Circuit Laws

and
Circuit Analysis

1
 Current and Charge
• An electric current is a flow of electric charge
I  dQ
dt

• At an atomic level a current is a flow of electrons

– each electron has a charge of 1.6  10-19 coulombs
– conventional current flows in the opposite direction
• Rearranging above expression gives

Q   Idt
• For constant current

Q  I t
2
 Voltage Sources
• A voltage source produces an electromotive force (e.m.f.) which
causes a current to flow within a circuit
– unit of e.m.f. is the volt
– a volt is the potential difference between two points when a
joule of energy is used to move one coulomb of charge from
one point to the other
• Real voltage sources, such as batteries have resistance associated
with them
– in analysing circuits we use ideal voltage sources
– we also use controlled or dependent voltage sources

3
 Voltage Sources
• Voltage sources

4
 Current Sources

• We also sometimes use the concept of

an ideal current source
– unrealizable, but useful in circuit analysis
– can be a fixed current source, or a controlled or
dependent current source
– while an ideal voltage source has zero output
resistance, an ideal current source has infinite output
resistance

5
 Ohm’s Law
• Defines the relationship between voltage, current, and
resistance in an electric circuit
• Ohm’s Law: It states that
Current in a resistor varies in direct proportion to the
voltage applied to it and is inversely proportional to the
resistor’s value.
• Stated mathematically: + V -
V
I I R
R
Where: I is the current (amperes)
V is the potential difference (volts)
R is the resistance (ohms)
6
 Ohm’s Law Triangle

V V
I (amperes, A )
I R R

V V
I R
R (ohms, )
I

V
V  I R ( volts, V )
I R

7
 Example: Ohm’s Law

Example: The flashlight shown uses a 6 volt battery and

has a bulb with a resistance of 150 . When the flashlight
is on, how much current will be drawn from the battery?

Solution:
Schematic Diagram
IR V
+
I R
VT = VR-

VR 6V
IR    0.04 A  40 mA
R 150 
8
 Kirchhoff’s Laws
• Node
– a point in a circuit where two or more circuit components are
joined
• Loop
– any closed path that passes through no node more than once
• Mesh
– a loop that contains no other loop

• Examples
– A, B, C, D, E and F are nodes
– the paths ABEFA, BCDEB
and ABCDEFA are loops
– ABEFA and BCDEB are meshes
9
 Current Law

• At any instant, the algebraic sum of all the currents

flowing into any node in a circuit is zero
• If currents flowing into the node are positive, currents
flowing out of the node are negative, then  I  0

10
 Fundamental law for charge

• Current has to flow in closed loop

• No current flows if there is a break in the path
• Underlying physical law: Charge cannot be created or
destroyed
• This is the basis of Kirchhoff’s Current Law

i1 Kirchhoff’s current law

i2 i4 Sum of currents at a node must equal to zero:
i1 + i2 + i 3 + i4 = 0
i3
11
 Voltage Law
• At any instant the algebraic sum of all the voltages
around any loop in a circuit is zero
• if clockwise voltage arrows are positive and anticlockwise
arrows are negative then V  0

12
 Fundamental law on voltage
• Energy is required to push electrons through a resistive element
• That same energy needs to be generated by a source
• Total energy generated in a circuit must equal total energy consumed
in the circuit
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed
• Therefore, voltage rise = voltage drop
- V3 +

Kirchhoff’s voltage law

+
- Net voltage around a closed
V2 circuit is zero:
V4
- + V1 -
+ v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 = 0
13
 Series Circuits
Characteristics of a series circuit
• The current flowing through every series component is equal.
• The total resistance (RT) is equal to the sum of all of the
resistances (i.e., R1 + R2 + R3).
• The sum of all of the voltage drops (VR1 + VR2 + VR2) is equal
to the total applied voltage (VT). This is called Kirchhoff’s
Voltage Law. I +
V R1
-
T

+ IR1 +
VT IR2 VR2
- IR3 -

- +
RT
VR3
14
 Series network (Highlights)
+
R V1
1 - +
Vs RS
+ -
+ R V2
Vs -
2 -

+ Equivalent Resistance
RN VN
- RS = R1 + R2 + …+ RN

Voltage divider rule

VN = VS(RN/RS)

15
 Resistive Potential Dividers
• General case

16
Example

R2
V  V2  (V1  V2 )
R1  R2
R2
 10
R1  R2
300
 10
200  300
 6V

17
Example

R2
V  V2  (V1  V2 )
R1  R2
500
 3  12
1000  500
 34
 7V

18
 Example
Example: For the series circuit shown, use the laws of circuit theory
to calculate the following:
1. The total resistance (RT)
2. The current flowing through each component (IT, IR1, IR2, & IR3)
3. The voltage across each component (VT, VR1, VR2, & VR3)

VR1
IT + -

+ IR1 +
VT IR2 VR2
- IR3 -

- +
RT
VR3
19
 Solution

Total Resistance:
R T  R1  R2  R3
R T  220   470   1.2 k
R T  1890   1.89 k

Current Through Each Component:

VT
IT  (Ohm' s Law)
RT
12 v V
IT   6.349 mAmp
1.89 k
I R

Since this is a series circuit :

I T  I R1  I R2  I R3  6.349 mA 20
Voltage Across Each Component:
VR1  IR1  R1  (Ohm' s Law)
VR1  6.349 mA  220 Ω  1.397 volts

VR2  IR2  R2 (Ohm' s Law)

VR2  6.349 mA  470 Ω  2.984 volts

V
VR3  IR3  R3 (Ohm' s Law)
I R
VR3  6.349 mA  1.2 K Ω  7.619 volts
21
 Parallel Circuits
Characteristics of a Parallel Circuit
• The voltage across every parallel component is equal.
• The total resistance (RT) is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the
reciprocal:

1 1 1 1 1
   RT 
R T R1 R 2 R 3 1 1 1
 
R1 R 2 R 3
• The sum of all of the currents in each branch (IR1 + IR2 + IR3) is equal to the
total current (IT). This is called Kirchhoff’s Current Law.

