7.37.
Evolution of the mean values of damage in the sub--domains Al through
A5 as well as the evolution of maximum value of damage D6 are linear with
the number of cycles (constant damage rate). The plots of damage evolution
at different temperature levels may have only a qualitative meaning given the
number of simplifications in the material and the FE model. For instance, the
parameters like:
• strength energy of damage S,
• damage threshold PD,
• critical value of damage Dc.,
need to be identified (see Chapter 3.2) for a given material at all three tem-
perature levels (293 K, 77 K, 4 K). In order to obtain a more precise analysis
of damage evolution the size of sub--domains shall be reduced. The mate-
rial moduli are updated in post-processing after every cycle (the uncoupled
approach to plasticity damage) and in each sub-domain separately. Further
elasto-plastic analysis over the subsequent cycle continues with the new mod-
ulae and with the previously chosen pattern of sub--domains. Therefore, the
number of sub--domains determines the CPU time needed to carry out the
computations. A reasonable number of sub-domains has to be defined as a
function of the required precision of the damage evolution analysis.
7.6 Fatigue Induced Evolution of Bellows Axial Stiffness

and its Effect on Buckling
Evolution of damage parameters (DI through D5) in the sub-domains (AI
through A5), presented in Section 7.5, implies a corresponding evolution of
bellows axial stiffness at each particular temperature (293 K, 77 K, 4 K).
Both the axial tangent stiffness, measured as the unloading slope, and the
secant stiffness, measured between the extreme points on the hysteresis loops,
decrease with the number of cycles (Fig. 7.38) thus leading to a risk of prema-
ture instability of the bellows. Analysis of the above shown plots leads again
to the conclusion that at low temperatures (77 K and 4 K) the secant stiffness
gets closer to the mean tangent stiffness. The response of the corrugated shell
to cyclic loads is more elastic and loss of stiffness due to development of plastic
strains and damage is less significant. This implies a more stable behaviour of
the bellows under cryogenic conditions and with time (number of cycles N)
when compared to the room temperature.
Analysis of buckling is again based on the model shown in Fig. 6.8. Here
the mean tangent stiffness (unloading in both points of return) was used as
1000
-4000 Force [N]
Fig. 7.32. Force- displacement hysteresis lo ops with damage accumulation at 293 K
(20 initial cycles without damage and 20 cycles with damage evolution) .
0.8 Damage D6
0.7
0.6
0.5 01
0.4
0.3
D5
0.2
0.1 02
0 jl--'-~~~~::~I---I~~I--~I --~I--~I---I~~I ~
0 10 20 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Number of cycles
Fig. 7.33. Evolution of damage parameters at 293 K: DI-D2 at root , D3-central

part , D4-D5 at crest; D6 - maximum value of damage at root.
Displacement [mm}
-1.5 -1 0.5 1.5

Initial
Damage
Fig. 7.34. Force- displacement hysteresis loops with damage accumulation at 77 K

(20 initial cycles without damage and 20 cycles with damage evolution).
0.8 Damage D6
0.7
0.6
0.5 01
0.4
0.3 D5
0.2
02
0.1 J__r----t~~~~:::~~=~:::::::~~~=-.D4
o -! I I I I 1 03
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Number of cycles
Fig. 7.35. Evolution of damage parameters at 77 K: D1 through D6.

Displacement [mm)
-1 .5 -1 0.5 1.5
Initial
Damage
Fig. 7.36. Force-displacement hysteresis loops with damage accumulation at 4 K

(20 initial cycles without damage and 20 cycles with damage evolution) .
0.8 Damage D6
0.7
0.6
0.5 01
0.4
0.3
0.2 D5
0.1 02
0 jl--~--~~~~~~~~I~~I~~I==~I'~ I
0 10 20 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Number of cycles
Fig. 7.37. Evolution of damage parameters at 4 K: D1 through D6.

Temperature 293 K
2
3
---------4
1
500
0+---,--,,--,---,--.---,---.--.---,--.
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Number of cycles
Fig. 7.38. Evolution of the axial stiffness (tangent and secant) after N cycles at
293 K, 77 K and 4 K. 1 - tangent extension, 2 - tangent compression, 3 - mean
value, 4 - secant stiffness.
the bellows axial stiffness. Stability curves for a typical elastically supported
corrugated bellows working at 4K are presented in Fig. 7.39. The upper set of
curves shows stability of the interconnect after initial 20 cycles (initial cyclic
hardening) whereas the lower set of curves shows its stability after approx-
imately 100 cycles with the accumulation of damage. Again, the horizontal
curves (Mode I) correspond to the primary buckling mode (only bellows gets
unstable) whereas the vertical curves (Mode II) correspond to buckling of the
entire interconnect (bellows with adjacent segments).
1.2
Model
1.0 --t---~;.,;.;;.,;;.;;...---~=---
0.8 Model
0.6
0.4
20 cycles
93 cycles
0.2 -+--,--,--,---..,-.l...-'-r--,---,----, LID

0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
Fig. 7.39. Stability of elastically supported bellows at 4 K after 20 and 93 cycles

(normalised buckling pressure versus dimensionless pipe length).
In this particular case a decrease of critical pressure by around 24% was

observed after nearly 100 cycles (with Ll = 1.136 mm per pitch). It is to be
noted that the decrease of critical load is associated with a slight enlargement
of the zone of Mode I buckling.
8
Reliability Oriented Optimum Design Of

Cryogenic Compensation Systems
8.1 Reliability of Systems and Classification of Failures
Successful operation of a system over a scheduled period of "n" years depends

very much on the reliability of all its structural components (Kovalenko et al.
1997). A poor reliability of a group of components may yield a sequence of
failures that will make smooth operation of the system impossible. Thus, an
investment in the reliability oriented optimum design may reduce considerably
the number and the total cost of repairs and interventions associated with
chance and wearout failures.
Generally, failures may be classified into three categories: early, chance and
wearout failures. The lifetime of components is approximately characterised
by the failure rate shown in Fig. 8.1, known as bathtub diagram. This curve is
typical of most manufactured structural components. The early failures occur
during the burn in period with a rather high failure rate (collapse of weak
components). In the second period the failure rate stabilises at an approx-
imately constant level. Finally, the failure rate increases due to wearout of
components and the failures are clustered about a mean value of time.
The early failures are controlled by quality of the manufacturing processes,
inspections and factory tests. The other categories ~ chance and wearout
failures ~ are controlled by the appropriate design and optimisation of the
structural components.
A consistent reliability oriented design shall be based on the following
general steps:
• definition of the expected availability of the system
• apportionment of the availability to the subsystems
• allocation of structural components to different groups of failure risk
• definition of the expected reliability with respect to every component
• criticality analysis ~ selection of the critical components
• availability oriented optimum design of the system ~ global approach
• reliability oriented optimum design of the components ~ local approach
218 Reliability Oriented Optimum Mechanical Design
Failure rate
Early Chance Wearout

failures failures failures
Time
Fig. 8.1. Bathtub diagram.
• testing the critical components and improving their reliability to the ex-
pected levels
• final verification of compatibility of the constructed system with respect
to the assumptions
8.2 Reliability Categories
A reliability model of a system consists of a number of sets of components

(sub-systems, modules). Generally, the components may form different config-
urations like series, parallel or series/parallel structures. The components are
subjected to random failures. A law governing failures shall be defined at the
beginning of the analysis. It is usually assumed that failures are independent.
Two principal states are defined with respect to each component: success and
failure. The lifetime of a single component can be considered as a non-negative
random variable. It is assumed that the analysis of mechanical systems incor-
porated into the accelerator and subject to cyclic thermo-mechanical loads
can be based on the Weibull probability density function. The Weibull model
turns out to be particularly useful and covers a wide range of components
thanks to two parameters introduced into the density function: scale and
shape parameter. The main features of the Weibull based reliability model
(as an example of one of the probabilistic models) are given in Table 8.l.
In the case of cryogenic systems (accelerators of particles) the components
are very often liked in series (no redundancy). Thus, the system functions
Fig. 8.2. Series system.

8.2 Reliability Categories 219
Table 8.1. Reliability model based on the Weibull probability density function.
General formula Weibull based model
Probability density function f(t) f (t) = At C

B B-1 exp -"-:4"
t .) B
Distribution function F(t) = I; f(r)dr F(t) = 1- exp ( _ t;.)
Reliability function R(t) = 1 - F(t) R(t) = exp ( _ t;_)

A- B tB -
Failure rate A = f(t)/R(t) -A 1
if and only if all components in the system function. Such a system can be
represented in the form of a block diagram, a shown in Fig. 8.2.
Assuming that the components are independent the reliability of the sys-
tem can be represented by:
Rs (t) = RI (t) R2 (t) ... RN (t) . (8.1)
Specification of the expected reliability of the components shall be based

on definition of the safety categories and associated probabilities of survival.
One of the possible proposals (Oprzedkiewicz 1993) that can be used both with
respect to the cryogenic systems and accelerators of particles is presented in
Table 8.2.
Table 8.2. Safety categories.
Tables 8.2 through 8.5, defined for a given system (accelerator), constitute
a basis for the optimisation of components under reliability constrains. In
what follows such a probabilistic approach is developed for the systems and
subsystems containing corrugated bellows.
The above specified safety categories (reliability levels) can be allocated to
particular components and subsystems on the basis of the classification shown
in Tables 8.3 and 8.4.
Finally, allocation of the safety categories shall be carried out according
to the following key-table (Table 8.5)
Table 8.3. Component class versus effect of failure.

Component class Effect of failure
I Failures of these components have no potential to
cause major collider damage or malfunction which
would result in an extended system down-time;
No safety danger
11 Failures of these components provoke a moderate
system down-time, however do not lead to major
damage of the collider or its subsystems;
No safety danger
III Failures of these components provoke an extended
system down-time and lead to major damage of
the collider or its subsystems;
Safety danger may exist
Table 8.4. Subgroup versus cost of replacement or repair.
Subgroups Cost of replacement or repair

A Repair or replacement of these components is
cheap and easy (good accessibility of the compo-
nents)
B Repair or replacement of these components is mod-
erately difficult (limited accessibility) and not very
expensive
C Repair or replacement of these components is ex-
tremely difficult (poor accessibility) and expensive
Table 8.5. Allocation of the safety categories.
Component Subgroup
class A B C
I 1 2 3
11 4 5 6
III 7 8 9
Thus, the lowest reliability level is allocated to the components of class I,

subgroup A, whereas the highest reliability is expected with respect to class III
of the components, subgroup C.
8.3 Global Approach in the Optimisation Procedure
Global approach in the optimisation procedure refers to a set of global me-

chanical parameters that need to be determined in order to obtain a structure
8.3 Global Approach in the Optimisation Procedure 221
that is simultaneously globally stable (searching for performance) and de-

signed in an "equilibrated" way. There are three possible approaches to this
task (Skoczen 2002):
• searching for maximum of the global buckling load in order to reduce the
transverse displacements of the pressurised system (design for minimum
failure probability with a cost constraint),
• searching for a minimum cost design under global buckling load specified as
a constraint (design for minimum total cost subject to failure probability
constraints) ,
• searching for a combination of both with the appropriate weight functions.
8.3.1 Optimisation with respect to the Buckling Load (Minimum

Buckling Failure Probability)
In the first case of optimisation of a discrete system composed of a number of
rigid components connected by means of the corrugated bellows with respect
to the buckling load the following formulation can be applied:
• maximise the objective function:
(8.2)
• equality constraints:
L are = const ,
(8.3)
Nseg = const ,
• inequality constraints:
(8.4)
j=1
P(~)ln ~ Po, (8.5)

P [max (Oi' i = 1, n) > OadJ ~ PI, f(Oi) = fo, (8.6)
P [max aeql n > aad] ~ P2, (8.7)
P[(Nr)j<No]~P3; j=l,ne , (8.8)
P [(PbUcl)j < Pjo] ~ P4 ; j = 1, ne, (8.9)

• random design variables:
(8.10)
where P denotes the probability of failure and Pi its limiting value. The vector
of random design variables, first n of which are design variables, is called ~.
Thus, the objective is to maximise the buckling load Pbuedn (x) under the
constraints of constant length of the system L are , constant number of segments
Nseg and under the inequality constraints expressed as:
• overall cost of the structure Q is limited to Qo,

• overall probability of failure P(;!l.) for the structure [2 limited to the pre-
defined value Po,
• probability of maximum transverse displacements bi exceeding bad, given
the layout of the initial imperfections fa, is limited to PI,
• probability of maximum equivalent stresses O"eq for the structure [2 being
grater the predefined value O"ad, is limited to P2,
• probability of number of cycles to failure Nf for the component j being
smaller than the predefined value No, is limited to P3,
• probability of local buckling load Pbucl for the component j being smaller
than the predefined value PjO, is limited to P4.
8.3.2 Optimisation with respect to the Global Cost of the

