GLOSSARY|Social Studies| Ref.

DK Books
_WORLD HISTORY_ elimination of private property in favor of
communal ownership, based on the political
or group, or a period in time when a country
is
Annexation The act of annexing: of seizing
manifesto of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. ruled by them.
new territory to append to a country or
Conscription Compulsory enrolment into Egalitarianism A philosophy that advocates
state,
the military service. social, political, and economic equality.
usually using force.
Constitution A written collection of the Emancipation The act of being freed from
Autocracy A community or state in
fundamental principles and laws of a nation. legal, social, or political restrictions.
which unlimited authority is exercised
Consumerism The state of an advanced Embargo A government order to cease
by a single individual.
capitalist society in which the buying and trade or other commercial activity with
Barbarian In ancient times, a group of
selling of various goods and services define a particular country, often used as a
people, land, or culture not belonging to
the era. The term also refers to a perception diplomatic measure.
one of the great civilizations (Greek or
that individuals desire goods to construct Emigration The act of leaving one’s own
Roman), and so considered less socially
self-identity. country and moving permanently to
advanced and uncivilized.
Coup d’état A sudden, illegal, and violent another.
Bourgeoisie The middle class, particularly
act Empire An extensive group of countries or
with reference to its perceived materialistic
of overthrowing a government or leader. It people under the rule of a single leader,
values or conventional attitudes.
is oligarchy, or sovereign state.
Bureaucracy A government characterized
often committed by members of the current Enlightenment Also known as the Age of
by
political establishment. Reason, a period of intellectual advances in
specialization of functions, adherence to
Crusade A holy war undertaken on behalf the 18th century that involved a questioning
fixed
of a religious cause. Often used to refer to of
rules, and a hierarchy of authority.
expeditions launched by European religious understandings of the world and
Caliphate The rule or rank of a caliph—an
Christians the
Islamic spiritual and political leader
in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries to application of reason.
regarded
reclaim Eugenics The belief, or the study of the
as the direct successor of Muhammad.
the Holy Land from Muslims. belief,
Capitalism An economic system in which the
Democracy A form of government in which that the human population can be
means of production are privately owned,
supreme power is vested in the people and improved
firms
exercised by their elected representatives. upon by controlling breeding.
compete to sell goods for profit, and
Dictator An absolute ruler, especially one Fascism An ideology typified by strong
workers
who assumes complete control without the leadership, stress on a collective identity,
exchange their labor for a wage.
free consent of the people. This ruler can and
Civil war A war fought by opposing
exercise their power oppressively. the use of violence or warfare to further the
inhabitants of the same country.
Direct democracy Government by the interests of the state. The term derives from
Class A status hierarchy within the social
people the Italian fascio—a tied bundle of sticks—
system, reflecting power, wealth, education,
in fact, rather than merely in principle— referring to collective identity, and was first
and prestige.
citizens applied to Mussolini’s regime.
Colony The area occupied by a body of
vote on every issue affecting them—as Feudalism A medieval political system that
settlers living in a new territory, often
practiced in ancient Athens. consisted of small geographical units—such
already
Divine right of kings A doctrine that holds as principalities or dukedoms—ruled by the
occupied by an indigenous people that is
that a monarch derives legitimacy from nobility, where the peasant population lived
subject to control by the settlers’ parent
God, in a state of bondage to their ruler.
state.
and is not subject to any earthly authority. Genocide The deliberate killing of a
Communism An ideology that advocates
Dynasty A line of rulers from the same family large group of people, especially a whole
the
religious group, race, or nation.
Guerrilla A member of an unofficial, often
politically-motivated, military group that
uses surprise attacks and sabotage against
larger regular forces, such as the official
army
or police.
Hegemony The winning and holding of
power and the formation of social groups
during that process.
Ideology A framework of ideas that provide
a viewpoint or set of beliefs for a social
group.
Immigration The act of entering a foreign
country to live there permanently.
Imperialism The policy of extending the
dominion of a nation through direct
intervention
in the affairs of other countries, and seizure
of
territory and subjugation of peoples in
building
an empire.
Industrial Revolution A stage of
development, originating in the UK in the
18th century, during which economies were
transformed by new forms of
mechanization
from a mainly agricultural economy to an
urban, industrialized one.
Insurgency A condition of revolt against
a government that is less than an organized
revolution and is not recognized as warfare.
Jihad In Islam, a religious duty to struggle
against evil in the name of God, whether
spiritually or physically.
Just war theory A doctrine of military ethics
comprising Jus ad bellum (“right to war”),
which
is the need for a moral and legal basis for
war,
and Jus in bello (“justice in war”), which is
the need for the moral conduct of warfare.
Labor camp A prison camp where people
are forced to do difficult manual labor, often
in bad conditions.
Leftism, left wing Ideology of the political
“left.” It is characterized by an interventionist
approach to social welfare and an
internationalist worldview. The concept
originated in 18th-century France, when
nobility who sought to improve the
peasants’
conditions sat to the left of the king.
Liberalism A philosophy originating in
the 18th century that advocates the rights
of the individual over those of the state or
Church, opposing absolutism and the divine
right of kings.
Martial law The law temporarily imposed by
the military when civil law is suspended in a
country or state.
Marxism The philosophy underpinning the
writings of Karl Marx, proposing that the
economic order of society determines the
political and social relationships within it.
Meritocracy The belief that rulers should be
selected on the basis of ability, rather than
wealth or birth.