IT

+ + +
+
VT VR1 VR2 VR3
- - - -

RT 22
 Parallel network (Highlights)

I1 I2 IN
Is R1 R2 RN Is RP

Equivalent Resistance
1/RP = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + …+ 1/RN

Current divider rule

1 RN
IN  IS
1 RP
23
Example: For the parallel circuit shown, use the laws of circuit
theory to calculate the following:
• The total resistance (RT)
• The voltage across each component (VT, VR1, VR2, & VR3)
• The current flowing through each component (IT, IR1, IR2,
& IR3)
IT

IR1 IR2 IR3

+ + + +

VT VR1 VR2 VR3

- - - -

24
RT
24
Total Resistance:
1
RT 
1 1 1
 
R1 R 2 R 3
1
RT 
1 1 1
 
470  2.2 k 3.3 k
R T  346 .59 

Voltage Across Each Component:

Since this is a parallel circuit :

VT  VR1  VR2  VR3  15 volts
25
Current Through Each Component:

VR1
IR1  (Ohm' s Law)
R1
V 15 v
IR1  R1   31.915 mAmps
R1 470 

VR2 15 v
IR2    6.818 mAmps
R2 2.2 k 

VR3 15 v
IR3    4.545 mAmp
R3 3.3 k 

VT 15 v V
IT    43.278 mAmp
RT 346.59 

I R

26
Verify Kirchhoff’s Current Law
I T  I R1  I R2  I R3
43.278 mAmps  31.915 mA  6.818 mA  4.545 mA
43.278 mAmps  43.278 mAmps

27
 Equivalent Circuits

How do we find I1 and I2?

Equivalent Resistance
I1 + I2 = I
+ V R2
I1 I2 I1  I
I R1 R1  R 2
R1 R2 V V R1
I2  I
R2 R1  R2
-

1 R1 R2 R1 R2
V I I Req 
1 1 R1  R2 R1  R2

R1 R2 V V
I 
Req R1 R2
R1  R2 28
 Equivalent Resistance

i(t)
i(t)
+
+
v(t)
Req
v(t)
-
-

Req is equivalent to the resistor network on the left in the

sense that they have the same i-v characteristics.

29
Condition : without knowing V&I. We only know Rs
Method 1 Series and Parallel Resistance (source-free)
n n
1 1
R ＝
n
Reqs  k G   Gk
K 1
R eqp k 1 R k
k 1

Condition : without knowing Rs. We only know V&I

a I

Method 2 source
-free V R o  R ab  V
I
b

Method 3  

V source Voc source ISC

Ro  oc
I sc  
30
 Equivalent Resistance
Equivalent Resistance
In practice , Vs-source voltage, VL- Load Voltage

RL  Vs  I L R

Let Vs  10V;R  0.1

The IL-VL came :
IL(A)
VL  0, RL  0 , Short Circuit (SC). VOC  10V
100
VL  0, RL   , Open Circuit (OC). I SC  100A
V
RO  OC  0.1
0 10 VL(V) I SC
31
Equivalent Resistance

a
R2
R3
R1 How to find Rab?
+
VS
-  b

R1  R2 R3
Method 1 Ro  Rab  R1  R2  // R3 
R1  R2  R3
V V R R R
I a I   1 2 3V
R3 R1  R2 R1  R2 R3

Method 2 R2
R3
R1

V R1  R2 R3
V

Ro  Rab  

b I R1  R2  R3

Method 3
VS R1  R2 Voc
VoC   R3  VS  VS I  V / R Ro 
R1  R2  R3 R1  R2  R3 sc s 3 I sc 32
 Source Transformation

• Ideally:
– An ideal current source has the voltage necessary to
provide its rated current
– An ideal voltage source supplies the current necessary to
provide its rated voltage
• Practice:
– A real voltage source cannot supply arbitrarily large
amounts of current
– A real current source cannot have an arbitrarily large
terminal voltage

33
 Source Transformation

Rs

+
Vs Is Rs
-

Vs
Vs  Rs I s Is 
Rs

Consistency between the current source ref. direction and

the voltage Source ref. terminals.

34
 Equivalent Source

How to find I1 and I2?

V R2
+ I1    I s1  I s 2 
I1 I2 R1 R1  R2
Is1 Is2 V R1
R1 R2 V I2    I s1  I s 2 
R2 R1  R2
- I1  I 2  I s1  I s 2
V V 1 1
I s1  I s 2    V   
R1 R2  R1 R2 

V   I s1  I s 2 
R1 R 2
Ieq R1  R 2

35
 Equivalent Source

Series Voltage Source

n
+ VS1 - + VS2 - + VSn - + VS - VS  VSk
k 1
 
  n
R S   R Sk
k 1

Parallel Current Source


I

RS=RS1// RS2//…// RSn
IS1 IS2 ISn
IS
n
  I S   I Sk
k 1

36
 Basic Nodal and Mesh Analysis
• Why?
– The analysis techniques previously (voltage divider,
equivalent resistance, etc.) are an intuitive approach to
analyzing circuits
– They are not systematic and cannot be easily automated
by a computer

• Comments:
– Analysis of circuits using node or loop analysis requires
solutions of systems of linear equations.
– These equations can usually be written by inspection of
the circuit.

37
 Branch Analysis
Branch Analysis
2  0.4 I 2
How to find I1 and I2, I3? KVL I1   4  0.8 I 2
0.5
R3=80
Mesh 1: 14  0.5I1  0.4 I 2  12  0
I3
I2
R1=0.5 I1
R2=0.4
Mesh 2: 12  0.4 I 2  80 I3  0
+ 12  0.4 I 2
I3   0.15  0.005 I 2
VS=14V E2=12V 80
_
4  0.8I 2  I 2  0.15  0.005

I 2  2.13A I1  2.29A I 3  0.16A

KCL I1  I 2  I 3
V  E2  I 2 R2 2  0.4 I 2 E  I R 12  0.4 I 2
I1  s  I3  2 2 2 
R1 0.5 R3 80
2  0.4 I 2 12  0.4 I 2
 I2  I 2  2.14A I1  2.29A I 3  0.14A 38
0.5 80
 Branch Analysis

Suppose m branches, n nodals

write KCL equation for each independent node.