Structure Under Failure Probability Constraints
In the second case of the cost optimisation the formulation is different:

• minimise the objective function:
(8.11)
L are= const ,
(8.12)
Nseg = const ,
P(~)ln ::; Po, (8.13)

P [max (bi, i = 1, n) > bad] ::; PI, f(bi) = fa, (8.14)
P [max O"eqln > O"ad] ::; P2, (8.15)
p[(Nd j <No] ::;P3, j=l,ne, (8.16)
P [(PbUcl)j < Pjo] ::; P4, j = 1,ne, (8.17)

P [PbueIl n < PglO] ::; P5 , (8.18)
(8.19)
This time the objective is to minimise the global cost Q under similar
equality constraints as before and under inequality constraints comprising the
probability of global buckling load Pbucll n being smaller than the predefined
value P glO . The other inequality constraints remain unchanged. Here the cost
is computed as the generalised cost of all the components.
8.3 Global Approach in the Optimisation Procedure 223
8.3.3 Optimisation with respect to the Cost and the Global

Buckling Load
In a general case, a multi-objective optimum design can be developed. The

optimisation is formulated simultaneously with respect to both functions: the
cost and global buckling load:
• the objective functions:
(8.20)
max ( Pbucll n (;r.)) ,

alternatively:
(8.21 )
L are = const ,
(8.22)
Nseg = const ,
P(;r)ln :::; Po, (8.23)

P [max (b i , i = 1, n) > bad] :::; Pi, f(b i ) = fo, (8.24)
P [max O'eqln > O'ad] :::; P2 (8.25)
P[(Nr}j<No] :::;P3, j=l,n e , (8.26)
P [(PbUcl)j < Pjo] :::;P4, j = 1,ne , (8.27)

(8.28)
Alternatively, a combination of the cost function and the buckling load
with the appropriate multipliers can be used as the design objective. The
principle of the combination is shown in Fig. 8.3. Enhancement of the struc-
tural strength results in an increase of performance (buckling load Pbucll n)
and cost Q of the structure.
Therefore, a stable proportion (parity) between both components (Pbucll n
and Q) is established and a maximum of the combined design objective is
searched in the optimisation domain. The multipliers ILl, IL2 are simple weight
functions that can be adjusted as a function of the optimisation needs. A
simplified approach is possible with: IL2 = 1 - ILl' In such a case the balance
between the normalised cost function and the normalised strength function
can be controlled by a single parameter. Setting ILl = 0 one comes back to a
classical strength oriented optimisation.
Design ,,
function , .
""
"" " DObj = Jll (1/
" ... ...

I Q) + Jl2Itucl
... .... .... ,

, ,," """
.......... .,--_.-
....
- - -_ _ _ strength of
structure
Fig. 8.3. Mixed design objective (cost + buckling load) versus strength of structure.
8.4 Local Approach in the Optimisation

(Interconnections)
The local approach to the optimisation of a system has to be coherent with the
global approach, presented in the previous chapter. Since the entire structure
was denoted by [l and all its interconnections form a sub-domain of the whole
system called [lint, a single interconnect will be called [lsntr (subsystem).
Among the inequality constraints presented in the previous chapter four are
related to the local level:
P(~)ln ~ Po, (8.29)

P [max O"eqln > O"ad] ~ P2 , (8.30)
P [(Nr)j < No] ~P3; j = 1,nc, (8.31)
P [(l\uc!)j < PjO] ~P4; j = 1,nc, (8.32)
Since again the main objective consists in providing a local stability to the
sub-system (single interconnect) at a reasonable cost a similar formulation
can be used:
(8.33)
L sntr = const , (8.34)
8.4 Local Approach in the Optimisation (Interconnections) 225
L
nsntr
Qsntr = Qj ::::: Qos , (8.35)

j=1
P(x.)[n sntr ::::: Pas, (8.36)
P [max (Jeq[n entr > (Jad] ::::: P2s, (8.37)
p[(Nd j <Nos] :::::P3s, j=l,nes, (8.38)
P [(PbUcl)j < Pjos] ::::: P4s, j = 1, n es , (8.39)
(8.40)
The result of the optimisation procedure will depend on the local configu-
ration and the local boundary conditions. Thus, the objective is to maximise
the buckling load Pbucl[nsntr (x s ) under the constraints of constant length of
the sub-system (interconnect) L sntr and under the inequality constraints ex-
pressed as:
• overall cost of the subsystem Qsntr is limited to Qos,
• overall probability of failure P(x.) for the subsystem .l?sntr is limited to the
predefined value Pas,
• probability of maximum equivalent stresses (Jeq in the subsystem .l?sntr
being grater the predefined value (Jad, is limited to P2s,
• probability of number of cycles to failure Nf for the component j being
smaller than the predefined value No, is limited to P3s,
• probability of local buckling load Pbucl for the component j being smaller
than the predefined value Pjos, is limited to P4s.
If it can be assumed that the structure fails when any of the above listed
constraints is violated than the so-called weakest link model may be applied
(Brandt 1984):
P(x.)[n entr =P [max (Jeq[n sntr > (Jad] +

n~ n~
LP [(Nd j < Nos] + LP [(PbUc!)j < Pjos]

j=1 j=1
It corresponds to the following interpretation of failure conditions: it is suf-

ficient for the equivalent stress to exceed the corresponding admissible value
or for the number of cycles to failure or for the buckling pressure of any com-
ponent to decrease below the allowable level specified for this component and
the structure will collapse. Obviously, this is a very strong assumption.
A simplified deterministic approach can be formulated in a similar way:

(8.41)
L sntr = const , (8.42)
L
nsntr
Qsntr = Qj :-:; Qos, (8.43)

j=l
max aeql n ol~sntr

:-:; aad, (8.44)
(Nr)j > Nos; j = 1, n cs , (8.45)
(l\ucl)j > Pjos; j = 1, n cs , (8.46)
• design variables:
(8.47)
Here neither the reliability requirements nor the failure probabilities as-
sociated with the constraints are specified for the subsystem. The analysis is
based exclusively on the deterministic conditions.
8.5 Optimum Design of the Cryogenic Corrugated

Bellows
Corrugated bellows are the most basic components of the cryogenic systems.
Their design has direct impact on the local stability of a single interconnect
(sub-system) as well as on the global behaviour of the entire structure. Thus,
the parametric optimisation of cryogenic bellows must be inscribed in the
optimisation of both levels: the local and the global.
8.5.1 Reliability Oriented Optimisation - Probabilistic Approach

Optimum design of corrugated bellows can be carried out by using the EJMA
stress and stability evaluation methods (cf. EJMA 1995). Since the EJMA ap-
proach is fully deterministic, the probabilistic aspect (reliability framework)
has to be added. Also, all the aspects related to cryogenic conditions (ma-
terial properties, fatigue curves etc.) have to be defined and introduced to
the optimisation procedure. In the present section a generalised approach is
presented.
The main objective of the optimisation is to minimise the bellows axial
stiffness. Usually the available space constitutes one of the constraints. Thus,
we are searching for minimum axial stiffness under the geometrical, stress,
stability and fatigue constraints - everything in the framework of the pre-
viously apportioned reliability. The relevant formulation of the optimisation
problem is given below:
8.5 Optimum Design of the Cryogenic Corrugated Bellows 227
• Minimise the objective function:
(8.48)
inner diameter Din = const , (8.49)
bellows convoluted length Lbl ::; Lmax , (8.50)

outer diameter D out ::; Dmax , (8.51 )
bellows maxi compression L1 b1 - ~ L1 min , (8.52)
cost function Qbl ::; QObl , (8.53)
probability of failure P(;!;)lnbl ::; PObl, (8.54)
membrane stress P[Sl > Sad] ::; P2bl , (8.55)
membrane stress P[S2 > Sad] ::; P2bl , (8.56)
membrane & bending stress P[S3 + S4 > S34] ::; P2bl , (8.57)
fatigue life P[Nr(St) < NfO] ::; P3bl , (8.58)
column buckling P[Pco1 < P1 ] ::; P4bl , (8.59)
in-plane squirm P[Pinp < P2 ] ::; P4bl , (8.60)
(8.61 )
Here ,1+ / LL denote the repartition of the axial offset between compression
and tension, ,10 is the initial prestress and St stands for the EJMA equivalent
stress.
8.5.2 Classical Optimisation - Deterministic Approach
The above shown general formulation can be simplified to a deterministic

form, if the reliability aspect plays a less important role:
• Minimise the objective function:
(8.62)
bellows convoluted length Lmax - Lbl 2: 0, (8.63)

inner diameter Din - Dmin 2: 0, (8.64)
outer diameter Dmax - Daut 2: 0, (8.65)
bellows maxi compression Ll bl - - Llmin 2: 0, (8.66)
cost function QObl - Qbl 2: 0, (8.67)
membrane stress 8ad - 81 2: 0, (8.68)
membrane stress 8a d - 8 2 2: 0, (8.69)
membrane & bending stress 8 34 - (83 + 8 4 ) 2: 0, (8.70)
fatigue life Nf(8d - NfO 2: 0, (8.71)
column buckling Peal - PI 2: 0, (8.72)
in-plane squirm F\np - P2 2: 0, (8.73)
• design variables:
Ji.bl -f (ne, n p , t p, q, w, (, Ll o) , (8.74)
where ( = Ll+ / Ll_. Here, for simplicity, all the constraints were expressed
as inequalities. It is convenient to introduce a unified notation (changing
the direction of inequalities, Brandt 1984):
- Minimise the objective function:
F (Ji.) = 90 (Ji.) , (8.75)
- under the inequality constraints:
fk = 9k(Ji.):'S 0, k = 1, ... ,rn, (8.76)
- and with the design vector:
Ji. -f (Xi 2: 0; i = 1, n) , (8.77)
In this particular case the number of inequalities is m=l1 and the number
of variables is n 7. With this formulation a Lagrange function can be
constructed:
m
L(Ji.,~) = 90 (Ji.) +L Ak9k (Ji.) , (8.78)
k=1
Finally, based on the Kuhn-Thcker theorem, a typical min-max problem is

solved: point of global minimum (~, ~) is attained if the following inequality
is satisfied:
(8.79)
which is equivalent to determining the saddle point of Lagrange function L.
This can be done by using different methods of nonlinear programming. A
method that is particularly well adapted to the case under consideration is
the geometric programming (Brandt 1984). It is useful for such optimisation
Input data:
Dm = cons!
np = cons!
E;,", L,,""', M"
t;:un,t:ax,~tp
F;m,F;:X,M'ax
Loop 1: w=w+6.w
Loop 2: L" = L" + M"
compute n,,,,,,,, n,,,,,,
Loop3: n, =n, + 1
Loop 4: tp = tp + 6.tp
end of
NO Loop1A2A3A4
.AND.
NO solution
NO
Fig. 8.4. Algorithm for optimisation of the corrugated bellows.

problems for which both the objective function and the constraints can be
expressed as the sums of power functions, which is the case with respect to
the corrugated bellows.
A simplified parametric way of solving the problem is based on the algo-
rithm shown in Fig. 8.4. Here the number of design variables was reduced to
4:
(8.80)
The number of plies np is assumed at the beginning of the procedure and
the parameter , = ,,1+ / LL is recomputed from the admissible compression
,,1bl- (inequality constraint). The algorithm is searching for all the solutions,
for which the axial stiffness is smaller than a check value:
(8.81)
arbitrarily chosen at the beginning of the process. The local minimum solu-
tions are collected (see Fig. 8.5) and a global minimum is chosen for a given
number of plies.
Length of bellows L=100 mm

Convolution depth W=10 mm
Inner diameter Din=O.4 mm
Stroke +49/-29 mm
Stiffness of bellows Design pressure for fatigue - 0 bar
Design pressure for stability - 1 bar
25.95
17.30
8.65
0.0
10
Fig. 8.5. The local minimum solutions in the optimisation procedure.
The operation can be repeated for different number of plies and, finally,
a global minimum is found. As a matter of fact the degree of nonlinearity
in this process is not very high therefore the analysis is rather fast and not
CPU time consuming. A corresponding Fortran code of optimisation of the
corrugated bellows for cryogenic applications has been developed.
The advantage of the above presented algorithm of sweeping the objective

function in the optimisation domain consists mainly in the possibility of find-
ing always the global minimum without the additional cost of checking the
necessary and sufficient conditions.
The reliability oriented optimisation of the expansion joints taking into
account the effect of fatigue on the structural stability (plasticity/damage
softening) as well as the effect of shear and torsional deformations on the
critical buckling pressure is very complex. However, on the basis of the above
presented formulation a number of simplifications can be made (linearisa-
tion of the effect of fatigue on stability, simplified torque/pressure interaction
curves etc.) in order to yield the optimisation procedure more "user friendly".
The same remark applies to the optimisation at the level of subsystem (inter-
connections) and at the global level of the entire structure.
9
Applications: Accelerators for High Energy

