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(1) Department of Psychology, University of Geneva, 40, Bd. du Pont-d’Arve, Geneva, CH-1205, Switzerland
(2) College of Arts and Sciences, Department of Psychology, University of North Texas, 1155 Union Circle #311280,
Denton, TX 76203-5017, USA
Rex A. Wright
Email: Rex.Wright@unt.edu
Without Abstract
Synonyms
Vegetative nervous system; Visceral nervous system
Definition
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a part of the efferent (i.e., outgoing) division of the
peripheral nervous system. It adapts the organism to internal and external changes, maintaining
bodily homeostasis and coordinating bodily responses.
Description
The autonomic nervous system (also known as the visceral nervous system and vegetative
nervous system) combines with the somatic nervous system to form the efferent (i.e., outgoing)
division of the peripheral nervous system. It innervates glands, the heart, and smooth muscles of
all visceral structures and adapts the organism to internal and external changes by regulating a
wide range of bodily functions such as blood circulation, body temperature, respiration, and
digestion. The basic tasks of the autonomic nervous system are to maintain bodily homeostasis
and coordinate bodily responses. In contrast to regulatory processes of the somatic nervous
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system, regulatory processes of the autonomic nervous system do not require conscious or
voluntary control.
Anatomical Structure
The autonomic nervous system is comprised of two main branches or subsystems, (1) the
sympathetic nervous system and (2) the parasympathetic nervous system. A third nervous system
– the enteric system – is considered by some physiologists to be a part of the autonomic nervous
system and by others to be independent of that system. The enteric nervous system consists of
two large nerve networks located in the walls of the digestive tract, identified as the submucosal
plexus and the myenteric plexus. It innervates the smooth muscle cells of the digestive tract as
well as exocrine and endocrine cells, controlling local activity within the digestive tract (e.g.,
secretion of digestive juices and digestive motility). The enteric system can act autonomously, but
also in response to sympathetic and parasympathetic input.
Basic functional units of the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems are
preganglionic and postganglionic neurons. Preganglionic neurons have cell bodies in the spinal
cord or brainstem and axons that extend to cell bodies of postganglionic neurons. Postganglionic
neurons have cell bodies that are clustered in so-called ganglia and axons that innervate target
visceral structures. Notably, preganglionic neurons typically synapse with more than one
postganglionic neuron. Similarly, postganglionic neurons typically synapse with visceral structures
in multiple locations, allowing pervasive structural influence. An anatomical exception to the above
is seen in the adrenal medulla. Although the adrenal medulla is a part of the adrenal gland, its cells
are modified postganglionic neurons directly innervated by preganglionic neurons.
The major anatomical difference between the sympathetic nervous system and the
parasympathetic nervous system is the location of neuronal cell bodies. Sympathetic preganglionic
neurons are located in the thoracic and upper lumbar segment of the spinal cord, whereas
parasympathetic preganglionic neurons lie in the brainstem and the sacral spinal cord.
Postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic system are located either in one of the sympathetic
ganglion chains (sympathetic trunk, also called paravertebral ganglia) along the spinal cord or in
the prevertebral ganglia in front of the spinal cord. Parasympathetic postganglionic neurons are
located either in terminal ganglia that lie near the target organ or directly in the organ wall. Given
the difference in the position of the ganglia, sympathetic preganglionic fibers are usually shorter
than parasympathetic preganglionic fibers and sympathetic postganglionic fibers are usually longer
than parasympathetic postganglionic fibers.
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leading to adjustments suitable for low activity and bodily restoration (“rest and digest”). Examples
of high activity adjustments are constriction of blood vessels in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract,
dilation of blood vessels in the skeletal muscles and lungs, and improved heart rate and
contraction force. Examples of low activity and restorative adjustments are the reverse: dilation of
blood vessels in the GI tract, constriction of blood vessels in the skeletal muscles and lungs, and
decreased heart rate and contraction force. However, there are multiple exceptions to this
complementary influence rule. Consider, for example, sympathetic and parasympathetic influence
on salivation. Both sympathetic arousal and parasympathetic arousal increase salivary flow,
although to different degrees and yielding different compositions of saliva. It also is noteworthy that
the systems may exert an activating or an inhibiting effect depending on the innervated structure.
For instance, increased sympathetic arousal increases heart rate but decreases motility in the
digestive tract. Parasympathetic activity activates digestion, but slows heart rate.
In working together, the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems typically do not
function in an all-or-none fashion, but rather activate to different degrees. Depending on the
affected visceral structure and situation, one of the two systems may be more active than the
other. For instance, at rest heart rate is mainly under parasympathetic nervous system control,
subject to a negligible sympathetic influence. By contrast, at high levels of physical activity, it is
mainly under sympathetic nervous system control. Shifts in sympathetic and parasympathetic
influence can occur locally within a single visceral structure (e.g., the eye) or across visceral
structures. Shifts in local influence occur to meet highly specialized demands (e.g., the change in
pupil size to adapt to a change in ambient light). Global shifts adapt the body to large-scale
environmental changes (e.g., the appearance of a substantial physical threat).