(n-1) KCL equations
write KVL equation for each independent mesh/loop
m-(n-1) KVL equations

39
 Nodal Analysis

• Six steps:
1. Chose one node as the reference node
2. Label remaining nodes V1, V2, etc.
3. Label any known voltages
4. Apply Kirchhoff’s current law to each unknown node
5. Solve simultaneous equations to determine voltages
6. If necessary calculate required currents

40
 Nodal Analysis

1) Choose a reference node

500 500

I1 V 1k 500 I2
500
-

The reference node is called the ground node.

41
 Nodal Analysis

1) Choose a reference node

Ⅰ I
500 Ⅱ
500
4
I7 Ⅲ
I5 + I6 I8
I1 V 1k 500 I2
500
-
0
KCL
Ⅰ:

Ⅱ:

Ⅲ: 42
 Nodal Analysis

2) Assign node voltages to the other nodes

V1 I 500 V2 500
4
I7 V3
I5 I6 I8
1 2 3
I1 1k 500 I2
500
0

V1, V2, and V3 are unknowns for which we solve using KCL.

43
 Nodal Analysis
3) Apply KCL to each node other than the reference-express
currents in terms of node voltages.

V1 I4 500 V2 500 I7 V3

1 I5 2
I6 I8 3
I1 1k 500 I2
500
0
KCL
• Node 1: I 4  I 5  I1  0
V1  V2 V
• Node 2: I 6  I 4  I 7  0 Node 1:  I1   1 0
• Node 3: I 8  I 7  I 2  0 500 500
V1  V2
V3  V2 V3
I4 
V
, I5  1 , Node 2:   I2  0
500 500 500 500
V2 V V V V2  V1 V2 V2  V3
I6  , I 7  3 2 , I8  3 Node 3:   0
1K 500 500 500 1k 500 44
 Nodal Analysis
4) Solve the resulting system of linear equations
 1 1  V2 V1 500 V2 500 V3
• Node 1: V1     I1
 500 500  500
I1 1 2 3
V1  1 1 1  V3
  V2     0 1k I2
• Node 2: 500  500 1k  500  500 500 500

V2  1 1 
• Node 3:   V3     I2
500  500 500 

0
• The left hand side of the equation:
– The node voltage is multiplied by the sum of conductances of all resistors
connected to the node.
– The neighbourly node voltages are multiplied by the conductance of the
resistor(s) connecting to the two nodes and to be subtracted.
• The right hand side of the equation:
– The right side of the equation is the sum of currents from sources entering
45
the node.
 Nodal Analysis

4) Solve the resulting system of linear equations.

 1 1  V2
• Node 1: V1     I1 V1 500 V2 500 V3
 500 500  500
I1 1 2 3
V  1 1 1  V3
 1  V2     0 1k I2
• Node 2: 500  500 1k 500  500 500 500


V2  1 1 
• Node 3:   V3     I2
500  500 500 

G11V1+G12V2 +G13V3 =I11

G21V2+G22V2 +G23V3 =I22
G31V1+G32V2+G33V3=I33

46
 Nodal Analysis
4) Solve the resulting system of linear equations.

V1 500 V 500 V3
• Node 1:  1 1  V2
V1     I1 2
 500 500  500 I1 1 2 3
V1  1 1 1  V3 500 1k 500 I2
• Node 2:   V2     0 
500  500 1k  500  500 

V2  1 1 
• Node 3:   V3     I2
500  500 500 

Matrix Notation(Symmetric)
 1 1 1 

 500 500  0  V
500
 1   1 
I

 V2    0 
1 1 1 1 1
    
 500 500 1k 500 500     
 1 1 1  V3   I 2 
 0  
500 500 500  47
 Nodal Analysis
Example:
What if there are dependent sources?
Ib
V1 V2 +
50 1k
5mA 1 1k 2 Vo
100Ib
-

Node ①： V1  V1  V2  5mA Node ② ：V2  V1  100I b  V2  0 V1  V2

1k 50 50 1k
Ib 
50
V2  V1 V V V
 100 1 2  2  0
50 50 1k
 1 1 1 

 1k 50   V1  5mA
50 
 1 100 1 100 1  V2   0 
    
 50 50 50 50 1k 

Matrix is not symmetric due to the dependent source. 48

 Nodal Analysis
What if there are voltage sources?

0.7V
R1 Ib V2 V3 R3 V4
+ -
1 3 +
1k 2 50 4
+ Vo
3k 100Ib R4
V1 -
R2 1k -

Node 2: V2  V1 V2
  I b  0 Difficulty: We do not know I – the current
1k 3k b
through the voltage source?
Node 3: V3  V4
 Ib  0
50 Node 4: V3  V4  V4  100I b  0
50 1k
Independent Voltage Source:V3  V2  0.7V
Equations: KCL at node 2, node 3, node 4, and V3  V2  0.7V
Unknowns: Ib, V2, V3,V4 49
 Nodal Analysis

What if there are voltage sources?

CURRENT
CONTROLLED
Io=?
VOLTAGE SOURCE

V2  V1  2kI x
V
 V1  2kI x  V2  2V1 I  x
1

2k
V1
KCL AT SUPERNODE  4mA   2mA  I O  0
2k
V1  V2  4(V )  3V2  8(V )
V2 4
 IO   mA
2k 3 50
 Nodal Analysis

Advantages of Nodal Analysis

• Solves directly for node voltages.
• Current sources are easy.
• Voltage sources are either very easy or somewhat difficult.
• Works best for circuits with few nodes.
• Works for any circuit.