Physics and Cryogenics Transfer Lines
The modern high energy physics needs very sophisticated and complex tools
in order to explore the world of elementary particles constituting the matter.
One of the most important aims over the past 30 years was confirmation of the
so-called Standard Model which assumes that the fundamental constituents of
matter form three families of quarks and leptons. The relevant scientific tools
are called accelerators, storage rings and colliders and their main function is to
produce, accelerate, store and collide the beams of particles in order to search
for the new elementary events, announcing the potential discoveries, and to
provide more statistics for the already known reactions. Generally speaking
the beam-beam high energy colliders equipped with the appropriate detectors
form a basic tool of high energy physics. Till now the colliders were usually
built in the form of rings since the required energy per beam was obtained
by smooth accelerating of particles during many turns around the ring. The
beams were accelerated by means of the so-called accelerating cavities, kept
on their trajectory by using the bending dipole magnets, were focalised and
defocalised by means of the quadrupole magnets. The main accent was laid
on the technology of the bending dipole magnets with the superconductivity
as the recent achievement. The present chapter gives a brief overview of the
variety of different technologies needed to construct a modern circular accel-
erator, that means: superconductivity, helium cryogenics, ultra-high vacuum,
materials and structures (compensation systems).
9.1 Lepton and Hadron Colliders - Modern Tools of

High Energy Physics
Generally speaking there exist two types of tools extensively used in the mod-
ern high energy physics: lepton and hadron colliders. Hadron colliders are
designed to accelerate and collide mainly protons and heavy ions (lead, gold).
Lepton colliders are constructed in order to accelerate mainly electrons and
positrons (e-, e+) and (in the future) muons (/1-, /1+). The hadron colliders,
234 Applications: Accelerators and Cryogenics Transfer Lines
(not to scale)
Wesl Area
lJ- -
--
pmton.
- - - antiptotons
ions
neutrinos to Gran Sa$$O (I)
LHC: Large Hadron Collider

Cra n a so (I)
SPS : Super Proton Synchrotron 7JOkm
AD: Antiproton Decelerator
ISOLDE: Isotope Separator OnLine DEvice
PSB: Proton Synchrotron Booster
PS: Proton Synchrotron
LINAC: LINear ACcelerator
LEIR: Low Energy Ion Ring
Rudolf LEY. PS DIVISion, CERN, 02.09.96
CNGS: Cem Neutrinos to Gran Sasso Revised and adapted by Antonella Del Rosso, EIT Diy
IncollaboratIOn with B Desforges. SL DIV ,and
D, Manglunkl, PS Dlv. CERN, 23 05 0)
Fig. 9.1. Synchrotrons and colliders at CERN (Geneva, Switzerland).

9.1 Lepton and Hadron Colliders 235
by their nature, are used as a tool of exploration of a new energy range. They
are characterised by a particularly high centre-of-mass energy. Their appli-
cation in the new energy range yields potential discoveries of new particles
with an approximate definition of their parameters. The lepton colliders serve
as precision tools aimed at confirming the parameters of the particles with a
high accuracy. The centre-of-mass energy for lepton colliders is usually much
smaller than for hadron colliders. The accelerators used at CERN (Geneva,
Switzerland) during the past 30 years have well confirmed this principle. The
SPS (Super Proton Synchrotron) - a typical hadron collider - turned out to
be an efficient tool in the discovery of Wand Z bosons. It is the LEP (Large
Electron-Positron) - a typical lepton collider - that was used to identify
and measure with high accuracy the parameters of both bosons. Since the
energy range possible for LEP was limited to some 100 GeV per beam it was
necessary to construct a new instrument Large Hadron Collider (LHC) for
the possible discoveries in the new, higher energy range. Both the SPS and
LHC are shown in Fig. 9.1 inside the whole network of accelerators developed
at CERN. The required energy per beam for the LHC reaches 7 TeV. This
energy is supposed to be sufficient to confirm the origin of mass of the force
carriers - the existence of the new particle called Higgs boson.
The structure of a typical lepton or hadron circular collider is related to
the accelerator optics. The beam of particles, injected into the collider, is ac-
celerated by using the accelerating cavities, is kept on its circular trajectory by
means of the main dipole magnets and is focalised and defocalised by means
of the main quadrupole magnets. In addition, there exist a set of the corrector
magnets (orbit and beam parameters correctors) that complete the layout of
the beam optics. Typical "cell" of a modern particle accelerator is shown in
Fig. 9.2. It comprises the main bending dipoles (MB) and the special mod-
ules called Short Straight Sections (SSS), containing the main quadrupoles
(MQ). The lattice magnets (MB, MQ), are connected by means of the inter-
connections, where the thermal contraction compensation system is located.
The experiments of high energy physics are nested in a number of points on
the circumference of the accelerator (see Fig. 9.1). Two beams circulating in
the opposite directions are brought to head on collisions at these points, in-
side the detectors containing the calorimeters for global measurements and
trackers for different types of particles, products of beam-beam collisions.
Vacuum
barrier
555 MB MB MB 555 MB
~---I--~-----
Jumper Jumper
connection connection
Fig. 9.2. The LHC cell: bending dipoles (MB); focusing/defocusing quadrupoles:
(888).
9.1.1 Superconducting Magnets and the Relevant Technology
In order to obtain the magnetic fields required to maintain high energy proton
beams on the circular orbit of around 8.5 km in diameter (LHC), it is necessary
to apply the technology of superconductivity. Therefore, all the LHC magnets
remaining within the "cold mass" are superconducting.
Fig. 9.3. The CERN LHC superconducting dipole magnets (MB) .
The LHC superconducting dipole (MB) is shown in Fig. 9.3. The specific
feature of the LHC superconducting magnets consist in the fact that they
operate at the temperature of 1.9 K, in superfluid helium.
The phenomenon of superconductivity is obtained thanks to the features
of low temperature superconductors. Generally, two types of superconductors
are distinguished:
Type I showing a sharp transition to the zero resistance state as well as the
Meissner effect (total screening of magnetic flux),
Type 11 showing a penetration of the magnetic flux in the bulk as well as
higher critical field (He) and transition temperature (T).
The main distinction between the above mentioned types of supercon-
ductors consists in their magnetic behaviour. Type 11 superconductor allows
a penetration of the magnetic flux which forms inside the material a reg-
ular array with small dispersed regions in the normal state. The so- called
"mixed state" determines the behaviour of the superconductor and, in par-
ticular, its magnetisation curve. Type 11 superconductor is no more a perfect
diamagnet (deviation from the Meissner state). The commercially available
superconducting materials are: NbTi and Nb 3 Sn. The superconductor largely
available on the industrial scale is NbTi for which the transition to the super-
conducting state is a function of temperature (T), upper critical field (Hc2 )
and current density (Jc). On the other hand, the Nb 3 Sn finds at present less
applications - even if it has superior high-field characteristics - since its be-
haviour is strongly deformation dependent. Therefore, the modern accelerator
magnets are built on the basis of the NbTi superconductors. Typical critical
surface for the NbTi superconductor is shown in Fig. 9.4.
2
Je [A/mm I
Fig. 9.4. Illustration of the NbTi critical surface.
The specific construction of the LHC main dipoles and main quadrupoles
is expressed by the so-called 2-in-l concept (see Fig. 9.3): there exist 2 sets of
coils inside each magnet. Both of them are located around two parallel beam
tubes and subjected to a prestress by means of the stainless steel collars. The
structure is completed by the iron yoke and the shrinking cylinder, which is
the source of prestress in the magnet. The shrinking cylinder forms also a
helium enclosure containing the helium transfer channels to the neighbouring
magnets. In order to maintain the temperature of magnets at the specified
level the cold mass is surrounded by the thermal shields containing the multi-
layer insulation (the 5K radiation screen and the 50 K thermal shield) and
located inside the cryostat (vacuum vessel). The separation with respect to
the outside atmosphere is provided by the insulation vacuum, both in the
cryostats and in the magnet interconnections. The magnets are supported
inside the cryostat on the composite cold feet, as shown in Fig. 9.5. The
parameters of the feet result from the optimisation under mechanical and
thermal constraints.
'1"-- SMR'' ' '"" C'' ' ' ' ER I HIE IIoVESSEL
Fig. 9.5. Typical cryostat cross-section of the LHC superconducting magnets

(CERN- LHC).
9.1.2 Technology of Ultra-High Vacuum for the Beam Lines
The beams of particles (leptons, hadrons) circulate in the special channels

called vacuum chambers. It is of primary importance for the beam stability
to reduce the potential interactions between the beam and the residual gas.
There exists a number of sources of the residual gas in the vacuum chambers.
Generally, the mechanism of production of residual gas is either static (no
influence of beam) or dynamic (strong effect of beam). The static mechanism
is usually related to the natural out gassing rate of materials used to construct
the vacuum chambers (stainless steel, titanium, copper, silver or gold coated
copper etc.). The static mechanism can be controlled by a sufficiently inten-
sive vacuum pumping. On the other hand, the mechanism that is much more
difficult to control is the dynamic out gassing resulting from the beam - envi-
ronment interaction. Generally, the dynamic outgassing exist in the form of
synchrotron-radiation induced desorption or desorption induced by the beam
generated ions.
Desorption Induced by Synchrotron Radiation
The mechanism of desorption is based on the synchrotron radiation emitted by

the high intensity electron/positron beams. The photon flux produces strong
outgassing of the beam surrounding surfaces. The photons produce the photo-
electrons and secondary electrons. The electrons excite the surface bound
molecules that desorb spontaneously. If this dynamic process is not controlled
it may lead to particle beam instabilities or may reduce the beam lifetime.
Similar problem exists for the hadron colliders.
The total flux of gas associated with the molecular desorption yield is
expressed by (Grobner 1999a):
Q = K Tt] E + Qo , (9.1)
where K is a constant, Tt denotes the molecular desorption yield (number of
molecules per photon), ] is the beam current, E is the beam energy and Qo
is the standard thermal outgassing. In order to reduce the dynamic pressure
in the vacuum chamber the initial conditioning of the chamber and the so--
called beam cleaning is carried out. This procedure can reduce the molecular
desorption by several orders of magnitude. The cleaning consists mainly in
applying a sufficiently high integrated beam dose. A typical clean up diagram
Dynamic
pressure
Integrated
beam dose
Fig. 9.6. Reduction of the molecular desorption by the beam cleaning process.
Ion Induced Desorption

This mechanism dominates in the storage rings containing the proton or the
positron beams (positively charged particles). The beam/residual gas inter-
action produces ions that are located in the positively charged space and
accelerated towards the walls of the vacuum chamber. Energetic enough the
ions cause the molecular desorption which leads to further increase in den-
sity of the residual gas and further ionisation. The process can enter into
the avalanche phase when the pressure built up is difficult to control. The
mechanism (Grobner 1999b) is illustrated in Fig. 9.7.
The ion induced desorption is governed by the following equation:
]
Q = aTtF - + Qo , (9.2)
e
where a denotes the ionisation cross-section of the gas molecules and e is the
unit charge. The pressure of the gas increases with the beam current. Once
.... ,
desorbed
positive~
charged beam
, ions
Fig. 9.7. Mechanism of ion induced desorption.
the beam current reaches its critical value fcr the process gets unstable and
the pressure build up develops in an uncontrolled way (Fig. 9.8).
Beam current
,,
,,,
Residual gas:'
pressure ",,'
,/
------ " ,
Time
Fig. 9.S. Unstable pressure build up above the critical beam current.
Beam Vacuum at Cryogenic Temperatures
The superconducting accelerators operating at cryogenic temperatures face

slightly different problems since the wall of the vacuum chamber becomes
an efficient cryo-pump. It has a very high capacity of condensation of all
the gases with the exception of helium. With the exceptionally high beam
intensities and high synchrotron radiation in the modern proton accelerators
it is fundamental to keep the temperature of the beam vacuum chamber below
a critical value. Since the beam is usually surrounded by a copper coated beam
screen, inserted into the vacuum chamber (see Fig. 9.5) - the screen has to
be equipped with the pumping slots in order to enable the residual gas to be
pumped and condensed on the vacuum chamber wall.
Another instability mechanism that can occur in the vicinity of the beam is
the so-called beam induced multipacting. It consists in an oscillatory motion
of the cloud of photoelectrons and secondary electrons between the opposite
vacuum chamber walls. This phenomenon is induced by the discontinuous
nature of the beam, subdivided into the bunches. As a result of the growth of
the electron cloud an electron stimulated molecular desorption can occur.
9.2 Design of Compact Expansion Joints for Beam Vacuum Systems 241
9.2 Design of Compact Expansion Joints for Beam