Central Control
An afferent (i.e., incoming) nervous system conveys information about the current state of the
organism to structures in the central nervous system. These structures exert a regulatory impact
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by way of autonomic efferents. Central nervous system structures that control autonomic nervous
system activity vary depending on afferent information that is received. The hypothalamus plays a
central role in regulating activity of the autonomic nervous system by integrating autonomic,
somatic, and endocrine responses that accompany different organism states. This central nervous
system structure receives afferent input from visceral sensory neurons and is subject to the
modulating impact of other central nervous system structures such as the amygdala and insular
cortex. It influences autonomic centers located in the brainstem and can directly affect
preganglionic neurons.
Summary
The autonomic nervous system is a part of the efferent (outgoing) division of the peripheral
nervous system. It innervates glands, the heart, and smooth muscles of all visceral structures and
adapts the organism to internal and external changes, maintaining bodily homeostasis and
coordinating bodily responses without requiring conscious or voluntary control. Two branches or
subsystems of the autonomic nervous system are the sympathetic nervous system and the
parasympathetic nervous system. These commonly – but not always – work in a complementary
fashion to regulate bodily function, with sympathetic arousal leading to adjustments suitable for
high activity (“fight and flight”) and parasympathetic arousal leading to adjustments suitable for low
activity and bodily restoration (“rest and digest”). In working together, the sympathetic and
parasympathetic branches do not function in an all-or-none fashion, but rather activate to different
degrees. Shifts in sympathetic and parasympathetic influence can occur locally within a single
visceral structure or across visceral structures, with local shifts occurring to meet highly specialized
demands and global shifts adapting the body to large-scale environmental changes. The
sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems differ anatomically and with respect to their
neurotransmitters and the receptors that mediate their effects on visceral structures. Autonomic
control is maintained by structures in the central nervous system that receive visceral information
by way of an afferent (incoming) nervous system. A key central nervous system structure is the
hypothalamus, which integrates autonomic, somatic, and endocrine responses that accompany
different organism states.
Cross-References
Acetylcholine
Adrenaline
Autonomic Activation
Autonomic Balance
Epinephrine
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Cacioppo, J. T., & Tassinary, L. G. (1990). Principles of psychophysiology: Physical, social, and inferential elements.
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Cacioppo, J. T., Tassinary, L. G., & Berntson, G. G. (2000). Handbook of psychophysiology (2nd ed.). New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Ganong, W. F. (2005). Review of medical physiology (22nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Levick, J. R. (2009). An introduction to cardiovascular physiology (5th ed.). London, UK: Hodder.
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Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) 165 A
activity rest in part on their ability to restore Uijtdehaage, S. B. H., & Thayer, J. F. (2000). Accentuated
autonomic balance and increase parasympa- antagonism in the control of human heart rate. Clinical
Autonomic Research, 10, 107–110.
thetic activity. Ziegler, D., Laude, D., Akila, F., & Elghozi, J. L. A
(2001). Time and frequency domain estimation
of early diabetic cardiovascular autonomic neuro-
pathy. Clinical Autonomic Research, 11(6),
Cross-References 369–376.
digestion. The basic tasks of the autonomic ner- The major anatomical difference between the
vous system are to maintain bodily homeostasis sympathetic nervous system and the parasympa-
and coordinate bodily responses. In contrast to thetic nervous system is the location of neuronal
regulatory processes of the somatic nervous sys- cell bodies. Sympathetic preganglionic neurons
tem, regulatory processes of the autonomic ner- are located in the thoracic and upper lumbar
vous system do not require conscious or segment of the spinal cord, whereas parasympa-
voluntary control. thetic preganglionic neurons lie in the brainstem
and the sacral spinal cord. Postganglionic neu-
rons of the sympathetic system are located either
Anatomical Structure in one of the sympathetic ganglion chains (sym-
pathetic trunk, also called paravertebral ganglia)
The autonomic nervous system is comprised along the spinal cord or in the prevertebral
of two main branches or subsystems, (1) the ganglia in front of the spinal cord. Parasympa-
sympathetic nervous system and (2) the parasym- thetic postganglionic neurons are located either
pathetic nervous system. A third nervous system – in terminal ganglia that lie near the target organ or
the enteric system – is considered by some directly in the organ wall. Given the difference in
physiologists to be a part of the autonomic the position of the ganglia, sympathetic pregangli-
nervous system and by others to be independent onic fibers are usually shorter than parasympathetic
of that system. The enteric nervous system preganglionic fibers and sympathetic postgangli-
consists of two large nerve networks located in onic fibers are usually longer than parasympathetic
the walls of the digestive tract, identified as the postganglionic fibers.
submucosal plexus and the myenteric plexus.