51
 Mesh Analysis
• Four steps:
1. Identify the meshes and assign a clockwise-flowing current
to each. Label these I1, I2, etc.
2. Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law to each mesh
3. Solve the simultaneous equations to determine the currents
I1, I2, etc.
4. Use these values to obtain voltages if required

52
 Mesh(Loop) Analysis

1) Identifying the Meshes

1k 1k

+ +
V1 V2
- Mesh 1 Mesh 2 -
1k

Mesh: A special kind of loop that doesn’t contain any loops within it.

53
 Mesh(Loop) Analysis

2) Assigning Mesh Currents

1k 1k

+ 1k +
I1 I2 V2
V1 - -

3) Apply KVL around each loop to get an equation in terms of

the loop currents.

For Mesh 1:-V1 + I1 1k + (I1 - I2) 1k = 0 I1 ( 1k + 1k) - I2 1k = V1
For Mesh 2: (I2 - I1) 1k + I2 1k + V2 = 0 - I1 1k + I2 ( 1k + 1k) = -V2
54
 Mesh(Loop) Analysis
3) Apply KVL around each loop to get an equation in terms
of the loop currents.
1k 1k

I1 ( 1k + 1k) - I2 1k = V1 1k

V1 + +
- I1 1k + I2 ( 1k + 1k) = -V2 I1 I2 V2
- -

4) Solve the resulting system of linear equations.

1k  1k  1k   I1   V1 

  1k     
 1k  1k I 
 2   2  V

55
 I1
R1 _ VS1 +

I2
Im1 Mesh 1
Mesh 1: I m1R1  VS1  I m1  I m3 R6  VS 2  I m1  I m 2 R2  0
R2 R6 Mesh 2: I m 2 R3  VS 3  I m 2  I m3 R5  VS 2  I m1  I m 2 R2  0
  
I3 +
_
I6 Mesh 3: I m 2  I m3 R5  I m3  I m1 R6  I m3 R4  VS 4  0
VS2 Mesh 3
R3 Mesh 2 R5 Im3
R4
Im2
I5 I4
_  _
+ +
VS3 VS4 ( R1  R2  R6 ) I m1  R2 I m 2  R6 I m 3  VS 1  VS 2
R2 I m1  ( R2  R3  R5 ) I m 2  R5 I m 3  VS 2  VS 3
R11 I m1  R12 I m 2  R13 I m 3  VS 11
 R6 I m1  R5 I m 2  ( R4  R5  R6 ) I m 3  VS 4
R21 I m1  R22 I m 2  R23 I m 3  VS 22
R31 I m1  R32 I m 2  R33 I m 3  VS 33  R1  R2  R6 R2  R6   I m1  VS1  VS 2 
 R2 R2  R3  R5 R5   I   V  V 
   m2   S 2 S 3 
  R6 R5 R4  R5  R6   I m3   VS 4 

56
 Mesh (Loop) Analysis
R3=80

R11I m1  R12 I m 2  R13 I m3  VS11

R1=0.5
R2=0.4 R21I m1  R22 I m 2  R23 I m3  VS 22
Im1 Im2 R31I m1  R32 I m 2  R33 I m3  VS 33
+
VS=14V E2=12V
_

Mesh 1: VS  I m1R1   I m1  I m 2  R2  12  0

 R1  R2  I m1  R2 I m2  VS  12  R1  R2  R2   I m1  VS  12

 R     
 2 R R3   m2  
I 12 2 
12   I m 2  I m1  R2  I m 2 R3  0
2
Mesh 2:

 I m1 R2   R2  R3  I m 2  12
57
 Mesh (Loop) Analysis
What if there are current sources?
• The current sources in this circuit will have whatever voltage is
necessary to make the current correct.
• We can’t use
 
KVL around the loop because we don’t know the
R 1 R1
I1  
voltage.
U S _
Mesh 1
I1 I=? 1 2
Im2
I1 R1
I1 I20
1 I1 I1 50
R1 + +  
I1 3 Super
2A 
+ I 7V
_ V Mesh:
7  I m 2  2  I m 3 1  0
40V Im1 Im2 Im1 -  2A Mesh 2
_ 30
Im3 Mesh 2:
1 I m1  I m3  2
40  I m1  20   I m1  I m 2   30  0 2
Super Mesh
I m 2  2A I m1 =  Mesh 1:
I  I m1  I m 2  I m2  I m1  1  I m2  2   I m2  I m3   3  0

58
 What if there are current sources?

2k

The Supermesh
surrounds this The Supe rmesh
2mA I3
source! does not include
1k
this source!

+ 2k
12V I1 I2 4mA
-
I0

59
 What if there are current sources?
2k
• The 4mA current source
2mA I3
1k sets I2:
I2 = -4mA
+ 2k
12V I I 4mA • The 2mA current source
- 1 2
I0 sets a constraint on I1 and
I3= I1 - I3 = 2mA
12  2k  I 3  1k  I 3  I 2   2k  I1  I 2   0 • We have two equations
I1  2k  I 2 1k  2k   I 3 1k  2k   12V and three unknowns.
I 2  4mA ; I 3  0.8mA ; I1  1.2mA • Where is the third
equation?
60
 What if there are current sources?


P2.6 Mesh 1:
-7V+  I m1  I m 2  1   I m3  I m 2   3  I m3 1  0
1 2
Im2

+ +   Mesh 2: -7V+I m 2  2  I m 3 1  0

3
7V
V Node 3: I m1  I m 3  2A
_
Im1 -  2A
Mesh 1
Im3
1
2
Node 3


Mesh 2

61
Dependent current source.
• Current sources not shared by
meshes.
• We treat the dependent source as
a conventional source.
• Equations for meshes with current
sources
To find Vo, need to solve for I3 .
Replace and rearrange
Then KVL on the remaining loop(s)
Vx  2kI1 
  I1  2 I 2  4mA
Vx  4k ( I1  I 2 ) 
11
And express the controlling variable, 8kI3  3  2kI 2  I 3  mA
8
Vx, in terms of loop currents
33
VO  6kI3  [V ]
4
62
 Advantages of Loop Analysis
• Solves directly for some currents.
• Voltage sources are easy.
• Current sources are either very easy or somewhat difficult.
• Works best for circuits with few loops.