Vacuum Systems
The beam vacuum systems developed for the modern superconducting par-
ticle colliders belong generally to two groups: cold and warm systems. Cold
systems operate at cryogenic temperatures (usually between 2 K and 20 K for
helium cryogenics), whereas the warm systems operate at room temperature.
Magnet-to-magnet beam vacuum interconnections located in the cold arcs of
a circular accelerator constitute portions of the cold vacuum system.
One of the fundamental principles of the superconducting accelerators is
the principle of maximum magnetic length. The ratio between the accumu-
lated length of magnet-to-magnet interconnections and the total magnetic
length of arc (sum of the magnetic lengths of all the magnets) has to be min-
imised. To achieve the maximum beam energy in the LHC this ratio is close to
0.037 (for the arcs and the dispersion suppressors). This implies an extremely
compact design of the interconnections since the envelope available for the
interconnect is restricted in all directions (longitudinal and radial).
A particular feature of the beam vacuum cold systems consists in the fact
that - during the operation of the collider - they separate the beam vacuum
(10- 9 mbar) from the insulation vacuum (10- 6 mbar). Thus, the differential
pressure is very small and can be neglected in the design of the expansion
bellows. As a consequence the problem of pressure induced instabilities is here
less important. On the other hand, the bellows have to compensate for all types
of displacements including transverse offset and torsion that may result from
the mismatch of dimensional tolerances, misalignment of magnets and the
operational conditions. During the installation and alignment of the magnets
the interconnection bellows in the LHC may be exposed to a transverse offset
of up to 4 mm and torsion of up to 1 mrad.
During normal operation, the magnets and the majority of the intercon-
nection components are maintained at low temperature (1.9 K in the case of
LHC). In addition, due to the cool down and warm up process the majority of
the bellows operate repeatedly between room and low temperature. Additional
constraint is associated with a very limited space in the interconnections. For
example, all the expansion joints developed for the LHC interconnections are
extremely compact and are subjected to cyclic axial offset comparable with
their length.
9.2.1 The Beam Vacuum Interconnects of the LHC
The standard beam line interconnections have to satisfy the following specific
requirements:
• They have to be leak-tight in order to keep the ultra-high vacuum neces-
sary for the beam lines,
• The beam vacuum chambers contain usually perforated beam screens in

order to intercept beam induced heat loads at an intermediate tempera-
ture. These have to be connected with low impedance RF bridges. Due
to the differences in thermal contraction between the beam screen (cooled
to 10-20 K) and the vacuum chamber (cooled to 1.9 K), the beam screen
moves axially inside the chamber,
• The envelope available for the interconnections is restricted in all direc-
tions: axially, to minimise the loss of magnetic length, and radially, because
of the close position of other cryogenic interconnections with respect to the
vacuum lines.
Typical solution for the beam vacuum interconnects (see Fig. 9.9) is based
on the use of 3 flexible elements:
• RF bridge. At low temperature the RF (radio-frequency) bridge assures
the contact between two adjacent beam- screens,
• A classical type-U bellows, containing the RF bridge, that allows for the
thermal contraction and transverse offset,
• Nested bellows. The beam screen bellows, that allows for the differential
contraction between the beam-screen and the vacuum chamber.
Fig. 9.9. Very compact compensation units for the beam vacuum interconnections
of the LHC: nested bellows (on the left) and type- U bellows (on the right).
Typical layout of a modern magnet- to- magnet beam vacuum interconnect

is shown in Fig. 9.9. A special difficulty, encountered in the beam vacuum
interconnects, is related to the fact that two expansion joints coexist in close
proximity (beam screen bellows, type-U bellows) and are installed in series.
A considerable effort has been invested into the optimisation of both of these
compensation elements.
9.2.2 Very Compact Solution - Nested Bellows
Nested bellows (Fig. 9.10) belong to the class of very compact compensation
units, applied in general in the low pressure or vacuum systems, which are
designed for the low cycle fatigue. The nested bellows usually have a very spe-
cific narrow and high profile of convolutions with very small radii of curvature
at the root and at the crest of each wave. In addition the length of such unit
is often comparable with its diameter. The axial offset due to the thermal
contraction of the adjacent components is of the order of the bellows length.
Thus, the plastic strains accumulated at root and at crest of the convolutions
(Fig 9.11) over each cycle lead to the accumulation of damage and to the
failure by macro-crack propagation after several hundreds of cycles at room
temperature.
Fig. 9.10. Nested bellows ready for integration (CERN- LHC).
Fig. 9.11. Typical profile of nested bellows convolutions.

The manufacturing process of nested bellows (similar to the process for

type-U bellows) follows four principal phases:
Phase I: manufacturing of a thin-walled cylinder - the metal sheet is cut,
rolled and welded.
Phase ll: preliminary plastic deformation of the cylinder by hydroforming
(pressurised water), a set of shims is applied.
Phase Ill: deep hydroforming accompanied by a simultaneous compression
of the convolutions by moving the shims.
Phase IV: the bellows is removed from the machine and compressed until the
convolutions get in direct contact.
The shims are perpendicular with respect to the cylinder axis. The thin-
walled cylindrical shell is subjected to a considerable inner pressure. The shell
(0.1-0.2 mm thick), usually made of stainless steel, deforms plastically during
the phases II and Ill. Large plastic deformations lead to a significant hardening
and to an increase of the yield strength (750-800 MPa) and the ultimate
strength (800-850 MPa) as well as to a decrease of the strain to rupture.
During the phase IV the corrugated shell, as obtained from the hydro-forming
set up, is subjected to axial compression that leads to a supplementary local
plastic deformation (at root and at crest of convolutions). Both the final free
length of the convolutions and the final profile are obtained due to the spring-
back effect (elastic unloading of the structure).
In order to design the nested bellows a set of loads, reflecting the tran-
sient and the steady state conditions, has to be specified. In the case of LHC
beam vacuum interconnects the nested bellows are loaded mainly during the
transient phase of cool down or warm up of the accelerator, when the thermal
gradients between the beam screen and the vacuum chamber develop. Typ-
ical fatigue requirements specified for the LHC nested bellows are shown in
Table 9.1. The maximum axial offsets, calculated both for the normal and for
the exceptional situation of service, are shown in Table 9.2.
Table 9.1. Typical fatigue requirements for the LHC beam vaccum nested bellows.
Type of convolutions Nested

Minimum fatigue life corresponding to the thermo-
mechanical cycles 293 K-2 K-293 K:
Normal situation of service (standard axial offset) 500 cycles
Exceptional situation of service (larger axial offset) 5 cycles
Allowable transverse offset 0.5 mm
Allowable angle of twist 0.5 mrad

Table 9.2. Maximum axial offsets due to cool down and warm up processes.
Nested bel- Normal situation ofser- Exceptional situation of service
lows vice
14 convolu- -30/+32 -30/+46
tions
7 convolu- -11.5/+13.5 -11.5/+18
tions
A typical set of design parameters for the nested bellows is shown in Ta-
ble 9.3.
Table 9.3. Typical design data for nested bellows.

Inner Outer No. of Pitch No. of Nominal Max. Design Axial
dia. dia. conv. plies thickness static pressure stiff.
of ply compression
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [m~] [MPa] [N/mm]
75.5 95 14 5.4 1 0.2 34 0.1 ,....,5
7 ,....,10
9.2.3 Metallurgical Analysis of Nested Bellows
In general, a structurally stable material is required for low temperature ap-

plications. The choice of using a controlled austenitic stainless steel of type
316L is the result of a large number of previous studies on components of this
type and discussions with bellows manufacturers.
It turns out that neither the stainless steels types 316Ti and 321 nor
304L are appropriate for use in thin-walled shells subjected to cyclic loads
at low temperatures. 304L has an insufficient structural stability under cyclic
loading at low temperatures and a 'Y - cl phase transformation can occur
causing premature failure. Despite the increased structural stability of 316LN,
its fatigue life is lower than that of the non-nitrogen grades.
In order to ensure the homogeneity of the raw material across the produc-
tion of bellows and to ensure that minimum quality standards are met the
following requirements have to be satisfied:
• Control of chemical composition to ensure a stable structure (316L),
• Control of mechanical properties and magnetic permeability (J-t :::; 1.005),
• Fully austenitic structure with a controlled grain size (:::; 40 J.lm),
• Control of the inclusion content (class:::; 1),
• Control of the surface quality,
• Control of formability by means of the Erichsen test.
246 Applications: Accelcrators and Cryogenics Transfer Lines
The metallographic observations (cf. Gelebart et al. 1998) lead to the COn-
clusion that from a nominal sheet thickness of 0.2 mm, the final thickness of
the bellows stays in the range 0.155-0.185 mm. Thus, locally the wall thickness
is reduced by some 25%. The hydro-forming process imposes strong require-
ments On the properties of the stainless steel used to manufacture the bellows
convolutions. Typical values measured On the micro-specimens extracted from
the bellows walls are shown in Table 9.4 and in Fig. 9.12.
Table 9.4. Mechanical properties of 316L stainless steel micro-specimens at 293 K

(4 tests per specimen type).
Specimen type Rp 0.2% Rm A

[MPa] [MPa] [%]
Specimen 1 789-805 797-851 29.3-33.3
(base metal)
Specimen 2 749-799 819-845 21.3-22.6
(across weld)
Specimen 3 738-786 801-865 21.3-25.3
(base metal)
900
800
ro700
a..
6600
-
(J)
:£.... 500
( J) 400
~
'ijj300
c
(])
F 200
100
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
Strain
Fig. 9.12. Typical tensile curve obtained on the micro-specimens extracted from
the nested bellows convolutions.
In order to estimate the variation of mechanical properties along the bel-

lows convolutions the micro-hardness is measured. An example of micro-
hardness profile measured along the convolution of nested bellows is shown in

Fig. 9.13 .
45.
50
Position [mm[
Fig. 9.13. Micro- hardness across one convolution of nested bellows.
It turns out that the hardness increases towards the crest of the bel-
lows convolution where there has been more cold- work. Typically, the micro-
hardness ranges from 200-400 Hv.
The elasto-plastic axial stiffness of nested bellows is usually smaller than
the stiffness of geometrically equivalent (in terms of pitch and depth of con-
volutions) type-U bellows. All the conclusions from the previous chapters
concerning the low temperature induced increase of the elasto- plastic axial
stiffness of bellows can be extrapolated also to the nested bellows.
9.2.4 Simplified Numerical Analysis of the Nested Bellows
Model of the Material
As already shown in the previous sections, the manufacturing process has an

important effect on the geometry of the profile and on the material harden-
ing. This, in turn, implies evolution of the thickness and the micro-hardness
along each convolution. A reasonable way of taking into account these fac-
tors is to simulate the stages of the manufacturing process. However, such a
simulation is complex and requires an extensive metallurgical study of each
manufacturing phase. Therefore, for the sake of simplicity, the values obtained
from the material characterisation on the non-cycled bellows (micro- hardness
and thickness evolution as well as the micro-tensile tests) can be used. In the
first approximation the material can be assumed homogenous and isotropic
(same properties in each direction). Elasto-plastic material model, with linear
kinematic hardening (see Chapter 4) is simple enough both for the room and
for the low temperature applications. The parameters of the model were pre-
sented in Section 7.5. The plasticity/damage uncoupled formulation can be
implemented in order to predict the evolution of micro-damage. The plastic
strain fields are used to compute evolution of ductile damage and the resulting
evolution of the axial stiffness (softening of the structure) .
The following steps are applied to compute damage evolution:
• simulation of the first cycles with an elasto- plastic behaviour without dam-
age until a stabilised cycle is reached ,
• calculation in post- processing (uncoupled analysis) of the increment of
damage on the first stabilised cycle,
• computing the subsequent cycles with the material parameters modified
by the previously found damage levels.
Geometry of the Profile
A relatively precise description of the profile of convolutions can be ob-

tained from the optical microscopy. Reconstruction of the convolution profile
(Fig. 9.14) shall involve the following rules:
• the mean line of the profile of convolutions shall be traced;
• the profile shall be subdivied into segments and an interpolation of the
mean line in each segment shall be carried out;
• the thickness variations shall be measured and taken into account in the
model;
Fig. 9.14. Reconstruction of a typical profile of nested bellows.