Militia A body of citizens, who may have
some level of military training, who are
called
on to supplement a country’s professional
army
in times of emergency.
Nation-state A sovereign state inhabited by
a attributes, and that this means that certain
largely homogenous group of people, who
share common features such as language,
descent, and traditions.
Nationalism Loyalty and devotion to the
home nation, and the political belief that its
interests should be pursued as the primary
goal of a political policy.
Nomadic Relating to, or characteristic of,
nomads—a group of people who move
from
place to place, often in relation to the
seasons,
and within a specific territory.
Oligarchy A form of government in which
power is held by a small group and
exercised
in their own interest, usually to the
detriment
of the general population.
Paramilitary A group of civilians that have
military training and are organized
according
to military structure, which often acts as
support for a country’s official military force.
Partisan An absolute supporter of a
particular
political leader, party, or cause who typically
exhibits unquestioning allegiance.
Pilgrimage A journey to a shrine or sacred
site as an act of religious devotion.
Prehistory The period of human past before
written records began, and so largely
understood through archaeological history.
Proletariat The lowest social or economic
class of a community.
Propaganda The organized spread of
information, ideas, and opinion, often via
the media, to either promote or damage
a government, movement, institution etc.
Puppet state A country that is nominally
independent, but in fact relies on an
external
foreign power, which often controls the
state
using military force.
Racism The belief that all members of a
certain race share similar characteristics and
races are inherently superior or inferior.
Rationalism The belief that reason, not
emotion or intuition, should govern the
actions
that people take.
Reformation A 16th-century European
political and religious movement that
sought
reform from the Roman Catholic Church
and
papal authority, and resulted in the
establishment of the Protestant Churches.
Renaissance A period of time in Europe
from the 14th–17th century marked by great
achievements in the arts, literature, and
learning, often regarded as the transition
from the medieval to the modern world.
Reparations Compensation—usually
money,
material, or labor—paid by a defeated internal affairs and international relations nation, and are therefore entitled to a
nation with homeland.
to make up for damage, injuries, and other countries. It originally focused on creating a country
economic Space Age A period in the 20th century for
losses suffered by another country as the characterized by space exploration. It is Jewish people, and now looks to develop
result of war. considered to have started in October 1957 and
Republic A state with no monarch, in which when the Soviet Union first launched the protect the modern state of Israel.
power resides with the people and is satellite Sputnik I into orbit.
exercised State An organized authority that has _ECONOMICS_
by their elected representatives. legitimate control over a territory, and a Absolute advantage The ability
Revolution An overthrow of the current monopoly of the use of force within its of a country to produce a product
political regime or social order, sometimes territory. more efficiently than another.
using violent measures, by the governed Suffrage The right to vote in elections or Aggregate The total amount;
people. referenda. Universal suffrage refers to the for instance, aggregate demand
Rightism, right wing The ideology of right is the total demand for goods and
the political “right,” loosely defined as to vote of citizens regardless of their services in an economy.
favoring conservative, pro-market attitudes, gender, Asymmetric information An
a preference for individual rights over race, social status, or wealth. Women’s imbalance of information; for
interventionist government, a strict suffrage describes the right of women to instance, buyers and sellers may
approach vote have more or less information
to law and order, and nationalism. The on the same basis as men, as campaigned about the product than each other.
concept for Austrian School A school of
originated in 18th-century France, when in the early 20th century by activists such as economics founded by Carl Menger
those the “suffragettes.” in the late 19th century. It attributes
who were broadly in support of the Superpower A sovereign nation with great all economic activity to the actions
monarchy political and military power, capable of and free choice of individuals and
sat to the right of the king. influencing international politics. opposes all forms of government
Separatists A group of people who Totalitarianism A regime that subordinates intervention in an economy.
advocate the rights of the individual in favor of the Balance of trade The difference
separation from an organization or group. interests of the state, through control in value of a country’s imports and
Serf Especially in medieval Europe, a lower of political and economic affairs and exports over a given time period.
class person bound to undertake prescription of the attitudes, values, and Bankruptcy A legal declaration
agricultural beliefs of the population. that an individual or a firm cannot
work on his lord’s land. A serf could be Treaty A formal contract that sets out repay their debts.
transferred with the land should it be sold agreements—such as an alliance, the end of Barter system A system of
to a new landowner. hostilities, or a trade agreement—between exchange in which goods or services
Socialism An ideology and method of two or more states. are exchanged for one another
government that advocates state ownership Vassal In a feudal system, a man granted directly without the use of a medium
and regulation of industry, and central the use of land by a king, lord, or other of exchange, such as money.
control superior landowner, in return for homage Bear market A period of
over the allocation of resources, as opposed and allegiance. decline in the value of shares
to allowing these to be determined by Viceroy A ruler who controls a colony on or other commodities.
market forces. behalf of his or her sovereign. Behavioral economics A branch
Sovereignty Supreme power as exercised by Zionism A worldwide political movement of economics that studies the effects
an autonomous state or ruler, free from any that of psychological and social factors
external influence or control. Usually used to proclaims that the Jewish people constitute on decision making.
refer to a nation’s right to self- a Bond An interest-bearing form of
determination in
loan used to raise capital. Bonds
are issued as certificates by the
bond issuer (such as a government
or firm) in return for a sum of money;
the bond issuer agrees to repay the
borrowed sum plus interest at a
fixed date in the future.