Disadvantages of Loop Analysis

• Some currents must be computed from loop currents.
• Choosing the super mesh may be difficult.

63
 Linearity
• A mathematical property of circuits that makes very
powerful analysis techniques possible.
• Linearity leads to many useful properties of circuits:
– Superposition: the effect of each source can be
considered separately.
– Equivalent circuits: Any linear network can be
represented by an equivalent source and resistance
(Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems)

64
 Linearity
• Linearity leads to simple solutions:
– Nodal analysis for linear circuits results in systems of
linear equations that can be solved by matrices
V1 500 V2 500 V3

1 2 3
I1 1k 500 I2
500

 1 1 1 

 500 500  0  V   I 
500
 1 1 1 1 1  1   1 
      V2  0
 500 500 1k 500 500     
 1 1 1  V3   I 2 
0  
 500 500 500 
65
 Superposition Theorem
Superposition is a direct consequence of linearity
It states that “in any linear circuit containing multiple
independent sources, the current or voltage at any point in the
circuit may be calculated as the algebraic sum of the individual
contributions of each source acting alone.”
  R1 R1
_ 
R3=80

1 I1 I1
R1
R1=0.5
I2
R1
I R2=0.4

+
IS 
VS=14V E2=12V
_

I2 
R3
VS 
R1  R3  E2
R1R2  R1R3  R2 R3 R1R2  R2 R3  R1R3
   
I 2 I 2
66
 Superposition Theorem
How to Apply Superposition?
• To find the contribution due to an individual independent
source, zero out the other independent sources in the circuit.
 Voltage source  short circuit.
 Current source  open circuit.
• Solve the resulting circuit using your favorite techniques.
 Nodal analysis
 Loop analysis

67
 Superposition Principle

Because the circuit is linear we can find the response of the

circuit to each source acting alone, and then add them up to find
the response of the circuit to all sources acting together. This is
known as the superposition principle.

The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or

the current through) an element in a linear circuit is the
algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that
element due to each independent source acting alone.

68
 Turning sources off
Current source:

a
We replace it by a current source
i  is where
is is  0

b An open-circuit

Voltage source:

+ We replace it by a voltage i
source where
vs  0
DC
vs v  vs
-
An short-circuit
69
 Steps in Applying the Superposition
Principle
1. Turn off all independent sources except one. Find the
output (voltage or current) due to the active source.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total output by adding algebraically all of the
results found in steps 1 & 2 above.

In some cases, but certainly not all, superposition can simplify

the analysis.

70
 Example: In the circuit below, find
the current i by superposition
 24V

DC

Turn off the two voltage sources (replace

 
by short circuits).
DC
12V

3A

i

 v1 
v2
12V

3A

i1

71
1 4  1 3  1 4 1 4   v1   0 
     
 1 4 1 4  1 8   v2   3 

5 1
v1  v2  0
6 4
 v1  1 3
v2
 v1  v2  3
12V 4 8

3A
10
v2  v1  10 2 
i1 v1     3
3  8 8
v1  3
i1  1 72
 Example: In the circuit below, find the
current i by superposition
 24V

DC

  Turn off the 24V & 3A sources:

DC
12V

3A

i

i1
 

DC
12V
i2 
O.C.

i2
73
 


  

O.C.
DC
12V
DC 
12V

O.C. i2
i2
12  4
3
16


12
i2  2
DC
12V

O.C.
6
i2
74
 Example: In the circuit below, find the
current i by superposition
 24V

DC

  Turn off the 3A & 12V sources:

DC
12V

3A
 24V
i
DC

i2
 

i3 
O.C.

i3

75
 48 4 4   i2   24 
 i    
 4 4  3  3   0 
 24V
16i2  4i3  24
DC

i2
 
4i2  7i3  0

i3 
O.C. 7
i3
i2  i3 i3  28  4   24
4
i3  1
76
  24V

DC

 
i  i1  i2  i3  1A  2A  1A  2A
DC
12V

3A

   24V

DC

i1 i2
 v1     
v2
12V

DC
12V
 i3 
3A i2 O.C. O.C.
i1 i2 i3

i1  1 i2  2 i3  1 77
 Superposition Theorem

R1 R2
15 V 100  20  13 V
V1 10  R3 V2

R1 R2

15 V 100  20 
V2 shorted
V1 10  R3

REQ = 106.7 , IT = 0.141 A and IR3 = 0.094 A

78
 Superposition Theorem

R1 R2
15 V 100  20  13 V
V1 10  R3 V2

R1 R2
100  20  13 V
V1 shorted V2
10  R3

REQ = 29.09 , IT = 0.447 A and IR3 = 0.406 A 79

 Superposition Theorem
R1 R2

15 V 100  20  13 V
V1 V2

0.094 A 0.406 A

With V2 shorted
REQ = 106.7 W, IT = 0.141 A and IR3 = 0.094 A
With V1 shorted
REQ = 29.09 W, IT = 0.447 A and IR3 = 0.406 A

Adding the currents gives IR3 = 0.5 A

80
 Superposition Theorem

4mA 12V
2k
- +

2mA 1k 2k

I0

81
 Superposition Theorem

I 0    I 2  I1 
2k I1  2mA
KVL for mesh 2:
I1 1k I2 2k
 I 2  I1  1k  I 2  2k  0
I’o Mesh 2
2mA 1 2
I 2  I1   mA
3 3
 2 
I 0    I 2  I1       2 
 3 
4
  mA
3
82
 Superposition Theorem

4mA
I 0   I 2
I1
2k
KVL for mesh 2:

I2
I 2 1k  I 2  I1   0  I 2  2k  0
1k 2k
Mesh 2
I’’0
I2  0
I o  0

83
 Superposition Theorem

I o   I 2
12V
2k
- + KVL for mesh 2:

1k 2k I 2 1k  12V  I 2  2k  0

Mesh 2
I2 12
I’’’0 I2   4mA
1k  2k
I o  4mA

84
 Superposition Theorem

12V
2k 4mA

- +

2mA 1k 2k

I0

I0 = I’0 +I’’0+ I’’’0 = -16/3 mA

85
 Thevenin’s Theorem
• As far as its appearance from outside is concerned, any two
terminal network of resistors and energy sources can be
replaced by a series combination of an ideal voltage source
V and a resistor R,
• where V is the open-circuit voltage of the network and R is
the voltage that would be measured between the output
terminals
• If the energy sources were removed and replaced by their
internal resistance.