It innervates the smooth muscle cells of the
digestive tract as well as exocrine and endocrine Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
cells, controlling local activity within the Innervations of Visceral Structures and
digestive tract (e.g., secretion of digestive juices Functioning
and digestive motility). The enteric system can
act autonomously, but also in response to Most visceral structures have both sympathetic
sympathetic and parasympathetic input. and parasympathetic innervations. Exceptions are
Basic functional units of the sympathetic the skin, most blood vessels and most sweat
and the parasympathetic nervous systems are glands, which are only sympathetically innervated.
preganglionic and postganglionic neurons. Pre- In visceral structures with dual innervations, the
ganglionic neurons have cell bodies in the spinal sympathetic and parasympathetic systems work
cord or brainstem and axons that extend to cell together to regulate bodily function. It is common
bodies of postganglionic neurons. Postgangli- for the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems
onic neurons have cell bodies that are clustered to exert complementary influences on visceral
in so-called ganglia and axons that innervate structures, with sympathetic arousal leading to
target visceral structures. Notably, pregangli- adjustments suitable for high activity (“fight and
onic neurons typically synapse with more than flight”) and parasympathetic arousal leading to
one postganglionic neuron. Similarly, postgan- adjustments suitable for low activity and bodily
glionic neurons typically synapse with visceral restoration (“rest and digest”). Examples of high
structures in multiple locations, allowing perva- activity adjustments are constriction of blood ves-
sive structural influence. An anatomical excep- sels in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, dilation of
tion to the above is seen in the adrenal medulla. blood vessels in the skeletal muscles and lungs,
Although the adrenal medulla is a part of the and improved heart rate and contraction force.
adrenal gland, its cells are modified postgangli- Examples of low activity and restorative adjust-
onic neurons directly innervated by pregangli- ments are the reverse: dilation of blood vessels in
onic neurons. the GI tract, constriction of blood vessels in the
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) 167 A
skeletal muscles and lungs, and decreased heart is the neurotransmitter between all pre- and post-
rate and contraction force. However, there are ganglionic neurons as well as between parasym-
multiple exceptions to this complementary influ- pathetic postganglionic neurons and visceral A
ence rule. Consider, for example, sympathetic and structures. Acetylcholine is also the neurotrans-
parasympathetic influence on salivation. Both mitter of the sympathetic postganglionic neurons
sympathetic arousal and parasympathetic arousal that innervate the eccrine sweat glands and of
increase salivary flow, although to different sympathetic postganglionic neurons that innervate
degrees and yielding different compositions of skeletal muscle vessels and cause vasodilation. All
saliva. It also is noteworthy that the systems may other sympathetic postganglionic neurons release
exert an activating or an inhibiting effect norepinephrine. The adrenal medulla constitutes
depending on the innervated structure. For an exception. Despite the fact that cells of the
instance, increased sympathetic arousal increases adrenal medulla are modified sympathetic post-
heart rate but decreases motility in the digestive ganglionic cells, they release epinephrine and nor-
tract. Parasympathetic activity activates digestion, epinephrine directly into the blood stream. It is
but slows heart rate. noteworthy that acetylcholine and norepinephrine
In working together, the sympathetic and para- are the major neurotransmitters of the sympathetic
sympathetic nervous systems typically do not and the parasympathetic nervous system, but co-
function in an all-or-none fashion, but rather acti- transmitters like vasoactive intestinal polypeptide
vate to different degrees. Depending on the (VIP), adenosine triphosphate (ATP), or neuro-
affected visceral structure and situation, one of peptide Y are frequent.
the two systems may be more active than the
other. For instance, at rest heart rate is mainly
under parasympathetic nervous system control, Central Control
subject to a negligible sympathetic influence.
By contrast, at high levels of physical activity, it An afferent (i.e., incoming) nervous system con-
is mainly under sympathetic nervous system con- veys information about the current state of the
trol. Shifts in sympathetic and parasympathetic organism to structures in the central nervous sys-
influence can occur locally within a single vis- tem. These structures exert a regulatory impact by
ceral structure (e.g., the eye) or across visceral way of autonomic efferents. Central nervous sys-
structures. Shifts in local influence occur to meet tem structures that control autonomic nervous
highly specialized demands (e.g., the change in system activity vary depending on afferent infor-
pupil size to adapt to a change in ambient light). mation that is received. The hypothalamus plays
Global shifts adapt the body to large-scale a central role in regulating activity of the auto-
environmental changes (e.g., the appearance of nomic nervous system by integrating autonomic,
a substantial physical threat). somatic, and endocrine responses that accompany
different organism states. This central nervous sys-
tem structure receives afferent input from visceral
Neurotransmitters and Receptors sensory neurons and is subject to the modulating
impact of other central nervous system structures
In addition to differing anatomically, the sympa- such as the amygdala and insular cortex. It influ-
thetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems ences autonomic centers located in the brainstem
differ with respect to their neurotransmitters and and can directly affect preganglionic neurons.
the receptors that mediate their effects on visceral
structures. The most important receptors are
(1) cholinergic receptors stimulated by the neu- Summary
rotransmitter acetylcholine and (2) adrenergic
receptors stimulated by the neurotransmitters The autonomic nervous system is a part of the
norepinephrine and epinephrine. Acetylcholine efferent (outgoing) division of the peripheral
A 168 Autonomic Reactivity