Bretton Woods system A system
of exchange rates agreed upon
between the world’s major industrial
nations in 1945. It tied the value of
the US dollar to gold, and the value
of other currencies to the US dollar.
Budget A financial plan that lists
all planned expenses and incomes.
Budget constraint The limit on the goods
and services that a person can afford.
Bull market A period when
the value of shares or other
commodities increase.
Business cycle An economywide
fluctuation in growth that
is characterized by periods of
expansion (boom) and periods
of contraction (bust).
Capital The money and physical
assets (such as machines and
infrastructure) used to produce
an income. A key ingredient of
economic activity, along with land,
labor, and enterprise.
Capitalism An economic system in
which the means of production are
privately owned, firms compete to
sell goods for a profit, and workers
exchange their labor for a wage.
Cartel A group of firms that agree
to cooperate in such a way that
the output of a particular good is
restricted, and prices are driven up.
Central bank An institution that
manages a country’s currency,
alters money supply, and sets
interest rates. It may also act as
a lender of last resort to banks.
Central planning A system
of centralized government
control of an economy, where
decisions regarding production
and allocation of goods are made
by government committees.
Chaos theory A branch of
mathematics that shows how small
changes in initial conditions can
cause larger effects later on.
Chicago School An avidly free
market group of economists—linked
to the University of Chicago—whose
ideals of market liberalization and
deregulation became mainstream
in the 1980s.
Classical economics An early
approach to economics developed
by Adam Smith and David Ricardo,
focusing on the growth of nations
and free markets.
Collusion An agreement between
two or more firms not to compete
so they can fix prices.
Command economy An economy
in which all aspects of economic
activity are controlled by a central
authority, such as the state. Also
called a planned economy.
Commodity A general term for
any product or service that can
be traded. Often used in economics
to refer to raw materials that are
always of approximately the same
quality and can be bought in bulk.
Communism A Marxist economic
system in which property and
the means of production are
collectively owned.
Comparative advantage The
ability of a country to produce a
product relatively more efficiently
than another country, even if the
other country is more efficient overall.
Competition Competition arises
when two or more producers
attempt to win the business of a
buyer by offering the best terms.
Consumption The value of goods
or services purchased. Individual
buying acts are aggregated by
governments to calculate a figure
for national consumption.
Credit crunch A sudden reduction
in the availability of credit in a
banking system. A credit crunch
often occurs after a period in which
credit is widely available.
Debt A promise made by one party
(the debtor) to another (the creditor)
to pay back a loan.
Default The failure to repay a loan
under the terms agreed.
Deficit An imbalance. A trade
deficit is an excess of imports
over exports; a government budget
deficit is an excess of spending over
tax revenues.
Deflation A fall in the price of
goods and services over time.
Deflation is associated with periods
of economic stagnation.
Demand The amount of goods and
services that a person or group of
people are willing and able to buy.
Demand curve A graph showing
the amount of a product or service
that will be bought at different prices.
Dependency theory The idea that
resources and wealth flow from poor
countries to rich countries in such
a way that the poor countries are
unable to develop.
Depreciation A decrease in the
value of an asset over time, caused
by wear and tear or obsolescence.
Depression A severe, long-term
decline in economic activity in
which output slumps, unemployment
rises, and credit is scarce.
Diminishing marginal returns
A situation in which each extra unit
of something produces successively
smaller benefits.
Duopoly A situation in which
two firms have control over a market.
Economic liberalism An ideology
claiming that the greatest good is
achieved when people are given
the maximum personal freedom to
make choices over consumption.
Economic liberalism advocates a
free market economy.
Economy The total system of
economic activity in a particular
country or area, comprising all the
production, labor, trade, and
consumption that take place.
Elasticity The sensitivity of one
economic variable (such as demand)
to another (such as price). Prices of
products may be elastic or inelastic.
Entrepreneur A person who
undertakes commercial risk in
the hope of making a profit.
Equilibrium A state of balance
within a system. In economics,
markets are in equilibrium when
supply equals demand.
Eurozone Countries within the
European Union that have formed
a monetary union. They all use
the same currency, the euro, and
monetary policy is controlled by
the European Central Bank.
Exchange rate The ratio at
which one currency can be
exchanged for another. An exchange
rate is the price of a currency in
terms of other currencies.
Externality A cost or benefit from
any economic activity that is felt by
a person not directly involved in that
activity and is not reflected in price.
Factors of production The inputs
used to make products or services:
land, labor, capital, and enterprise.
Fiat money A form of money
that is not backed by a physical
commodity such as gold, but gains
its value from the confidence people
have in it. The world’s main
currencies are fiat money.
Fiscal policy A government’s
plans for taxes and spending.
Free market economy An
economy in which decisions about
production are made by private whether those businesses operate
individuals and companies on the within the country or abroad.
basis of supply and demand, and
Hyperinflation A very high rate
prices are determined by the market.
of inflation.
Free trade The import and export
Inflation A situation in which the
of goods and services without tariffs
prices of goods and services in an
or quotas being imposed.
economy are rising.