9.3 Analysis of Local Stability of Magnet Interconnections 249
• a smooth ( "tangent") transition between the segments of the profile shall

be applied.
Simple and efficient approach to the interpolation of the mean line in each
segment , satisfying the conditions of smooth transition, consists in using the
portions (arcs) of circles. Each arc defines a sub-domain where the mate-
rial properties (Young's modulus, yield stress, hardening modulus, damage
intensity etc ... ) are specified separately.
In order to reduce the size of the model as well as the CPU time of cal-
culations, only three convolutions are usually modelled (Fig. 9.15). The min-
imum representation is composed of the two extreme convolutions, close to
the boundaries, and the intermediate convolution that represents the bellows
central part. At the extremities the corrugated shell is free to move in the ra-
dial direction. On the other hand , the axial deformation of the nested bellows
is kinematically (axial displacement) or statically (axial force) controlled.
Crest
Fig. 9.15. Boundary conditions in the model of nested bellows.
It is worth pointing out that the components of the strain tensor, the
plastic strain intensity and the accumulated plastic strain are measured at
the root and at the crest of the intermediate convolution. Thus, the influence
of the boundary conditions on their values is minimised.
9.3 Analysis of Local Stability of Magnet

Interconnections
Stability of accelerator interconnections containing bellows expansion joints

turns out to be one of the most important design issues. Interconnections
subjected to a combination of temperature variations, geometrical imperfec-
tions and internal pressure may turn out to be unstable as a result of either
improper design of the expansion joints or improperly supported adjacent

components (magnets). Effect of instability of an interconnect may be dras-
tic: large transverse deformations lead either to a dynamic loss of tightness
or to a misalignment of the neighbouring magnets, making the correct oper-
ation of the accelerator impossible. Thus, appropriate design of the magnet
interconnections containing the expansion joints is a matter of reliability and
safety.
The mechanisms of instability occur on different levels. They are classified
with respect to localisation and type of instability in Table 9.5.
Table 9.5. Local and global mechanisms of instability.
Mechanism of Type of Classification of Description

instability instability instability
mode mode
In-plane squirm local Shell effect Instability of the
of bellows (w.r.t. bellows) bellows wall in
the hoop direction
Root bulge of local Shell effect Root bulging of
bellows (w.r.t. bellows) convolutions
accompanied by
large plastic
deformation
Column buckling local Column effect Buckling of
of bellows (w.r.t. system) bellows similar to
buckling of
Euler's column
Buckling of Semi-global Column effect Transverse
interconnect (w.r.t. system) (elastically buckling of the
(elastically supported expansion joint
supported column) with adjacent
bellows) tubes
Buckling of the Global Elastic Transverse
entire system (w.r.t. system) discontinuous buckling of a
(transfer line or system discontinuous
arc of an system on
accelerator) Winkler's
foundation
9.3.1 Mechanisms of Local Buckling in the Zone of

Interconnections Containing Universal Joints
Mechanism of instability of the expansion joints containing two corrugated

bellows (universal joints, Figs 9.16, 9.17) differs from the buckling mode of
single bellows. Since the corrugated thin- walled parts are separated by a stiff
intermediate tube, it is rotation of the tube, that initiates the instability. The
buckling mechanism of a universal joint is shown in Fig. 9.16.
Fig. 9.16. Buckling mechanism of a universal joint (CERN).
In principle it consists in simultaneous fiexural deformation of the cor-

rugated bellows and rotation of the linking tube. This mechanism has been
studied, for room temperature applications, by Broyles (1989), who proposed
a simplified analytical model to simulate the buckling behaviour of a universal
joint with initial imperfection. Initial rotation of the intermediate tube by a
small angle, for instance associated with a transverse offset, constitutes the
starting conditions for the buckling process. The model is shown in Fig. 9.17.
It is composed of a hydraulic ram with a system of springs, representing the
axial and the angular stiffness of bellows, and a rigid strut standing for the
intermediate tube. Rotation of the ram by angle 0: provokes rotation of the
strut by angle (3. The top spring stiffness is equal to the bellows elasto-plastic
axial stiffness F:x whereas the bottom springs are set to a multiple of the
bellows elasto-plastic angular stiffness. Equilibrium pressure for an imperfect
expansion joint is given by the formula:
_ FS (20: - (3)L2 cos(o: - (3) - 2((3 - o:)(Ll +.1) F:x.1
(9.3)
P - 'fJ ang AL2 sin(o: - (3)(Ll +.1) + A '
252 Applications; Accelerators and Cryogenics Transfer Lines
Fig. 9.17. Simplified model of the universal expansion joint (Broyles 1989).
where A denotes the cross- sectional area of the ram and .:1 denotes its elon-
gation. For the angular displacements a , [3 the following equation holds:
y - L2 sin [3 )
a = arctan ( L L (3' (9.4)
3 - 2 cos
and for the elongation .:1 the following equation shall be satisfied:
.:1 = y - L2 sin [3 _ L
(9.5)
2sina 1,
Since the angular stiffness is directly related to the axial stiffness by the
following equation:
c= D;, (9.6)
.., 8 '
where ~ is a function of the bellows mean diameter, the equilibrium pressure
depends exclusively on the bellows elasto- plastic axial stiffness:
P = r]F s [~(2a - (3)L2 cos(a - (3) - 2([3 - a)(Ll +.1) + .:1]

ax AL2 sin(a - (3)(Ll + .1) A (9.7)
The secant axial stiffness can be expressed by the following formula (dis-
cussed already in the Chapter 1):
(9.8)
with J1 = J1( LlE: P , T). Thus, again, the equilibrium pressure as well as the
buckling pressure depend on the plastic strain range (bellows axial offset) and
the temperature.
An example of a set of equilibrium curves, computed for a universal
joint defined as follows: L1 = 67 mm, L2 = 250 mm, Dm = 89.5 mm,
F:x = 272 N/mm, is presented in Fig 9.18. The paths were computed for
the following values of initial transverse offset (imperfection): 10 mm, 5 mm,
2 mm, 0.5 mm, 0.1 mm. The paths converge - with decreasing imperfection -
towards the post-buckling path of geometrically perfect universal joint. It is
worth pointing out that the post-critical path is unstable. The analysis was
made for the material properties at ambient temperature (Skoczen 1998).
100
80
'i:"'
Cl! 60
B
....
Q)
:::J
In
In
~ 40
a..
20
o 2 4 6 8 10
Angular displacement (beta) [deg]
Fig. 9.18. Equilibrium paths for universal joint with initial imperfections (offset,
293 K).
The sensitivity with respect to imperfections is shown in Fig. 9.19. The

expansion joint can be qualified as weakly sensitive to imperfections - an
offset of 10 mm leads to 6% reduction in critical pressure.
Again, if both bellows constituting the universal joint are not plastically
deformed their axial stiffness can be defined as the initial elastic axial stiffness.
The resulting buckling pressure increases at cryogenic temperatures (77 K,
4 K) by around 8% . On the other hand, plastically cycled expansion joints
show a reduced elasto-plastic axial stiffness that determines stability of the
universal joint. Here the increase in axial stiffness at cryogenic temperatures
85
84
83
~
.e..ro 82
lE
::::l
81
Cl)
Cl)
lE 80
a.
m
u
79
U78
:;:::;
77
76
75~---''---'----.----.----r---'----.
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Imperfection (transverse offset) [mm]
Fig. 9.19. Sensitivity of critical buckling pressure to imperfections (293 K).
and the resulting increase in buckling pressure is usually much larger. It may
reach 80% as shown in Fig. l.27.
9.3.2 Eigenvalue Analysis of a Universal Expansion Joint
Universal expansion joints are often used in the cryogenic systems where large
transverse movements are expected. In order to absorb these movements a
structure composed of two bellows and a central tube is applied (Fig. 9.20).
Fig. 9.20. Universal expam,ion joint.
Generally, the pressurised universal expansion joints are less stable than
the standard single bellows unless equipped with a special hardware to sta-
bilise the joint. Stability analysis of a cryogenic transfer line containing a
universal expansion joint is based on the model shown in Fig. 9.2l.
Analysis based on this model leads again to an eigenvalue problem ex-
pressed by the following transcendental equation:
I I
N
N
Fig. 9.21. Model of cryogenic system containing a universal expansion joint.
(9.9)
where:
Li = i.• (1 - cos Xi) + sin Xi (1- Ti ) - Xi cos Xi , (9.10)
Mi = Ti sin Xi + Xi cos Xi , i = I, II . (9.11)

Also, the following parameters were defined:
k. _ (EI)i (9.12)
i = I, II,
•- Lpi '
as well as the eigenvalues:
i = I, II.
(9.13)
Buckling mode is entirely determined by the eigenvalues XI and XII.
9.3.3 Buckling of Actively Cooled Thermal Shield Interconnect
Cryostats of super conducting magnets are often equipped with thermal

shields wrapped with multi- layer super- insulation. In order to maintain the
temperature of the shield at the level of 50-65 K a cold helium transfer line
is usually integrated in the shield structure. The LHC actively cooled ther-
mal shield may serve as a good example of such a solution. It contains a
50 K helium supply header that constitutes an integral part of its supporting
aluminium structure - bottom tray (Fig 9.22). The 15 m long extruded alu-
minium trays, supported on the composite cold feet, are connected by means
of the universal joints (Skoczen 1998).
Fig. 9.22. Thermal shield interconnect containing a universal joint (CERN , LHC).
Aluminium bottom tray plays an important structural role inside the cryo-
stat. It provides sufficient transverse stiffness to the 50 K cryogenic header,
which is usually supported on the cold feet (and not directly on the cryostat
wall) in order to avoid creation of 293-;--50 K thermal bridges. Such a solution
leads to 5 m long portions of the 50 K header, suspended between the cold
feet that might get unstable under pressure loads. In addition, the bottom
tray carries a set of upper aluminium cylindrical barrels (see Fig. 9.5) that
constitute a support for the multi- layer super-insulation (30 layers) .
Design of the LHC thermal shield interconnect is based on the "float-

ing" expansion joint concept. The expansion joint is incorporated into one of
two tubes (constituting integral part of the aluminium profiles) by means of
bimetallic transitions (Fig. 9.22). The bottom trays (aluminium profiles) are
completed with the upper cylindrical shells, covered with super-insulation.
Each bottom tray is supported on three cold feet inside the dipole magnet
cryostat. The span of the "floating" part of interconnect (shown schemati-
cally in Fig. 9.23) is around 4.9 m.
expansion 01
upper barrel
bott~m tray
jOin\
.0
t. . .
. _- - ._ . ._._-
COldfoot
2260 318 2280 J
Fig. 9.23. Layout of the LHC dipole-dipole thermal shield interconnect (CERN).
Since a misalignment of thermal shield panels, resulting from misalignment

of magnets as well as manufacturing and installation tolerances, may occur
the parameter fa defining the offset of tubes was introduced.
Stability of the universal expansion joint appears to be one of the determi-
nant factors for the global stability of the LHC thermal shield interconnect.
Internal
pressure [bar]
40.0
30.0
Type EA universal expansion joint:
working spring rate of 140 [N/mm]
20.0
10.0
Inclination angle
of central strut [deg]
0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0
Fig. 9.24. Equilibrium path for the LHC thermal shield universal joint with initial
offset of 5 mm.
Results of stability analysis (equilibrium path at room temperature, initial off-

set of 5 mm) based on the model presented in Fig. 9.17 are shown in Fig. 9.24.
Here the working axial stiffness of 140 N/mm (measured for large deforma-
tions of bellows convolutions at 293 K) was applied. In order to study stability
of the complete thermal shield interconnect a linear model (Fig. 9.21) based
on simplified representation of the bellows convolutions (angular springs) was
adopted (Skoczeri. 1997).
The model is suitable for small transverse deformations of the intercon-
nect when compared to its span. Analysis of stability based on this model
results in estimation of the buckling pressure for the perfect system as well as
in verification of the equilibrium path for the imperfect system (with initial
offset) .
In order to provide maximum global stability to the LHC thermal shield
interconnect a reinforcement of the bottom tray extrusions was needed. As
a result of stability analysis the flexural stiffness of the equivalent tubes (re-
placing the thermal shield panels) was determined. Finally, the aluminium
profile corresponding to the required stiffness was designed. Finite element
model as well as deformation of the thermal shield bottom tray under the
bellows thrust forces are shown in Fig. 9.25. Equilibrium path for the whole
interconnect with initial imperfections is plotted in Fig. 9.26.
A NSYS 5 . 3
SEP 10 1 997
16 , 44 , 55
PLOT NO . 1
NODAL SOLUTION
STEp: l
SUB - 1
TIME - l
USUM ( AVG)
R$ Y $=O
PowerGraphics
EFACET""l
AVRES=All
L
DMX = . 317£-04
SMX '"' . 317E-04
F
=
SSCA= 1 0000
0
. 352E-05
. 704E - 05
_ .106E - 04
_ .141£-04
_ .176£-04
_ .211E - Q4
_ .246E - 0 4
_ .281E-04
. 317£-04
LHC - 5 segments thermal shi e ld, F=lON , af a y=18 deg
Fig. 9.25. Deformation of the bottom tray in the minimum stiffness plane.
Pressure
[bar]
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0-+--+----.----.---.--.--......----.---.--,-----,
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0
Fig. 9.26. Deformation path for the symmetric bottom tray interconnect with initial
misalignment of 5 mm.
As a critical pressure for the technologically imperfect system (initial offset

