DESIGN OF COMPRESSION

MEMBERS

A ‘compression member’ is a structural element which is subjected (predominantly)

to axial compressive forces. Compression members are most commonly encountered
in reinforced concrete buildings as columns (and sometimes as reinforced concrete
walls), forming part of the ‘vertical framing system’.Other types of compression
members include truss members (‘struts’), inclined members and rigid frame
members.
The ‘column’ is representative of all types of compression members, and hence,
sometimes, the terms ‘column’ and ‘compression member’ are used interchangeably.
The Code (Cl. 25.1.1) defines the column as a compression member, the ‘effective
length†’ of which exceeds three times the least lateral dimension. The term ‘pedestal’
is used to describe a vertical compression member whose ‘effective length’ is less
than three times its least lateral dimension [Cl. 26.5.3.1(h) of the Code].

Classification of Columns Based on Type of Reinforcement

Reinforced concrete columns may be classified into the following three types based
on the type of reinforcement provided:
1) Tied columns : where the main longitudinal bars are enclosed within closely
spaced lateral ties.
2) Spiral columns : where the main longitudinal bars are enclosed within closely
spaced and continuously wound spiral reinforcement.

Classification of Columns Based on Type of Loading

Columns may be classified into the following three types, based on the nature of
loading:
1. Columns with axial loading (applied concentrically)
2. Columns with uniaxial eccentric loading
3. Columns with biaxial eccentric loading
The occurrence of ‘pure’ axial compression in a column (due to concentric loads) is
relatively rare. Generally, flexure (and, sometimes, shear‡) accompanies axial
compression — due to ‘rigid frame’ action, lateral loading and/or actual (or even,
unintended/accidental) eccentricities in loading. The combination of axial
compression (P) with bending moment (M) at any column section is statically
equivalent to a system consisting of the load P applied with an eccentricity e = M/P
with respect to the longitudinal centroidal axis of the column section. In a more
general loading situation, bending moments (Mx and My) are applied simultaneously
on the axially loaded column in two perpendicular directions — about the major axis
(XX) and minor axis (YY) of the column section. This results in biaxial eccentricities
ex= Mx /P and ey = My /P.

Classification of Columns Based on Slenderness Ratios

Columns (i.e., compression members) may be classified into the following two types,
depending on whether slenderness effects are considered insignificant or significant:
1. Short columns;
2. Slender (or long) columns.
‘Slenderness’ is a geometrical property of a compression member which is related
to the ratio of its ‘effective length’ to its lateral dimension. This ratio, called
slenderness ratio, also provides a measure of the vulnerability to failure of the
column by elastic instability (buckling) — in the plane in which the slenderness ratio
is computed. Columns with low slenderness ratios, i.e., relatively short and stocky
columns, invariably fail under ultimate loads with the material (concrete, steel)
reaching its ultimate strength, and not by buckling. On the other hand, columns with
very high slenderness ratios are in danger of buckling (accompanied with large
lateral deflection) under relatively low compressive loads, and thereby failing
suddenly. Design codes attempt to preclude such failure by specifying ‘slenderness
limits’ to columns

According to the IS Code (Cl. 25.1.2), a compression member may be classified as

a ‘short column’ if its slenderness ratios with respect to the ‘major principal axis’
(lex/Dx) as well as the ‘minor principal axis’ (ley/Dy) are both less
than12‡;otherwise, it should be treated as ‘slender column’. Here lex and Dx denote
the effective length and lateral dimension (‘depth’) respectively for buckling in the
plane passing through the longitudinal centroidal axis and normal to the major
principal axis; i.e. causing buckling about the major axis [refer Fig. 13.2(c)]; likewise,
ley and Dy refer to the minor principal axis.

CODE REQUIREMENTS ON SLENDERNESS LIMITS, MINIMUM

ECCENTRICITIES AND REINFORCEMENT

Slenderness Limits
Slenderness effects in columns effectively result in reduced strength, on account of
the additional ‘secondary’ moments introduced In the case of very slender columns,
failure may occur suddenly under small loads due to instability (‘elastic buckling’),
rather than due to material failure. The Code attempts to prevent this type of failure
(due to instability) by specifying certain ‘slenderness limits’ in the proportioning of
columns.
The Code (Cl. 25.3.1) specifies that the ratio of the unsupported length (l) to the
least lateral dimension (d) of a column should not exceed†
a value of 60:
l/d ≤ 60
Furthermore, in case one end of a column is free (i.e., cantilevered column) in any
given plane, the Code (Cl. 25.3.2) specifies that

l<100b2/D
where D is the depth of the cross-section measured in the plane of the cantilever and
b is the width (in the perpendicular direction).

Minimum Eccentricities

the general case of loading on a compression member

is one comprising axial compression combined with biaxial bending. This loading
condition is represented by a state of biaxial eccentric compression, wherein the axial
load P acts eccentric to the longitudinal centroidal axis of the column cross-section,
with eccentricities ex and ey with respect to the major and minor principal axes

For this reason, the Code (Cl. 25.4) requires every column to be designed for a
minimum eccentricity emin (in any plane) equal to the unsupported length/500 plus
lateral dimension/30, subject to a minimum of 20 mm. For a column with a
rectangular section [Fig. 13.2], this implies:

ex,y min = lx,y/500 +Dx,y/30 (whichever is greater)

Longitudinal Reinforcement (refer Cl. 26.5.3.1 of the Code)