Game theory The study of strategic
Interest rate The price of
decision making by interacting
borrowing money. The interest rate
individuals or firms.
on a loan is generally stated as a
GDP See gross domestic product.
percentage of the amount per year
Globalization The free flow of
that must be repaid in addition to
money, goods, or people across
the sum borrowed.
international borders; increased
International Monetary Fund
economic interdependence between
(IMF) An international organization
countries through the integration of
set up in 1944 to supervise the
goods, labor, and capital markets.
post-war exchange rate system,
GNP See gross national product.
later moving into the provision of
Gold standard A monetary system
finance to poor countries.
in which a currency is backed by a
Inverse relationship A situation
reserve of gold and can theoretically
in which one variable decreases as
be exchanged on demand for a
another increases.
quantity of gold. No country
Investment An injection of
currently uses the gold standard.
capital aimed at increasing future
Good Something that satisfies the
production, such as a new machine
desire or requirement of a consumer;
or training for the workforce.
normally used to refer to a product
Invisible hand Adam Smith’s idea
or raw material.
that as individuals pursue their own
Great Depression A period of
interests in the market, it leads
worldwide economic recession from
inevitably to the collective benefit
1929 to the mid-1930s. It started in
of society, as if there were some
the US with the Wall Street Crash.
guiding “invisible hand.”
Gross domestic product (GDP)
Keynesian Multiplier The theory
A measure of national income
that an increase in government
over the course of a year. GDP is
spending in an economy produces
calculated by adding up a country’s
an even greater increase in income.
entire annual output, and it is often
Keynesianism A school of
used to measure a country’s
economic thought based on the
economic activity and wealth.
ideas of John Maynard Keynes,
Gross national product (GNP)
advocating government spending
The total value of all goods and
to pull economies out of recession.
services produced in one year by
Laissez-faire A French term
domestic-owned businesses,
meaning “let it do,” which is used
to describe markets free from
government intervention.
Liquidity The ease with which an
asset can be used to buy something
without this causing a reduction
in the asset’s value. Cash is the
most liquid asset since it can be
used immediately to buy goods or
services, with no effect on its value.
Macroeconomics The study of
the economy as a whole, looking
at economy-wide factors such as
interest rates, inflation, growth,
and unemployment.
Marginal cost The increase in
total costs caused by producing
one more unit of output.
Marginal utility The change in
total utility, or satisfaction, that
results from the consumption of one
more unit of a product or service.
Market failure Where a market
fails to deliver socially optimal
outcomes. Market failure may be
due to lack of competition (such as
a monopoly), incomplete information,
unaccounted costs and benefits
(externalities), or lack of potential
private profit (as with public goods).
Mercantilism A doctrine that
dominated Western European
economics during the 16th and
18th centuries. It stressed the
importance of government control
over foreign trade to maintain a
positive balance of trade.
Microeconomics The study of
the economic behavior of
individuals and firms.
Mixed economy An economy
in which part of the means of
production is owned by the state
and part of it is owned privately,
combining aspects of planned
economies and market economies.
Strictly speaking, nearly all
economies are mixed economies,
but the balance can vary widely.
Monetarism A school of economic
thought that believes that the
primary role of government is to
control the money supply. It is
associated with US economist
Milton Friedman and conservative
governments of the 1970s and 80s.
Monetary policy Government
policies aimed at changing the
money supply or interest rates in
order to stimulate or slow down
the economy.
Monopoly A market in which there
is only one firm. Monopoly firms
generally produce a low output,
which they then sell at a high price.
Neoclassical economics The
dominant approach to economics
today. It is based around supply
and demand and rational
individuals, and is often couched
in mathematical terms.
New classical macroeconomics
A school of thought within
macroeconomics that uses forms
of analyses that are based entirely
on a neoclassical framework.
Nominal value The cash value
of something, expressed in the
money of the day. Nominal prices
or wages change due to inflation,
so cannot be usefully compared
across different time periods (a wage
of $50 would not buy the same
amount of goods in 1980 and 2000).
Oligopoly An industry with only a
few firms. In an oligopoly there is a
danger that firms may form cartels
to fix prices.
Pareto efficiency A situation in
which no change can be made
in the allocation of goods to make
someone better off without making
somebody else worse off. Named
after Vilfredo Pareto.
Perfect competition An idealized
situation in which buyers and sellers
have complete information and there
are so many different firms producing
the same product that no individual
seller can influence the price.
Phillips curve A mathematical
graph illustrating the supposed
inverse relationship between
inflation and unemployment.
Planned economy
See Command economy.
Price The quantity of payment,
in money or goods, given by a
buyer to a seller in return for a
good or service.
Protectionism An economic policy
aimed at restricting international
trade, in which a country imposes
tariffs or quotas on imports.
Public good Goods or services,
such as street lighting, that will not
be provided by private firms.
Quantitative easing The injection
of new money into an economy by a
central bank.
Real value The value of something
measured in terms of the amount of
goods or services they can buy.
Recession A period during
which an economy’s total
output decreases.
Shares Units of ownership in a
company; also known as equities.
Social market The economic
model developed in West Germany
following World War II, characterized
by a mixed economy in which
private enterprise is encouraged,
but government intervenes in the
economy to ensure social justice.
Stagflation A period of high
inflation, high unemployment,
and low growth.
Sticky wages Wages that are
slow to change in response to
market conditions.
Supply The amount of a product
that is available to buy.
Supply curve A graph showing
the amount of a product or
service that sellers will produce
at different prices.
Surplus An imbalance. A trade
surplus is an excess of exports over
imports; a government budget
surplus is an excess of tax revenues
over spending.
Tariff A tax imposed on imports,
often to protect domestic producers
from foreign competition.
Tax A charge imposed on firms and
individuals by governments. Its
payment is enforced by law.