of 5 mm) the value of 53.5 bar has been found, the criterion being total rotation
of the central strut (universal joint) by 5 deg.
Further, an experimental verification of stability of the LHC thermal shield
interconnect was carried out. A suitable test set up, shown in Fig. 9.27, rep-
resenting the final design was constructed (see Fig. 9.22).
In the real conditions (inside the cryostat) each aluminium panel is sup-
ported on three composite feet. In the test set up both thermal shield panels
were supported at a distance of 2.3 m from the universal joint end fittings.
bottom bottom
clamped
tra1 tray clamped
----------------------~--
1
IF~ilt--::_t~ ~-
2260 318 2280
I pressure
supply
I
Fig. 9.27. Test set up for the LHC thermal shield interconnect with 5 mm initial
offset.
Such boundary conditions were set a an approximation of the real support

conditions.
In order to trace evolution of the transverse displacements of the pres-
surised expansion joint 4 inductive gauges were installed around each bellows.
The gauges were fixed in aluminium rings, supported independently from the
rest of the set up (see Fig. 9.16). The active measuring range varied from 20
to 40 mm depending on the position of the gauges. In particular the gauges
oriented in the direction of the initial imperfection (vertical plane) had the
maximum measuring range of 40 mm. Displacement control and data acqui-
sition were done by using a UPM-lOO unit.
Hydraulic test of stability consists in filling the system with water and
pressurising it until local or global instability occurs. Before the filling oper-
ation the system was evacuated to a low vacuum so as to avoid formation of
air bubbles inside the bellows convolutions.
The test procedure was subdivided into three principal steps:
I step ~ loading to 20 bar (design pressure)and unloading,
Il step ~ loading up to the point of buckling and unloading,
III step ~ loading to 20 bar and unloading of plastically deformed intercon-
nect.
The latter, based on residual deformation after buckling, was scheduled to
verify whether any further incremental plastic deformation occurs.
The position of both thermal shield panels before and after buckling was
precisely measured (teodolit) in order to verify increase in residual defor-
mation of the complete system. Also, the global deformation of plastically
deformed interconnect under nominal pressure of 20 bar (Ill step) was mea-
sured.
Two subsequent loading-unloading tests to nominal pressure of 20 bar (I
step) carried out for two identical expansion joints installed between the same
thermal shield panels are shown in Fig. 9.28.
The residual deformation after each unloading was minor when compared
to the initial offset. Loading up to the buckling point (rapid development of
transverse deformations) and unloading (ll step) is shown in Fig. 9.29, again
for two identical expansion joints. Also, loading/unloading to 20 bar of the
plastically deformed interconnect (Ill step) is shown in the same figure. It
is worth pointing out that no further increment of plastic deformation was
observed in the III step.
Maximum transverse deformation of the expansion joint reached during
the buckling test was of the order of 30 mm.
In the light of the above presented analysis it seems to be clear that the
buckling mechanism of the thermal shield interconnect consists of the following
elements:
• overall flexure of the bottom trays (elastic beams)
• local bending of the corrugated bellows (elasto-plastic hinges)
Internal
pressure [bar]
25.0
Complete LHC thermal shield interconnect
preliminary test: loading up to 20 [bar] / unloading
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.
O.~-------.------.---~~.-------r------'
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0

Fig. 9.28. Two subsequent loading-unloading tests to nominal pressure of 20 bar.
Internal
pressure [bar]
Complete LHC thermal shield interconnect

30.0 results of loading / unloading tests
20.0
10.0
Lateral
displacement [mm]
0.0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0
Fig. 9.29. Two subsequent buckling tests (to 30 bar) and supplementary load-
ing/unloading test to 20 bar.
• rotation of the intermediate tube linking the bellows together

Thus, the buckling load (pressure) depends mainly on the stiffness of the
bottom trays and the elasto-plastic flexural stiffness of the bellows. If the
interconnect contains initial imperfections (misalignment) the transverse de-
formations develop as soon as the system is pressurised (Fig. 9.18). Typical
sensitivity of such interconnect to imperfections is shown in Fig. 9.19.
The test results confirm the applicability of the Broyles model, as shown in
Fig. 9.17. The model predicts the maximum pressure on the equilibrium path
of around 40 bar (see Fig. 9.24), whereas the measured maximum value was
between 27 and 30 bar (see Fig. 9.29). Since the Broyles model of the universal
joint does not take into account the relaxation of boundary conditions due to
the flexibility of the adjacent components (bottom tray panels) the prediction
turns out to be non-conservative (above the measured values). It seams that
a combination of the Broyles model with the model shown in Fig. 9.21 would
bring the results much closer to reality.
9.4 Analysis of Global Stability of a Particle Accelerator

Discontinuous cryogenic systems, like particle accelerators composed of a se-
ries of cryo--magnets linked by means of the compensation units, can get
unstable when pressurised (cf. Skoczen 2000). Usual procedures of cool down
(and warm up) of the structure are associated with initial quasi-static increase
of pressure, stabilisation and a gradual decrease to the operational pressure.
Thus, evolution of the configuration of the structure due to cool down (thermal
contraction of magnets and elongation of expansion joints) is accompanied by
the pressure cycle, as shown in Fig. 9.30.
Pressure
11
IV
Time
Fig. 9.30. Pressure cycle typical of the cool down of the superconducting acceler-
ators.
The pressure cycle consists usually of four principal phases:

9.4 Analysis of Global Stability of a Particle Accelerator 263
• pressure build up (phase I),

• stabilisation at the maximum level (phase H),
• gradual decrease - unloading (phase HI),
• stabilisation at the operational level (phase IV).
After a number of cycles, given the development of plasticity and damage
in the expansion joints as well as the initial imperfections, the system may
loose its pressure capacity and get unstable. From the point of view of buck-
ling the most critical phases of the pressure cycle are the pressure build up
and the stabilisation at the maximum level. Here, the structure is subjected
to maximum pressure load over a laps of time sufficient for development of
mechanical instabilities.
Analysis of a global stability of a particle accelerator must take into ac-
count the "discontinuous" nature of its mechanical structure. Usually, an ac-
celerator is composed of a number of arcs, separated by the insertion zones
where the experiments of particle physics are nested. It is mainly the arcs,
containing the cells with the cryo-magnets separated by the zones of inter-
connections that may get unstable when cooling down the system.
9.4.1 Eigenvalue Buckling Analysis of an Elastic

Discontinuous Multi-Link Model on Elastic Foundation
A typical cold mass constitutes a system of mechanically decoupled pressure

vessels separated by means of the interconnections (compensation system:
expansion joints). The magnets are supported inside the continuous vacuum
vessel on the composite cold feet that have their proper shear and bending
flexibility. Each main dipole magnet is supported on 3 feet and each main
quadrupole magnet is supported on 2 feet in the vacuum vessel. The cold
feet are symbolically illustrated in Fig. 9.31 by the elastic spring keq . Thus,
all the magnets together form an elastically supported discontinuous system
of pressure vessels (Fig. 9.2 and 9.31) subjected to thermo-mechanical and
pressure loads. Such a system is susceptible to buckling when pressurised to
its corresponding critical pressure. In order to evaluate the critical pressure,
a simplified analytical model of a typical accelerator arc has been developed
(Fig. 9.32).
Cold mass Interconnect
Fig. 9.31. Elastically supported cold mass with the interconnections; p - pressure.
The model is based on the assumption of infinite stiffness of the cold mass
when compared to the stiffness of interconnections and of the cold supports.
Consequently, it is assumed that the entire energy of elastic deformation is
concentrated in the interconnections (bellows expansion joints) and in the feet.
In order to account for the combined contribution of the feet and the cryostat,
the elastic (Winkler's type) foundation was introduced. The stiffness of the
elastic foundation (see Fig. 9.32) is equivalent in terms of the elastic strain
energy to the sum of all the components that deform under pressure loads
(cold feet, vacuum vessel).
Interconnect (c) SSS MS MS ...

~. Ql-i_lIIIllllr-.SIll_----1Q--.II7S.r-....;ftJ
s
e
Elastic foundation (k)
Fig. 9.32. The corresponding mathematical model.
The elastic multi-link model consisting of n segments and located on the

above defined elastic foundation leads to the following general set of equations:
(9.14)
where:
• c, k denote the elastic equivalent stiffness of the interconnections and the
elastic foundation, respectively,
• LD denotes the length of dipole magnet MB. The length of 8SS (housing
the main quadrupoles) is approximately half that of MB (see Fig. 9.32),
• P stands for the global axial force,
• c5i are the transverse horizontal displacements of extremities of the consec-
utive magnets.
Here P plays a role of a hypothetical axial load (equivalent with respect to
pressure acting on the active section of all the expansion joints in the intercon-
nections) which is obtained from the equivalence of work of external loads on
the corresponding displacements and the increase of the elastic energy of the
system (see Timoshenko and Cere 1961). The load P needs to be minimised
with respect to all the kinematically admissible displacement vectors (Q). In
order to minimise the load a set of n - 1 linear, partial differential equations
is solved:
aL aM
ac5i - P ac5i = 0 for i = 1, ... , n - 1 , (9.15)
which leads to a set of linear homogenous algebraic equations:

9.4 Analysis of Global Stability of a Particle Accelerator 265
[H]I: = Q, (9.16)
where:
[H] = [H (),)] and I: = (51, ... , 5n - 1) , (9.17)
The condition of non-triviality of the solution:
det [H] = 0, (9.18)
leads finally to the characteristic polynomial of the order n - 1 for the matrix
H, that can further be solved for eigenvalues ),. The eigenvector I: can be
interpreted directly as the mode of instability of the accelerator cold mass.
The eigenvalues ), are linked to the critical buckling load by the following
equation:
Pcr = )' kL 5, (9.19)
It is worth pointing out that the critical load depends in a direct way
on the stiffness of the elastic foundation k and in an indirect way (via the
eigenvalues ),) on the ratio elk. In other words, it is mainly the combined
stiffness of the cold feet and the cryostat (represented by the parameter k)
that contributes directly to the general stability of the accelerator arc.
9.4.2 Bifurcation Buckling
The above given set of equations was solved for n - 1 corresponding to the
length of the basic cell (n = 8). The primary buckling mode of the accelerator
cell is shown in Fig. 9.33. It corresponds to a bifurcation buckling pressure
220 times higher than the design pressure for the LHC cold mass (2 MPa).
Another primary buckling mode computed for the sub-sector (2 cells) is shown
in Fig. 9.34. In both cases, it is the SSS, situated centrally in the string of
magnets, that shows the largest transverse displacement.
Further analysis was carried out for the gradually increasing number of
cells (2, 3, ... ) in order to obtain a basis for the extrapolation to the length of
the standard arc (23 cells). The curve presenting the critical buckling load as
a function of the number of half-cells is shown in Fig. 9.35.
It is worth stressing that the critical load reaches rather quickly a stable
level, independent of the length of arc, which is typical of the mechanical
beams On elastic foundation. The following extrapolation function was applied:
(9.20)
where j denotes the number of half-cells. The extrapolation was based On the
computations made for 1 cell, 1.5 cells, 2 cells and 3 cells (on the flat part of
the curve). The final safety factor for the standard arc, with respect to the
design pressure, equals to 190.
1.0
0.5
-0.5
-1.0
Fig. 9.33. Normalised primary buckling mode for the basic cell.
1.0
0.5
-0.5 length [m]
-1.0
Fig. 9.34. Normalised primary buckling mode for the sub-sector (2 cells).
Per
10.5 [x 106]
10.0
9.5
9.0
8.5
8.0
7.5 Number of
half-cells
Fig. 9.35. Critical buckling load versus number of half-cells.
The high safety factor against global instability of the standard arc does
not mean that there is no transverse motion of the accelerator when pres-
surised to its design or test pressure. In order to verify the maximum trans-
verse displacements of the pressurised cold mass (due to elastic deformation
of the arc cryostat system), the following assumptions are made:
• the system is fully elastic (no inelastic deformation in the interconnec-
tions),
9.5 Fatigue Testing of Corrugated Bellows 267
• the transverse displacements and rotations are small when compared to

the size of the standard arc,
• the sensitivity to imperfections relates to misalignment corresponding to
the primary mode of instability.
Since for the fully elastic systems the following equation holds:
P(f) = ( 1 - 7) Pcr , (9.21)
where fo, f denote the initial imperfection and the transverse deformation un-
der load P, respectively. The above equation can be presented in a slightly dif-
ferent form showing an increment of transverse deformation under the load P:
1
.1f = fo P.cr / P _ 1 ' (9.22)
For a typical misalignment of 4 mm, given the ratio: Pcr / P = 190, one obtains
the increment of transverse deformation:
.1f = 0.02 mm, (9.23)
Thus, in the light of the above presented analysis the standard arC can be
considered mechanically stable and the maximum transverse displacements
under the nominal pressure are limited to around 0.02 mm.
The above presented stability analysis has a crucial importance for the
alignment of the magnets. Very high safety factor with respect to the critical
buckling load does not mean that the entire system will not deform under the
pressure loads. On the contrary, every accelerator contains imperfections and
its response to the pressure load depends on the size of imperfections. The
alignment precision of the magnets is of the order of 0.01 mm. Therefore, the
transverse displacements as large as double or triple of the alignment precision
have to be taken into account.
9.5 Fatigue Testing of Corrugated Bellows at Cryogenic