86
 Thevenin’s Theorem
• Any circuit with sources (dependent and/or independent) and
resistors can be replaced by an equivalent circuit containing a
single voltage source and a single resistor

• Thevenin’s theorem implies that we can replace arbitrarily

complicated networks with simple networks for purposes of
analysis
• Determining Thevenin Resistance and Voltage
-RTH is determined by shorting the voltage source and
calculating the circuit’s total resistance as seen from open
terminals A and B.
- VTH is determined by calculating the voltage between open
terminals A and B.

87
 Thevenin’s Theorem

Independent Sources RTh

+
Voc
-

Circuit with independent sources Thevenin equivalent circuit

88
 Thevenin’s Theorem

No Independent Sources

RTh

Circuit without independent sources Thevenin equivalent circuit

89
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM
Consider the following:

A
Network • Network
1 B 2
•
Coupled networks.
For purposes of discussion, at this point, we consider
that both networks are composed of resistors and
independent voltage and current sources

90
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM
Suppose Network 2 is detached from Network 1 and we focus
temporarily only on Network 1. •
Network A
1
• B

Network 1, open-circuited.
• Network 1 can be as complicated in structure as one can
imagine. Maybe W meshes, X resistors, Y voltage sources and
Z current sources.
•Now place a voltmeter across terminals A-B and read the
voltage. We call this the open-circuit voltage. It is either
positive at A, (with respect to B) or negative at A.
•We call this voltage Vos and we also call it VTHEVENIN = VTH

91
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM
Consider the following circuit.

I2
V3
_+ A
R1 R3
R2
R4
_+ V1 _ I1
V2 +
B

A typical circuit with independent sources

How do we deactivate the sources of this circuit?

92
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM
When the sources are deactivated the circuit appears
as in Figure

A
R1 R3
R2 R4

B
Circuit with sources deactivated

Now place an ohmmeter across A-B and read the resistance.

If R1= R2 = R4= 20  and R3=10  then the meter reads 10 .
93
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM
We call the ohmmeter reading, under these conditions, RTHEVENIN
and shorten this to RTH. Therefore, the important results are that
we can replace Network 1 with the following network.
A

RTH
+
_ VTH

B


The Thevenin equivalent structure.

94
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM
We can now tie (reconnect) Network 2 back to terminals A-B.

A

RTH
+ Network
_ VTH
2


B
System of Figure with Network 1 replaced by the Thevenin equivalent circuit.

We can now make any calculations we desire within Network 2 and

they will give the same results as if we still had Network 1
connected.
95
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM
It follows that we could also replace Network 2 with a Thevenin
voltage and Thevenin resistance.

A

RTH 1 RTH 2
+
_ VTH 1 VTH 2 _+


B
The network system replaced by Thevenin voltages and resistances.

9 96
 Example

Find VX by first finding VTH and RTH to the left of A-B.

12  4 A

+

30 V +
_ 6 2 VX
_

B

First remove everything to the right of A-B.

97
 continued
12  4 A


30 V +
_ 6


B
(30)(6)
VAB   10V
6  12

Notice that there is no current flowing in the 4  resistor

(A-B) is open. Thus there can be no voltage across the
resistor. 98
 continued
We now deactivate the sources to the left of A-B and find
the resistance seen looking in these terminals.
12  4 A


RTH
6


B

We see,
RTH = 12||6 + 4 = 8 
99
 continued
After having found the Thevenin circuit, we connect this
to the load in order to find VX.
RTH A

8 +
+
VTH _ 10 V 2 VX
_
B

(10)( 2)
VX   2V
28 100
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM
In some cases it may become tedious to find RTH by reducing
the resistive network with the sources deactivated. Consider
the following: RTH A


VTH + ISS
_

B


We see; Thevenin circuit with the output shorted.

VTH
RTH  Eq.1
I SS 101
 Example
For the circuit , find RTH by using Eq 1.

12  C 4 A
 

30 V +
_ 6 ISS

 
D B

The task now is to find ISS. One way to do this is to replace

the circuit to the left of C-D with a Thevenin voltage and
Thevenin resistance. 102
 continued
Applying Thevenin’s theorem to the left of terminals C-D
and reconnecting to the load gives,

4 C 4 A
 

10 V +
_ ISS

 
D B

VTH 10
RTH    8
I SS 10
8 103
 Example
For the circuit below, find VAB by first finding the Thevenin
circuit to the left of terminals A-B.
1.5 A

5
 A
10 

20 V _+ 20  17 


We first find VTH with the 17  resistor removed.
Next we find RTH by looking into terminals A-B with
the sources deactivated. 104
 continued
1.5 A

5
 A
10 

20 V _+ 20 


20(20)
VOS  VAB  VTH  (1.5)(10) 
(20  5)
 VTH  31V
105
 continued

5
 A
10 

20 


5(20)
RTH  10   14 
(5  20)
106
 continued
RTH A

14  +
+
VTH _ 31 V 17  VAB
_
B

We can easily find that,

VAB  17V
107
 Example
Find the voltage across the 100  load resistor by
first finding the Thevenin circuit to the left of
terminals A-B.
IS A