Utilitarianism A philosophy that
claims that choices should be made
so happiness will increase for the
greatest number of people.
Utility A unit used to measure
the satisfaction, or happiness,
gained from consuming a product
or service
_POLITICS_
Absolutism The principle of
complete and unrestricted power
in government. Also known as
totalism or totalitarianism.
Agrarianism A political
philosophy that values rural society
and the farmer as superior to urban
society and the paid worker, and
sees farming as a way of life that
can shape social values.
Anarchism The abolition of
government authority, through
violent means if necessary, and the
adoption of a society that is based
on voluntary cooperation.
Apartheid Meaning “separation”
in Afrikaans, a policy of racial
discrimination introduced in
South Africa following the National
Party’s election victory in 1948.
Apparatchik A member of the
communist party machine. It has
come to be used as a derogatory
description of a political zealot.
Autocracy A community or state
in which unlimited authority is
exercised by a single individual.
Bipartisan An approach to a
situation or issue agreed by
political parties that are normally
in opposition to one another.
Bolshevik Meaning “majority” in
Russian, a faction of the Marxist
Russian Social Democratic Labor
Party (RSDLP) that split from the
Menshevik faction in 1903,
becoming the Communist Party
of the Soviet Union after 1917.
Bourgeoisie In Marxism, the class
that owns the means of production
and whose income derives from that
ownership rather than paid work.
Capitalism An economic system
characterized by market forces,
with private investment in, and
ownership of, a country’s means
of production and distribution.
Collectivism A political theory
that advocates collective, rather
than individual, control over social
and economic institutions,
especially the means of production.
Colonialism The claim of a state
to sovereignty over new territories.
It is characterized by an unequal
power relation between the
colonists who run the territories
and their indigenous population.
Common law The law of the land,
derived from neither the statute
books nor the constitution, but
from court law reports.
Communism An ideology that
advocates the elimination of private
property in favor of communal
ownership, based on the 1848
political manifesto of Karl Marx
and Friedrich Engels.
Confucianism A system based on
the teachings of Confucius, which
stresses hierarchy and loyalty, as
well as individual improvement.
Conservatism A political position
that opposes radical changes
in society. Conservatives may
advocate a wide range of policies,
including the preservation of
economic liberty, enterprise,
free markets, private property,
the privatization of business,
and reduced government action.
Constitutionalism A system
of government that adheres to a
constitution—a written collection
of the fundamental principles and
laws of a nation.
Democracy A form of government
in which supreme power is vested
in the people or exercised by their
elected representatives.
Dependency theory The notion
that rich countries in the northern
hemisphere have created a
neocolonial relationship with those
in the southern hemisphere, in
which the less developed countries
are dependent and disadvantaged.
Despot A ruler with absolute
power who typically exercises it
tyrannically and abusively.
Dictator An absolute ruler,
especially one who assumes
complete control without the free
consent of the people, and who may
exercise power oppressively.
Direct democracy Government
by the people in fact, rather than
merely in principle—citizens vote
on every issue affecting them—
as practiced in ancient Athens.
Divine right of kings A doctrine
that holds that a monarch derives
legitimacy from God, and is not
subject to any earthly authority.
Dystopia A theoretical society
characterized by a wretched,
dysfunctional state. See Utopia.
Economic structuralism
The belief that the conduct
of world politics is based
on the way that the world is
organized economically.
Ecosophy In green politics,
the ecological philosophy of Arne
Naess, propounding ecological
harmony or equilibrium.
Egalitarianism A philosophy
that advocates social, political,
and economic equality.
Elitism The belief that society
should be governed by an elite
group of individuals.
Enlightenment, The Also
known as the Age of Reason, a
period of intellectual advances
in the 18th century that involved
a questioning of religious
understandings of the world
and the application of reason.
Extremism Any political theory
that favors uncompromising
policies or actions.
Fabian Society A British
movement that advocated that
socialism should be introduced
incrementally via education and
gradual legislative changes.
Fascism A nationalist ideology
typified by strong leadership, stress
on a collective identity, and the use
of violence or warfare to further the
interests of the state. The term
derives from the Italian fascio—a
tied bundle of sticks—referring to
collective identity, and was first
applied to Mussolini’s regime.
Federalism A system of
government in which powers
are divided between central
government and smaller states
or provinces.
Feudal system A medieval
political system that consisted of
small geographical units—such as
principalities or dukedoms—ruled
by the nobility, where the peasant
population lived in a state of
bondage to their ruler.
Fourth estate A theoretical
institution consisting of the press
and other forms of media. The term
derives from the first three “estates”
—classes of people—recognized
by the French legislative assembly
until the late 18th century: the
Church, the nobility, and townsmen.
Fundamentalism The strict
adherence to and belief in
religious principles.
Glasnost Meaning “openness”
in Russian, a policy introduced
in the Soviet Union by Mikhail
Gorbachev that committed
the government to greater
accountability and scrutiny.
Green politics An ideology
centered around building an
ecologically sustainable society.
Habeas corpus The right of
an individual detained under
accusation to appear before a
court of law to have their guilt
or innocence examined.
Imperialism The policy of
extending the dominion of a nation
through direct intervention in the
affairs of other countries, and
seizure of territory and subjugation
of peoples in building an empire.
Isolationism A policy of
withdrawing a nation from
military alliances, international
agreements, and sometimes
even international trade.
Junta A clique, faction, or
cabal, often military in nature,
that takes power after the
overthrow of a government.