• Minimum Reinforcement: The longitudinal bars must, in general, have a cross
sectional area not less than 0.8 percent of the gross area of the column section.
Such a minimum limit is specified by the Code
∗ to ensure nominal flexural resistance under unforeseen eccentricities in loading
∗ to prevent the yielding of the bars due to creep†and shrinkage effects, which result
in a transfer of load from the concrete to the steel
However, in the case of pedestals (i.e., compression members with le/D < 3) which
are designed as plain concrete columns, the minimum requirement of
longitudinal bars may be taken as 0.15 percent of the gross area of cross-section. In
the case of reinforced concrete walls, the Code (Cl. 32.5) has introduced detailed
provisions regarding minimum reinforcement requirements for vertical (and
horizontal) steel.
• Maximum Reinforcement: The maximum cross-sectional area of longitudinal
bars should not exceed 6 percent of the gross area of the column section. However, a
reduced maximum limit of 4 percent is recommended in general in the interest of
better placement and compaction of concrete — and, in particular, at lapped
splice locations.In tall buildings, columns located in the lowermost storeys generally
carry heavy reinforcement (∼ 4 percent). The bars are progressively curtailed
instages at higher levels.
Minimum diameter / number of bars and their location: Longitudinal bars
in columns (and pedestals) should not be less than 12 mm in diameter and should
not be spaced more than 300 mm apart (centre-to-centre) along the periphery of
the column. At least 4 bars (one at each corner) should be provided in a column with
rectangular cross-section, and at least 6 bars (equally spaced near the periphery) in a
circular column

Cover to reinforcement: A minimum clear cover of 40 mm or bar diameter

(whichever is greater), to the column ties is recommended by the Code
(Cl. 26.4.2.1)
Transverse Reinforcement (refer Cl. 26.5.3.2 of the Code)

Modes of Failure in Eccentric Compression

Although the term limit state of collapse in compression is generally used by the
Code (Cl. 39) to describe the ‘ultimate limit state’ of compression members (whether
axially loaded or eccentrically loaded), the actual failure need not necessarily occur
in compression. This is because an eccentrically loaded column section is subjected
to an axial compression (Pu) as well as a bending moment (Mu). The mode of failure
depends on the eccentricity of loading; i.e., the relative magnitudes of Pu and Mu. If
the eccentricity e = Mu/Pu is relatively small, the axial compression behavior
predominates, and the consequent failure is termed compression failure. On the
other hand, if the eccentricity is relatively large, the flexural behavior predominates,
and the consequent failure is termed tension failure. In fact, depending on the exact
magnitude of the loading eccentricity e, it is possible to predict whether a
‘compression failure’ or a ‘tension failure’ will take place.
Balanced Failure
In between ‘compression failure’ and ‘tension failure’, there exists a critical failure
condition, termed ‘balanced failure’. This failure condition refers to that ultimate
limit state wherein the yielding of the outermost row of longitudinal steel on the
tension side and the attainment of the maximum compressive strain in concrete
εcu = 0.0035 at the highly compressed edge of the column occur simultaneously. In
other words, both crushing of concrete (in the highly compressed edge) and yielding
of steel (in the outermost tension steel) occur simultaneously

Compression Failure
When the loading eccentricity is less than that corresponding to the ‘balanced failure’
condition, i.e., when e < eb, ‘yielding’ of longitudinal steel in tension does not take
place, and failure occurs at the ultimate limit state by crushing of concrete at the
highly compressed edge. The compression reinforcement may or may not yield,
depending on the grade of steel and its proximity to the highly compressed edge

Tension Failure
When the loading eccentricity is greater than that corresponding to the ‘balanced
failure’ condition, i.e., when e > eb, failure will be initiated by the yielding of the
tension steel. The outermost longitudinal bars in the tension side of the neutral axis
first undergo yielding and successive inner rows (if provided), on the tension side of
the neutral axis, may also yield in tension with increasing strain. Eventually, collapse
occurs when the concrete at the highly compressed edge gets crushed.

Interaction Curve
The ‘interaction curve’ is a complete graphical representation of the design strength
of a uni axially eccentrically loaded column of given proportions the design
interaction curve serves as a failure envelope. Of course, it must be appreciated that
by the term ‘safe’, all that is implied is that the risk of failure is deemed by the Code to
be acceptably low. It does not follow (as some designers are inclined to believe), that
if the point (Mu, Pu) falls outside the failure envelope, the column will fail!

• The point in corresponds to the condition of axial loading with e = 0. For this case
of ‘pure’ axial compression, Mu= 0 .
• The point 1′ in corresponds to the condition of axial loading with the
mandatory minimum eccentricity emin
The point 3 in corresponds to the condition xu = D i.e., e = eD. For e < eD, the
entire section is under compression and the neutral axis is located outside the section
(xu > D), with 0.002 < εcu < 0.0035. For e > eD, the NA is located within the
section (xu < D) and εcu = 0.0035 at the ‘highly compressed edge’ [Fig. 13.11].
Point 2 represents a general case, with the neutral axis outside the section (e <eD ).
• The point 4 in Fig. corresponds to the balanced failure condition, with e = eb and
xu = xu, b The design strength values for this ‘balanced failure’ condition are
denoted as Pub and Mub. For PuR < Pub (i.e., e > eb), the mode of failure is
called tension failure, as explained earlier. It may be noted that Mub is close to
the maximum‡value of ultimate moment of resistance that the
given section is capable of, and this value is higher than the ultimate moment
resisting capacity Muo under ‘pure’ flexure conditions .(point 5)

• The point 5 in corresponds to a ‘pure’ bending condition (e = ∞, PuR = 0); the

resulting ultimate moment of resistance is denoted Muo and the
corresponding NA depth takes on a minimum value xu, min.