50  40 
30 
_+ 86 V
100 

6 IS
B
 108
 continued
First remove the 100  load resistor and find VAB = VTH to
the left of terminals A-B.
IS A

50  40 
30 
_+ 86 V

6 IS
B

 86  80 I S  6 I S  0  I S  1 A
VAB  6 I S  30 I S   36V 109
 continued
To find RTH we deactivate all independent sources but
retain all dependent sources as shown in Fig.
IS A

50  40 
30  RTH

6 IS
B

We cannot find RTH of the above circuit, as it stands. We must
apply either a voltage or current source at the load and
calculate the ratio of this voltage to current to find RTH.
110
 continued
IS 1A

50  40 
30 
IS + 1 V 1A
6 IS

Around the loop at the left we write the following equation:

50 I S  30( I S  1)  6 I S  0
From which 15
IS  A
43 111
 continued
IS 1A

50  40 
30 
IS + 1 V 1A=I
6 IS

Using the outer loop, going in the cw direction, using drops;

 15  or V  57.4 volts

50    1(40)  V  0
 43 
V V
RTH    57.4 
I 1
112
 continued
The Thevenin equivalent circuit tied to the 100  load
resistor is shown below.
RTH

57.4 

VTH +_ 36 V 100 

36 x100
V100   22.9 V
57.4  100 113
 Example
Finding the Thevenin circuit when only resistors and dependent
sources are present. Consider the circuit below. Find Vxy
by first finding the Thevenin circuit to the left of x-y.
10Ix
x

20  50 

50  60  100 V +
_

IX


y

For this circuit, it would probably be easier to use mesh or

nodal analysis to find Vxy. However, the purpose is to
illustrate Thevenin’s theorem. 114
 continued
We first reconcile that the Thevenin voltage for this circuit
must be zero. There is no “juice” in the circuit so there cannot
be any open circuit voltage except zero. This is always true
when the circuit is made up of only dependent sources and
resistors.
To find RTH we apply a 1 A source and determine V for
the circuit below.
10IX

20  20 
1A
50  60 
V

1 - IX IX

115
 continued
10IX

20  20 
1A
50  60 
V

1 - IX IX
m

Write KVL around the loop at the left, starting at “m”, going
cw, using drops:

 50(1  I X )  10I X  20(1  I X )  60I X  0

I X  0.5 A
116
 continued
10IX

20  20 
1A
50  60 
V

1 - IX IX
m
n

We write KVL for the loop to the right, starting at n, using

drops and find;

 60(0.5)  1 x 20  V  0
or
V  50 volts
117
 continued
V
We know that, RTH  , where V = 50 and I = 1.
I
Thus, RTH = 50 . The Thevenin circuit tied to the
load is given below.
x

50 

50  _+ 100 V


y

Obviously, VXY = 50 V
118
 Find current through 2Ω resistor
using Thevenin theorem.
4 5
I 2  ?

9V 4 2

6

4 5

9V
9V 4 voc VS  VOC   4  2.571V
4  4  6
6

119
 Thevenin equivalent

Thevenin equivalent
7.857
I 2

2.571V
2 I 2   260.8mA
2.521V
7.857  2
120
 Norton’s theorem
• Very similar to Thevenin’s theorem
• Any circuit with sources (dependent and/or independent) and
resistors can be replaced by an equivalent circuit containing a
single current source and a single resistor.
• As far as its appearance from outside is concerned, any two
terminal .network of resistors and energy sources can be
replaced by a parallel combination of an ideal current source I
and a resistor R,
• where I is the short-circuit current of the network and R is the
voltage that would be measured between the output terminals
• If the energy sources were removed and replaced by their
internal resistance.

121
 Norton’s theorem

Norton Equivalent: Independent Sources

Isc RTh

Circuit with one or more Norton equivalent circuit

independent sources

122
 Norton’s theorem

Norton Equivalent: No Independent Sources

RTh

Circuit without independent sources Norton equivalent circuit

123
 Norton’s theorem

• Determining Norton Current and Voltage

– IN is determined by calculating the current through a short
placed across terminals A and B.

– RN is determined by shorting the voltage source and

calculating the circuit’s total resistance as seen from open
terminals A and B (same procedure as for RTH).

124
 NORTON’S THEOREM
Assume that the network enclosed below is composed
of independent sources and resistors.

Network

Norton’s Theorem states that this network can be replaced by

a current source shunted by a resistance R.

I R

125
 NORTON’S THEOREM
• In the Norton circuit, the current source is the short circuit
• Current of the network, that is, the current obtained by shorting
the output of the network.
• The resistance is the resistance seen looking into the network with
all sources deactivated.
•This is the same as RTH.

ISS RN = RTH

126
 NORTON’S THEOREM
We recall the following from source transformations.

R
+ V
_ V R I=
R

In view of the above, if we have the Thevenin equivalent

circuit of a network, we can obtain the Norton equivalent
by using source transformation.
However, this is not how we normally go about finding
the Norton equivalent circuit.
127
 Example
Find the Norton equivalent circuit to the left of terminals A-B
for the network shown below. Connect the Norton equivalent
circuit to the load and find the current in the 50  resistor.
10 A

20  40  A


+
_ 50 V 60  50 


B 128
 continued
10 A

20  40 

+
_ 50 V 60 
ISS

It can be shown by standard circuit analysis that

I SS 10.7 A

129
 continued
It can also be shown that by deactivating the sources, We find the
resistance looking into terminals A-B is
RN  55 
RN and RTH will always be the same value for a given circuit.
The Norton equivalent circuit tied to the load is shown below.