Just war theory A doctrine of
military ethics comprising Jus ad
bellum—Latin for “right to war”—
the need for a moral and legal basis
for war, and Jus in bello—Latin for
“justice in war”—the need for the
moral conduct of warfare.
Kleptocracy Political and
governmental corruption in which
politicians, bureaucrats, and their
protected friends exercise power for
their own material benefit. From
the Greek for “rule by thieves.”
Leftism, left wing Ideology
of the political “left.” It is
characterized by an interventionist
approach to social welfare and an
internationalist worldview. The
concept originated in 18th-century
France, when nobility who sought
to improve the peasants’ conditions
sat to the left of the king.
Legalism A utilitiarian political
philosophy adopted in China
during the Warring States period,
which stressed the importance of
maintaining law and order, using
harsh punishment if necessary.
Liberalism A political ideology
that stresses the rights and
freedoms of individuals. Liberals
may adopt a broad range of policies,
including the defense of free trade,
freedom of speech, and freedom of
religious association.
Liberalism, classic A philosophy
originating in the 18th century
that advocates the rights of the
individual over those of the state
or Church, opposing absolutism
and the divine right of kings.
Libertarianism The advocacy of
liberty and free will. It can be found
on both the political left and right
and incorporates beliefs including
self-reliance, reason, and
noninterference by the state in
economic and personal affairs.
Machiavellian Cunning,
cynical, and opportunistic
political activity. From Niccolò
Machiavelli, a 16th-century
Florentine political theorist.
Maoism A form of Marxism-
Leninism derived from the
teachings of Mao Zedong. Its
central tenet is that the agrarian
peasantry can take the place of the
proletariat in supporting revolution.
Marxian socialism A phase of
economic development that Marx
believed was an essential stage in
the transition from a capitalist to
a communist state.
Marxism The philosophy
underpinning the writings of Karl
Marx, proposing that the economic
order of society determines the
political and social relationships
within it.
Marxism-Leninism An ideology
based on the theories of Karl Marx
and Vladimir Lenin that calls for
the creation of an international
communist society.
Meritocracy The belief that rulers
should be selected on the basis of
ability, rather than wealth or birth.
Moral absolutism A philosophy
based on the notion that morality
should be the absolute guide of
human action, particularly in
regard to international law.
Multilateralism The cooperation
of multiple countries working
together in international relations.
The opposite of unilateralism.
Nationalism Loyalty and devotion
to the home nation, and the
political belief that its interests
should be pursued as the primary
goal of political policy.
Natural law The concept that
positive and just laws rest upon a
“higher law”—originally defined
by Thomas Aquinas as reflecting
God’s eternal law that guides the
universe—which is attested to by
common sense in most people.
Négritude An ideological position
of solidarity based on shared
black-African identity, developed
by French intellectuals in the
1930s in reaction to the racism
of French colonialism.
Oligarchy A form of government
in which power is held by a small
group and exercised in their own
interest, usually to the detriment
of the general population.
Pacifism The opposition to and
campaign against war and violence
as a means of resolving dispute,
usually based on religious or moral
grounds. The term was coined by
French peace campaigner Émile
Arnaud (1864–1921).
Partisan An absolute supporter of
a particular political leader, party,
or cause who typically exhibits
unquestioning allegiance.
Perestroika Political, bureaucratic,
or economic restructuring of a
system or organization. From the
Russian for “reconstruct,” it was first
coined by Mikhail Gorbachev to
describe reforms to the communist
system in the former Soviet Union.
Pluralism The belief in a society
in which members of diverse
social or racial groups are able to
express their traditional cultures
or special interests freely and
alongside one another.
Plutocracy A government that is
controlled or greatly influenced by
the wealthy in society.
Popular sovereignty The theory
that sovereign political authority is
vested in and equally shared by the
citizens of a state, who grant the
exercising of this authority to the
state, its government, and political
leaders, but do not surrender
ultimate sovereignty.
Progressivism The doctrine
of moderate political progress
toward better conditions in
government and society.
Proletariat In Marxist theory, the
workers of a nation who own no
property and must sell their labor
to earn a living. Marx believed that
it was inevitable that the proletariat
would rise up and overthrow their
capitalist masters, instituting a
communist system under which
they would exercise political and
economic control.
Radicalism The advocacy
of extreme forms of change to
achieve political means. Also
refers to beliefs that constitute
a considerable departure from
traditional or established beliefs.
Reactionism A political
orientation opposing radical social
change, instead favoring a return
to a former political or social order.
Realpolitik Pragmatic, realistic
politics, rather than that governed
by moral or ethical objectives.
Realpolitik may involve a loose
approach to civil liberties.
Republicanism The belief that a
republic—a state with no monarch,
in which power resides with the
people and is exercised by their
elected representatives—is the
best form of government.
Rightism, right wing The
ideology of the political “right,”
loosely defined as favoring
conservative, pro-market attitudes,
a preference for individual rights
over interventionist government,
a strict approach to law and
order, and nationalism.
Segregationism The belief in
the necessity to separate different
races, classes, or ethnic groups
from each other.
Sharia law The body of divine law
in Islam that governs the religious
and secular life of Muslims. Some
Muslims argue that Sharia is the
only legitimate basis for law.
Social contract An actual or
theoretical agreement between
individuals to form an organized
society, or between individuals
and a ruler or government to define
the limits, rights, and duties of
each. Theorists including Thomas
Hobbes and John Locke defined the
social contract as the means by
which individuals were protected
by a governing power, and kept
from the state of nature.