Temperatures (77 K, 4 K)
In order to test components of the compensation systems at cryogenic tem-

peratures (77 K, 4 K) a cryostat equipped with a pneumatic servo-mechanism
was designed (Fig. 9.36). A special chamber (volume B) containing the com-
pensation units was installed inside the cryostat (volume C). Two units are
linked along the same axis and cycled simultaneously (one of them is extended,
the other one is compressed by the same ratio ±.1L / L) in order to keep the
total volume (volume A) constant. This set-up permits to keep the internal
pressure at a stable monitored level during testing.
The tests may be performed at the temperature of liquid nitrogen (77 K)

or liquid helium (4 K). If needed, a transverse offset between the two compen-
sation units may also be introduced. The test is continued until the vacuum
inside the volume A is broken or the variations of pressure (for internally
pressurised units) reach a prescribed limit. This is an indication that a fa-
tigue crack links the volume A with the volume B.
Thermal screens
VoLB
. uid tttrogen
Atmospheric pressoR
Fig. 9.36. Cryostat for cryogenic testing of compensation elements.
Thanks to the approximately constant total volume obtained during cy-

cling of both bellows the corresponding variations of pressure are minimised.
As a result, when one of the expansion joints starts leaking due to the fatigue
crack propagation the complementary one is usually still tight. Hence, there is
always 2 simultaneously tested units behind every point on the fatigue curve
for the temperature level 4 K: the damaged bellows and the complementary
one - still in a good shape. Therefore, the 4 K fatigue curve can be regarded
as a lower bound curve for the population of 6 cold tested expansion joints.
A typical example of experimental curves obtained from a single ply stain-
less steel nested bellows, tested at room and at low temperatures, is shown in
Fig. 9.37. The geometry of tested bellows is presented in Table 9.6. It turns out
that the fatigue life depends on the ratio between the total axial displacement
and the convoluted length, as shown in Table 9.7.
9.5 Fatigue Testing of Corrugated Bellows 269
Table 9.6. Geometry of nested bellows tested at low temperatures (4 K).

Free convoluted length 22.6 mm
Rout/Rin 34/25.5 mm
Num. of convolutions 7
Axial deflection 16/20/24 mm
External pressure 1.0 bar
Internal pressure vacuum
Fatigue life
(number of cycles)
5 C\
4 \
\
\ Temp. 4 K
3
\
\
2
\
\
\
\
10000.0 \
9
8 \
7 \
6 \
5 \
4 \
Temp. 300 K \
3 &:: ......
.. 0-
....
.... .... .... ....
.... ....
2
.... .... "0 .... ....
.... ....
'0... _ _ ..........................
- - - - -.. ..:s
1000.0
9
8
7 Total axial
6 movement
5~---.---'---.---.---'r---r---r---.---.---,
15.0 17.0 19.0 21.0 23.0 25.0
Fig. 9.37. Fatigue tests of nested bellows at cryogenic temperatures.
Table 9.7. Number of cycles to failure at room and at cryogenic temperatures.

Total axial movement/
convoluted length Nt K /Nr 3K
0.71 16
0.88 1.85
1.06 1.0
The experimental results seem to confirm the conclusions shown in the

previous chapters: the fatigue life of stainless steel bellows at cryogenic tem-
peratures is usually much higher than at room temperature.
9.6 Reliability of Thermal Contraction Compensation

System of a Particle Accelerator
Compensation system of a superconducting particle accelerator comprises usu-

ally several types of bellows expansion joints integrated into different acceler-
ator systems: beam transport system (vacuum chambers), cryogenic channels
(helium flow and heat exchanger lines). Each of these components is individu-
ally subjected to complex thermo-mechanicalloads resulting from its location
and function (cf. Garion and Skoczen 200la). In most of the cases the ex-
pansion joints are prestressed during the assembly process (operation carried
out at room temperature). In operation the bellows are subjected to a com-
plete thermo-mechanical cycle consisting in extension during the cool down
of the accelerator and compression back to the initial configuration during the
warm up. Typical evolution of prestress (expressed in terms of displacement
of one bellows end with respect to another) during the cool down is shown in
Fig. 9.38.
+
6
"E
Q)
E
Q)
tl
<Il 0
C. 50 100 150
rtl
is
Temperature (K)
Fig. 9.38. Evolution of bellows prestress as a function of temperature.
Approximate evolution of the modulus of elasticity and of the yield point

as a function of temperature is presented in Fig. 9.39.
208 700
'iii'206
&204 600
';; 202 'iii'
.2 200 a. 500
-5198 ~
0196 ~ 400
~194 "iij
§ 192 300
~190
188 200
0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300
Temperature (K) Temperature (K)
Fig. 9.39. Evolution of the modulus of elasticity and the yield point as a function
of temperature for stainless steel 316 L.
9.6 Reliability of Thermal Contraction Compensation System 271
In the simple case of a multiply, high pressure, cryogenic expansion joint

for which the prestress is set to some 16% of its free length and the unit is
elongated during the cool down of the magnets to some 30% above its free
length the following set of hysteresis curves is obtained (Fig. 9.40).
8000
6000
4000
z
';' 2000
~
~ O+----,-~'--__~---r--~'_r_--___r--____,
- 0
-2000
-4000
Fig. 9.40. Hysteresis curves for a multiply cryogenic expansion joint.
It is worth pointing out that the negative axial force corresponds to the pre-
stress at room temperature whereas the positive axial force corresponds to the
traction at low temperature (2 K) . Due to the asymmetric cycle (1-81 =f: 1+81)
and asymmetric response of the shell under tension and compression the un-
loading stiffness under tension is different than the unloading stiffness under
compression (Funldl =f: Funld2).
The bellows expansion joints integrated into the beam transport system
follow often a different loading trajectory than the bellows integrated in the
cryogenic channels. An example of such a complex trajectory is given in
Fig. 9.41. It has been determined for an expansion joint integrated into the
beam line interconnect and constituting a bridge between the beam line on
one side and the beam screen on the other side. Therefore, due to the specific
contraction of the beam screen, during the cool down the "negative" prestress
1000
200 y-- 300 60
Temperatu re ( K) Displacement (mm)
Fig. 9.41. Loading trajectory and hysteresis curves for the beam vacuum bellows.
initially increases and, below 150 K, it starts decreasing to reach the positive
values of around 40% of the bellows free length.
Here, the response of the corrugated shell in terms of force/ displacement is
highly asymmetric. The expansion joints of this type were tested under cyclic
loads at ambient temperature and the parameters of the Weibull probability
density function were identified. As an example, the Nelson-Thompson dia-
gram with the set of experimental points and the linear interpolation is shown
in Fig. 9.42. The Weibull cumulative distribution function is defined as:
(9.24)
and its linearized version reads:
In [In ( 1 _1 PF )] = f3ln (N) - f3ln (8) (9.25)
where N is the number of cycles (time-like function).
1.5
20.5
~ o+---------------~~-----------
..--
::::::- -0.5
..--
C -1 + Tests
E -1.5 -Weibulllaw
-2
-2.5+------,+;:------.---..---.-----,
8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8
In(N)
Fig. 9.42. Identification of the Weibull probability density function.
Having identified the shape and the scale parameters one may plot the
reliability:
R (N) = 1 - PF (N) (9.26)
~ 1........_ .....- -....._ .....__
:isIII 0.8
ea.
0.6
m 0.4
.1'>: 0.2
::J
~ O+---------.----------r---------.~~-~_,
o 2000 4000 6000 8000
Number of cycles
Fig. 9.43. The survival probability as a function of the number of cycles.

9.6 Reliability of Thermal Contraction Compensation System 273
as a function of the number of cycles (Fig. 9.43). It is worth pointing out that
the reliability level has to be established with respect to the expected number
of cycles in the lifetime of the component, that means with respect to a target
value.
Typically, if the number of cool down/ warm up cycles in the lifetime of
the accelerator is equal to 50 the survival probability of the expansion joint
is higher than 99.999999%.
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Index
accumulated plastic strain, 78, 90, toroidal, 23, 167

93-95, 98, 115, 122, 123, 133, 135, triangular, 23
175, 195, 210, 249 type, 23
acoustic phonons, 50, 51, 53 C, 22, 25, 26
adaptation, IX, 27, 28, 176, 177, 185, n, 22, 23, 26
186, 189, 193 rectangular, 23
adiabatic slip, 83, 84 S, 22-26, 30, 31, 140, 155, 177
alternating plasticity, 28, 72, 113, 187, U, 22-26, 28, 139, 157, 176, 242, 247
189, 194 universal, 32
associated flow rule, 77, 78, 178 bellows expansion joint, 11, 21, 22, 31,
39, 137, 138, 177, 249, 250, 264,
bain strain, 124, 133 270, 271
bathtub diagram, 217 Bernoulli hypothesis, 149
Bauschinger effect, 15, 16, 128, 129 bi-phase material, 124-126, 128, 131,
beam vacuum, 22, 36, 37, 240-242, 244, 134
271 bifurcation buckling, X, 25, 26, 139,
beams of particles, XI, 233, 238 140, 151, 154, 158, 161, 169, 170,
bellows, 1, 22, 28, 30, 138, 152, 159, 173, 176, 203, 265
170, 173, 176, 183, 241 bifurcation of equilibrium, 154
axisymmetric,25 Bose-Einstein statistics, 50
bifurcation, 25, 26, 139, 140 Broyles model, 262
buckling, 137, 140, 161 buckling mode, X, 161, 168-170, 172,
crimped-plate, 23 216, 250, 255, 265, 266
cryogenic, 195, 226 Burgers vector, 46, 47, 56, 57
edge welded, 33, 36
elliptical, 23 Clausius-Duhem inequality, 89, 99
instability, 26, 139, 211 cold mass, 1-3, 12, 236, 237, 263-266
mixed type, 22 colliders
multiply, 33 hadron, 233
nested, 21, 22, 33, 36, 37, 242-245, lepton, 233
247, 249, 268 column buckling, X, 137, 139, 161, 203,
parabolic, 23 204, 227, 228, 250
single, 32, 33, 149, 154, 251, 254 column squirm, 139
sinusoidal, 23 compatibility equation, 144
288 Index
compensation ECC (Elastic Carrying Capacity), 29,