10.7 A 55  50 

130
 Example
This example illustrates how one might use Norton’s Theorem
in electronics. the following circuit comes close to representing
the model of a transistor.
For the circuit shown below, find the Norton equivalent circuit
to the left of terminals A-B.
1 k IS A

+
5V _+ 3 VX 25 IS VX 40 
_

131
 continued
1 k IS A

+
5V _+ 3 VX 25 IS VX 40 
_

We first find; VOS

RN 
I SS
We first find VOS:

VOS  VX  ( 25I S )(40)   1000I S

132
 continued
1 k IS A

+
5V _+ 3 VX 25 IS VX 40  ISS
_

We note that ISS = - 25IS. Thus,

VOS  1000I S
RN    40 
I SS  25I S
133
 continued
1 k IS A

+
5V _+ 3 VX 25 IS VX 40 
_

From the mesh on the left we have;

 5  1000I S  3( 1000I S )  0

I S   2.5 mA
From which,
134
 continued
We saw earlier that,
I SS   25 I S

Therefore;
I SS  62.5 mA

The Norton equivalent circuit is shown below.

IN = 62.5 mA RN = 40 

B
135
 Extension of This Example
Using source transformations we know that the
Thevenin equivalent circuit is as follows:

40 

+
_ 2.5 V

136
 Equivalent transform between a Thevenin equivalen
circuit and a Norton equivalent circuit-

RTH
vL vL


vS VL RL iS vL
RL

RN 

Thevenin equivalent Norton equivalent

RL  RN 
v L  vS  VL  is   RL
RL  RTH  RL  RTH 
If RTH  RN and
vs  is RN  is RTH
vL = vL
137
• Therefore, for a source transform:
Thevenin Norton: RN  RTH , is  vs / RTH
Norton Thevenin : RTH  RN , vs  is  RN

138
 Example
• Find a Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuit for the
following circuit for the following circuit excludingR L
3 7

12V 6 RL

A B
T N
7 7

4A
3 6 RL 4A 2 RL

139
 9

Thevenin
N T equivalent
2 7
8V RL

8V RL

Norton
equivalent
0.889A 9 RL

140
When there are multiple independent source, we shall use
“superposition”
Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent for the network
2k 3k
excluding the resistor.

4V 2mA 1k

To determine voc ,when only 4v voltage source is

functioning.
5K

'
4V voc '
voc  4V

141
When only 2mA current source is functioning :

3k 5k

N T
2k voc 4V voc'' voc''  4V
2mA

Therefore,

vc  voc  v  v  4V  4V  8V
'
oc
''
oc

142
To determine RTH
5k

RTH  5k 

5k   RTH
Thevenin equivalent:

VS  8V
1k

RN  RTH  5k 
iS  vs / RTH  1.6mA
143
Norton equivalent :
vs  1.6mA
RN  5k  1k

144
 When there are both independent source
and dependent source.

Dependent source cannot be “zero out” as far as its control

variable is not zero.
—Similar as before,
—But we cannot determine directly, however, we
can use

145
 Determine the Thevenin equivalent of
the following circuit
2k 3k

vx vx
4V
4000

To determine voc since voc  vx ,applying KVL to the
super mesh:
VX
4V  ( )  2k   3k   0  vx  0
4000

vs  voc  vx  8V
146
To determine isc
2k 3k

vx
4V  0 vx  0
4000

4V
iSC   0.8mA
5k
8V
RTH  vOC / iSC   10k
0.8mA
Thevenin equivalent is:

RTH  10k 

vs  8V

147
• When there are only dependent sources:
– In this case, VOC = 0
– RTH can be determined by implying a test
(imaginary) voltage across the two terminals.

148
 Example
3Ω
i
2
Open circuit : i  0 , 1.5i   0 , VOC  0 1.5i
2  3
2Ω

To determine RTh, applying an independent circuit source xA. As :

v
i  xA , RTh  
x
v
Apply KCL: i  xA , RTh  
x Giving :
i v  1.5   x  v
 x
3 2
1.5i v 0.6Ω
2Ω xA v  0.6 x
3Ω v
RTh    0.6 149
x
 Maximum Power Transfer
• Load should receive maximum amount of power from source
• Maximum power transfer theorem states
– Load will receive maximum power from a circuit when
resistance of the load is exactly the same as Thevenin (or
Norton) equivalent resistance of the circuit
• To calculate maximum power delivered by source to load
– P = V2/R
• Voltage across load is one half of Thevenin equivalent voltage

150
 Maximum Power Transfer

• Current through load is one half of Norton equivalent current

2 2
VT h I N RN
Pm ax  
4 RT h 4
• Power across a load changes as load changes by using a
variable resistance as the load

151
Maximum Power Transfer

152
 Millman’s Theorem

– Millman’s theorem provides a shortcut for finding the

common voltage across any number of parallel branches
with different voltage sources.
– The theorem states that the common voltage across parallel
branches with different voltage sources can be determined
by: V1 V2 V3
 
R1 R 2 R 3
VXY   etc
1 1 1
 
R1 R 2 R 3

– This formula converts the voltage sources to current

sources and combines the results.
153
Example: Millman’s Theorem

84/12  0/6  21/3 7  0   7

VXY = =
1/12  1/6  1/3 7/12
14 12
= =  14 
7/12 7
VXY =  24 V = V3 154
 Reciprocity Theorem

• In any bilateral linear circuits; If a source “V” acting in a branch

(let “A”) of the circuit produces the current “I” in another branch (let
“B”) of the circuit.
• Then when the “V” acts in the second branch “B” , it will produce
the same current “I” in the first branch “A”.
• The circuits in which the Reciprocity theorem holds true are called
reciprocal circuits.

155
Reciprocity Theorem

156
 Example: Reciprocity Theorem
• Calculate the current in the various branches of the network
shown in figure below. Also find the current through the one
volt battery (V), when an extra 1 V is added on branch BD
opposing the flow of original current in that branch.

157
Let us first solve the circuit using the Mesh Analysis or Loop
Analysis.

Here we get,
I1=0.0494A, I2=0.0229A ,I3= 0.0049A 158
• Now, As given on question let us add an extra Voltage souce of 1 volt on branch
BD opposing the flow of original current in that branch:

• Now let us using the Superposition Theorem find the current through the battery
V due to V and V1 separately:
• Due to V:
Current through V due to V =
• So current through V due to V1 =
Thus the current through V due to both voltages is:

159