Social democracy A reformist
political movement advocating a
gradual transition from capitalism
to socialism by peaceful,
democratic means. Typical tenets
include the right of all citizens to
education, healthcare, workers’
compensation, and freedom
from discrimination.
Socialism An ideology and
method of government that
advocates state ownership and
regulation of industry, and central
control over the allocation of
resources, rather than allowing
these to be determined by
market forces.
Sovereignty Supreme power as
exercised by an autonomous state
or ruler, free from any external
influence or control. Usually used
to refer to a nation’s right to
selfdetermination
in internal affairs
and international relations with
other countries.
State of nature In social contract
theory, the hypothetical condition
that existed prior to the emergence
of organized government.
According to Jean-Jacques
Rousseau, this condition was
one of idyllic harmony between
man and nature, while Thomas
Hobbes depicts it as a dystopian
state of man in constant conflict
with his fellow man.
Suffrage The right to vote in
elections or referenda. Universal
suffrage refers to the right to vote of
citizens regardless of their gender,
race, social status, or wealth, while
women’s suffrage describes the
right of women to vote on the same
basis as men, as campaigned for in
the early 20th century by activists
such as the “suffragettes.”
Syndicalism An early 20th-century
ideology that emerged as an
alternative to capitalism and
socialism. Especially popular in
France and Spain, it advocated
the seizure of a nation’s means of
production—and the overthrow of
its government—in a general strike
by workers’ unions, and the
organization of production through
a federation of local syndicates.
Theocracy A political system that
is organized, governed, and led by
a priesthood, or even a proclaimed
“living god,” usually according to
religious doctrine or perceived
divine intervention.
Totalitarianism A regime that
subordinates the rights of the
individual in favor of the interests
of the state, through control of
political and economic affairs and
prescription of the attitudes, values,
and beliefs of the population.
Unilateralism Any action
conducted in a one-sided manner.
In politics, it often describes
countries conducting foreign
affairs in an individualistic manner,
with minimal consultation with
other nations, even allies. The
opposite of multilateralism.
Utilitarianism A branch of social
philosophy developed by Jeremy
Bentham, which holds that the best
policy at any given juncture is one
that affords the greatest happiness
to the greatest number of people.
Utopia An ideally perfect place. In
politics, “Utopian” is applied to any
system that aims to create an ideal
society. From the Greek meaning
“no place,” the word was first used
in Thomas More’s fictional work
Utopia (1516). See dystopia.
_SOCIOLOGY_
Agency Within sociology, self-
determination or free will.
Alienation As identified by Karl
Marx, the condition of workers who
feel estranged from themselves
or society due to a lack of power,
control, fulfillment, and satisfaction.
Marx attributed this to capitalist
society, where the means of
production are privately owned.
The concept has been developed
since the post-war era by various
thinkers, including Robert Blauner.
Anomie A state of confusion or
“normlessness” resulting from rapid
social change. When the social
norms and values governing daily
conduct change suddenly, people
are liable to feel disorientated and
purposeless until a social order is
re-established. See also deviant.
Bourgeoisie In Marxist theory
(see Marxism), the social class
of people that owns the industrial
means of production.
Bureaucracy Defined by Max
Weber as a system of organization
that is characterized by a hierarchy
of rule-bound officials who keep
detailed records of every action.
Capital Financial assets (such as
machinery) or the value of financial
assets (cash) used to produce an
income. One of the key ingredients
of economic activity, along with
land, labor, and enterprise.
Capitalism An economic system
based on the private ownership
of property and the means of
production, in which firms
compete to sell goods at a profit
and workers labor for a wage.
Capitalists The social class of
people that owns the means of
production in industrial societies.
Chicago School Not to be
confused with a free-market
economic way of thinking, this
sociological school of thought
developed in the 1920s and 30s.
Although its interests were
eclectic, it is often identified with
the origin of urban sociology.
Class conflict The tension that
can arise between different social
classes as a result of competing
socioeconomic interests.
Colonialism A phenomenon
whereby one country exerts control
over another, often exploiting it
economically. The term commonly
refers to the conquest, settlement,
and exploitation of parts of the
world by European powers.
Communism An economic
system based on collective
ownership of property and the
means of production.
Construct, social A concept or
perception created in society.
Consumer An individual who
buys goods or services for personal
use or consumption.
Consumerism The state of an
advanced capitalist society in
which the buying and selling of
various goods and services define
the era. The term also refers to a
perception that individuals desire
goods to construct self-identity.
Conspicuous consumption A
concept originated by Thorstein
Veblen that describes members of
a wealthy leisure class using luxury
goods to display their status. See
also material culture.
Culture The languages, customs,
knowledge, beliefs, values, and
norms that combine to make up
the way of life of any society. May
also refer to the arts (such as music,
theatre, literature, and so on).
Delinquency Minor crime
committed by a young person;
the term can also describe behavior
judged “unacceptable,” according
to a society’s norms.
Determinism The belief that a
person’s behavior is determined by
some form of external force
(such as God, genetics, or the
environment) so that genuinely
free choice is not possible. See also
economic determinism.
Deviant A behavior or type of
person deemed “rule-breaking” in
terms of the norms of a particular
society or social group.
Discourse In general use,
communication in speech or
writing; in sociological use, a
framework or system of ideas that
provides a perspective on life and
governs the way in which it can
be discussed. Discourse imparts
a meaning to events, and varies in
different eras, geographical areas,
and within social groups.