element, VIII, 1, 18, 19, 21, 31, 33, 30, 193
37,242,268 effective stress, 85-87, 106
system, VII, IX, XI, 1, 3, 11, 19, 21, elastic predictor, 132
31,32,217,233,235,263,267,270 elastic stiffness tensor, 54, 124, 130
composite, 12, 38-40 Engesser approach, X, 162, 163
constitutive equations, X, 103, 126, 129, equilibrium equations, 27, 144, 147, 180
130, 132, 134, 144, 180 equilibrium path, 27, 154, 156, 158, 183,
constraint 185, 253, 257, 258, 262
equality, 221-224, 226, 227 post-critical, 155
geometrical, 154-156, 158 equilibrium point, 154
inequality, XI, 221-228, 230 equivalent column, VIII, 26, 139, 140,
stability, 21, 30, 156 150-152, 154, 159, 160, 162, 165,
continuity function, 86, 90 168, 170, 172, 173, 205
cooling process, 8, 15, 66, 119 excessive work, 82
corrugated shell, VII, VIII, 1, 3, 27, 36, expansion joint, IX, XI, 1-3, 9, 11, 18,
140, 211, 244, 249, 272 21, 24, 28, 32-36, 39, 159, 168,
cost function, XI, 223, 227, 228 169, 175, 208-210, 231, 241, 242,
Cottrell atmosphere, 58 250-255, 257, 260, 262-264, 268,
crack closure parameter, 93 270-273
critical surface, 237 expected availability, 217
cryogenic
system, VIII, XI, 1-3, 12, 19, 21, 23, failure
175, 218, 219, 226, 254, 255, 262 mechanism, 28, 29, 105, 140, 176,
transfer line, VIII, XI, 1, 12, 33, 37, 177, 183, 185, 194
39, 119, 134, 254 mode, 17, 30, 37
crystallographic configuration, 42, 45 permeability, 72, 73
cyclic plasticity, 81
plastic, 187, 188
probability, 19, 20, 221, 222, 225, 226
damage
random, 218
threshold, 90, 91, 94, 98, 101, 106,
rate, 20, 217, 219
202, 210, 211
fatigue
variable, 85, 87, 100
failure, 19, 37, 68, 72, 73, 176, 208
DCC (Decohesive Carrying Capacity),
life, VIII, IX, 28, 32, 34, 37, 39, 65,
29, 30, 184, 194
103, 104, 113, 170, 207, 208, 210,
Debye
227, 228, 244, 245, 268, 269
model, 49
low cycle, IX, 25, 28
temperature, 50, 51
Fermi gas, 44
deterministic approach, 225, 227
Frank-Read mechanism, 57
discontinuous yielding, IX, 62, 77
dislocation, 44, 46, 57-59, 61, 125
axis, 46 generalised stresses, 140, 141, 144, 147,
edge, 46, 56 148, 180
motion, 41, 46, 56-58, 60, 62, 74, 83, geometrical imperfections, 37, 173, 249
126 Gorter-Mellink coefficient, 10
spiral, 46, 47, 57
ductile damage, VII-X, 32, 35, 77, 85, hardening
106, 175, 201, 248 cyclic, 28, 117, 205, 206, 216
Duhamel-Neumann equation, 15 isotropic, X, 80, 81, 121, 127-131, 134
Index 289
kinematic, X, 15, 28, 78, 80, 81, 121, 'x-line, 4

127-129, 131, 134, 248 'x-transition, 4-7, 9
linear, XI, 79, 88, 89, 114, 115, 125, latent heat, 4, 5, 9
206 lattice, IX, 41
mixed, 123, 128 BCC, 42, 57, 61, 62
modulus, VIII, 12, 15, 16, 77, 79, 83, Bravais,42
114, 125, 126, 130, 131, 206, 249 FCC, 42, 57, 59, 61, 62, 66, 119, 125
strain, VII imperfection, IX, 44, 46, 49-51, 57
heat diffusion equation, 9 LCC (Load Carrying Capacity), 29
heat exchange, 10-12, 38, 270 LCC (Load carrying capacity), 183, 194
helium, 1,3 limit analysis, 29, 177, 183, 185, 194
liquid, VII, 9, 11, 34, 35, 67, 68, 75, Love hypothesis, 140
93, 121, 268 Love-Kirchhoff hypothesis, 143, 178
phase diagram, 4
superfluid, VII, VIII, 3, 8, 9, 41, 236 magnetic permeability, VII, IX, 37, 38,
helium cryogenics, 3, 8, 233, 241 66-68, 72, 73, 119, 195, 196, 245
Helmholtz Manson-Coffin equation, IX, 28, 103,
free energy, 53, 54, 96, 97 104, 109, 111, 113, 176
potential, 53, 88, 130 martensitic transformation, VII, X, 37,
Helmholz 39, 65-69, 73, 75, 119-121, 123,
free energy, 54, 87 124,129-131,134,175,194
Hencky-Ilyushin theory, 29 MCC (Maximal Carrying Capacity),
Huber-Mises-Hencky 183
equivalent stress, 88 Meissner effect, 236
representation, 78 Meissner equations, 139, 140, 144, 148,
yield condition, 178, 180 149
hysteresis loop, 34, 35, 93, 103, 113, micro-cracks, VII, VIII, 35, 85, 86, 106,
117,133,201,206,211-214 175
micro-voids, VII, VIII, 35, 85, 86, 175
in-plane squirm, 140, 227, 228, 250 min-max problem, 228
inadaptation, IX, 27-29, 176, 177, 185, Mori-Tanaka homogenisation, X, 127,
187, 193 131
incremental collapse, 27, 28, 177, multi-link model, 264
187-189, 192, 194
Nadai-Davies theory, 29
insulation vacuum, 2, 36, 237, 241
Nelson-Thompson diagram, 272
interaction curve, 29, 171, 173, 174, 231
Norton' creep law, 90
interconnection, VIII, XI, 1-3, 18-22,
31-33, 36, 37, 224, 231, 235, 237, objective function, 21, 30, 221-224,
241, 242, 249, 250, 263, 264, 266 226-228, 230, 231
internal friction OC (Olson-Cohen) model, 121
mechanism, 60 Odqvist parameter, 78, 186, 187, 189,
model, 61 191
Orowan mechanism, 59
Kirchhoff modulus, 79, 114 overall bending, 145-149
Kuhn-Tucker theorem, 228
parametrical optimisation, 30
Lagrange function, 228 particle accelerator, VII, XI, 1, 9, 37,
Lagrangian coordinates, 141, 142 235, 262, 263, 270
'x-front, 9-11 Peierls-N abarro
290 Index
potential, 41 shakedown, 27
stress, 60 shell
perfectly plastic material, 77 toroidal, 22, 24-27, 29, 30, 145
phase transformation, VII-X, 4-6, 9, shell of revolution, 147
12, 32, 59, 61, 69, 121, 124, 128, sigmoidal curve, 122
130,245 slip band, 46, 56, 83
phonon gas, 49-51, 53 snap-through, 25, 139, 140, 155, 156,
plastic hinge, 29, 30, 184, 185, 187, 188, 158
191, 192, 194, 260 stainless steel, VII, IX, X, 12, 14, 15, 18,
plastic shakedown, 103, 113 33, 35, 37-40, 52, 53, 57, 61-63,
plastic work, 18, 55, 73, 82-84, 126 65-67, 69-75, 77, 79-81, 84, 90,
post-buckling form, 160 113, 119, 120, 123, 132-134, 173,
potential of dissipation, 89, 99, 114 175, 194, 205, 206, 210, 237, 238,
Prandtl model, 29 244-246, 270
Prandtl-Reuss state variables, 84, 86, 87, 98, 100, 132
equation, 79 stiffness
model, 25 bending, 26, 139, 140, 148, 152, 154,
principal 158, 163, 165, 168
strain, 143, 147, 178 shear, 161-163, 165, 166, 168
stress, 74, 96 strain energy density release rate, 87,
probabilistic approach, VIII, XI, 219, 88, 115
226 strain equivalence principle, 96, 106
strain rate, IX, 62, 68-70, 74, 75, 77, 78,
Ramberg-Osgood stress-plastic strain 81, 84, 91, 103, 104, 110, 121-123,
relations, 106 133
ratchetting, VIII, 28, 33, 35, 73, 103, strength energy of damage, 90, 91, 95,
108, 109, 111, 113, 18~ 204 98,211
Reissner equations, 140 strength function, 223
reliability stress relaxation, 62, 63, 103
function, 19, 20, 219 substitutive sandwich section, 177, 178
model, 218 superconducting magnet, VII, XI, 3, 8,
oriented optimisation, VIII, 20, 21, 18, 39, 66, 72, 119, 236, 238
31, 226, 231 superconductivity, VII, 3, 233, 236
Representative Volume Element (RVE), superconductor, 9, 10, 236, 237
85-87, 123, 175
residual tangent stiffness, 165
deformation, 61, 260 axial, 152, 157, 211
gas, 2, 238-240 elastic, 33
strain, 15 mean, 211
stress, 16 tensor, 126
viscosity, 8 tensile ductility, 103, 104, 108
root bulge, 139, 140, 250 thermal contraction, 1, 3, 11, 12, 242,
243,262
safety categories, XI, 219, 220 coefficient, 15, 41, 52, 55
secant stiffness, 35, 211 tensor, 12
axial, 151, 157, 252 thermal shielding, 3, 12
elasto-plastic, 33, 165 thermodynamic instability, 41, 55, 62,
serrated yielding, VII, 61, 62, 73-75, 77, 73
82-84, 93, 123 twinning, 57, 58
Index 291
two-fluid model, 5, 7 Weibull probability density function,

218,272
ultimate load mechanism, 187-189, 194 Winkler (elastic) foundation, 250, 264,
ultra-high vacuum, 233, 238, 241 265
uncoupled approach, VIII, IX, 115, 116,
211
yield
vacuum vessel, 2, 3, 32, 38, 237, 263, point, VIII, IX, 12, 13, 15, 61, 63, 65,
264 69, 78, 79, 125, 209, 270
volume fraction of martensite, X, 120, lower, 74
121, 123, 130, 131, 134, 175, 194, upper, 74
195 strength, 70-72, 175, 206
stress, 13, 15-18, 249
weakest link model, XI, 225 surface, 28, 78-80, 82, 83, 114, 124,
Weibull cumulative distribution, 272 130, 131

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Blazej T.

With 178 Figures

ISBN 978-3-642-06066-3 ISBN 978-3-662-06305-7 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2004107592

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2004

Typesetting: data delivered by author

The present monograph is mainly focused on the behaviour of ductile ma-

suitable for the temperature range of 2 K+77 K (superfiuid helium to liquid

Chapter 5 concentrates on the crucial issue of plastic strain induced

volutions under cyclic loads and internal pressure at cryogenic temperatures.

1 Introduction to the Compensation Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Thermodynamics of Processes Occurring in Metals at

3 Properties of Austenitic Stainless Steels at Cryogenic

4 Plastic Yielding and Evolution of Ductile Damage under

5 Strain Induced Martensitic Transformation at Low

6 Stability of Corrugated Axisymmetric Shells (Bellows) .... 137

7 Material and Fatigue Induced Structural Instabilities of

7.3 Plastic Strain Induced Damage Evolution and Martensitic

8 Reliability Oriented Optimum Design Of Cryogenic

9 Applications: Accelerators for High Energy Physics and

9.2.4 Simplified Numerical Analysis of the Nested Bellows ... 247

References . .................................................... 275

Index . ......................................................... 287

Introduction to the Compensation Systems

Large scale cryogenic systems applied in modern fusion reactors (Claudet

Fig. 1.1. Interconnections between magnets in the superconducting accelerator

1.1 Helium Cryogenics and its Applications

In order to cool a complex high field superconducting magnet or a cryogenic

transport properties of He 11 are excellent. The helium phase diagram - T

The A-transition starts at the temperature of 2.172 K under the pressure

Table 1.1. Properties of helium (pressure 0.1 MPa).

Temperature Density Viscosity Thermal

Table 1.2. Classification of phase transformations.

Phase transformations (Ehrenfest classification)

• Discontinuity of the first deriva- • Discontinuity of the second

volume (V) or entropy (S), re- • Latent heat doesn't exist.

It is worth pointing out that at very low temperatures (below 1 K) the

Fig. 1.4. Illustration of the I-order phase transformation SI) -# Sin.

9-< Stable state II

Fig. 1.5. Illustration of the II-order phase transformation as I I-I- as I

Fig. 1.6. Illustration of ~~ discontinuity across the A-transition for helium.

particularly useful since it is based on the assumption that He II is a mixture

Sn. Its counterpart (superfluid) is described by the density, however, both

The effective conductivity turns out to be a nonlinear function of diameter

heat transport properties of He II are limited by the existence of critical ve-

Fig. 1.8. Process of cooling by performing isothermal compression and isentropic

Fig. 1.9. Propagation of 'x-front in a narrow channel containing the superconduc-

The temperature range between Tf = 4.5 K in He I and Tb = 1.9 K in He 11

where P, Cp denote density and specific heat of He I, k is the conductivity of

There exist two boundary conditions for this equation:

• temperature and its slope at the far end of the He I region:

These two conditions permit the unknown function f (x - et) to be elimi-

(pcpA)I HeI cTA + (kA)lcu a(xaT

where K denotes the thermal conductivity in He 11, X A stands for the A-

where the turbulent heat transport equation for He 11 is written in the

Finally, a typical average speed of A-front propagation in the narrow chan-

1.2 Compensation Systems Containing Bellows

0 100 200 300

Fig. 1.10. Thermal contraction of chosen materials as a function of temperature.

A fundamental role in the cryogenic structures is played by the so-called

phenomenon of thermal contraction and expansion of materials. Nearly all the

Eth = a(T)dT, (1.16)

The 0.2% yield stress as a function of temperature is plotted in Fig. 1.13.