Domestic labor Unpaid work
in the home, such as cooking,
cleaning, childcare, and looking
after the sick and elderly.
Economic determinism
A materialistic view of history that
claims that economic forces cause
all social phenomena and the
evolution of human society.
Elite A small group of people who
hold a disproportionate amount of
wealth and power in a society.
Emotional labor As defined by
Arlie Hochschild, paid work that
requires an employee to display
certain emotions with the aim
of inducing particular responses.
Empirical evidence Evidence
that can be observed by the senses
and measured in some way.
Enlightenment, the A cultural
and intellectual movement in 17thand
18th-century Europe, which
fused ideas about God, rational
thought, and nature into a world
view that prized logic and reason
over emotion and intuition.
Essentialism The belief that
entities or people have inherent
characteristics, properties, or
“essences” that define who or what
they are. This idea leads to the
view that specific categories of
people possess intrinsic traits.
Ethnicity The shared culture of
a social group (such as language
or religious belief) that gives its
members a common identity and
differentiates it from others.
Ethnography The study of
peoples and cultures.
Ethnology The comparative study
of the differences between peoples
and cultures.
Feminism A social movement that
advocates the social, political, and
economic equality of the sexes.
Feminism is recognized as having
had several “waves,” or eras, each
with a different agenda of issues.
Feudalism A dominant historical
social system in which a warrior
nobility was rewarded with land for
providing military services to the
monarch, and then ruled over those
lands, benefitting from labor and
produce offered by vassals, or
peasants, in return for protection.
Frankfurt School A school of
interdisciplinary social theory,
originally known as the Institute
for Social Research, and affiliated
to the University of Frankfurt.
The school fostered new Marxist
thinking in the 20th century.
Functionalism In sociology, the
idea that society is structured
like a biological organism, with
specialized functions. Every aspect
of this society is interdependent
and contributes to the overall
functioning and stability.
Gender The socially constructed,
rather than biological, differences
between men and women.
Gender identity The way that
individuals are seen, by themselves
and others, in terms of their
gender roles and biological sex.
Gender role The social behavior
expected from men and women.
Gentrification A change in the
character of a run-down urban
community that is observable
through rising property prices and
an influx of wealthier individuals.
Globalization The increasing
interconnectedness and
interdependence of societies
around the world, as media and
culture, consumer goods, and
economic interests spread globally.
Glocalization The modification of
global forms—from fashion trends
to musical genres—by contact with
local communities and individuals.
Habitus Building on Thomas
Aquinas’s idea that each of us
thinks of ourselves as a certain
kind of person, Pierre Bourdieu’s
concept refers to a set of acquired
dispositions whereby people of a
social class share cultural values.
Hegemonic masculinity A given
society’s ideal of manliness. In
Western nations, this is associated
with heterosexuality, “toughness,”
wealth, and the subordination of
women. The idea emphasizes that
masculinity is an acquired identity.
Hegemony The winning and
holding of power and the formation
of social groups during that
process. Antonio Gramsci says that
hegemony is how the dominant
social class maintains its position.
Heterosexuality An attraction
toward people of the opposite sex.
Homosexuality An attraction
toward people of the same sex.
Hyper-reality As defined by
Baudrillard, the idea that there is no
longer a separate “reality” to which
images and symbols refer, but
instead a simulated version of
reality that seems more real
than anything that exists in
the physical world.
Iatrogenesis The danger that
arises from a medical system that
harms more people than it heals.
Identity The ways that individuals
see and define themselves, and
how other people define them.
Ideology A framework of ideas
that provides a viewpoint or set
of beliefs for a social group.
Industrial Revolution A stage of
development, originating in the UK
in the 18th century, during which
the economy was transformed by
new forms of mechanization from
a mainly agricultural economy to
an urban, industrialized one.
Interpretive The subjective
approach to examining society,
which contrasts with the objective
and scientific positivist approach.
Left-wing In the political
spectrum, the ideas of those who
favor reforming or socialist ideas.
Marginalization The process by
which a person or group of people is
pushed outside a powerful or ruling
group, with a consequent loss of
power, status, and influence.
Marxism A structural theory
of society developed by Karl Marx
and Friedrich Engels that claims
that history consists of epochs and
that social change arises out of
conflict between social classes—
the owners of the means of
production and the exploited
working masses.
Mass culture Products (books,
TV shows, and so on) that are
created as entertainment for
sale to the general public.
Material culture The history and
philosophy of objects; relationships
between people and things.
Means of production The key
resources (such as land, factories,
raw materials, and machinery)
needed to produce society’s goods.
Mode of production A Marxist
concept about the way a society is
organized to produce goods and
services; this includes the means
of production and the relations
among the labor force.
Modernity The condition of
society from the 17th century
onward, especially the social
change created by the Industrial
Revolution and urbanization.
Nation A body of people united
by culture, history, or language,
and usually sharing a particular
geographical area.
Nationalism A shared sense
of identification that is attached
to a nation and stems from
a commitment to a common
ideology and culture.
Neo-liberalism Political and
economic philosophies rooted in
a belief that free markets, limited
government, and the responses of
individuals provide better solutions
to problems than action by the
state can.
Neo-tribalism Short-lived, flexible,
and fluid groupings that people, in
a world of rapid change, seek out
to provide meaning in their lives.
Norms Social rules that define
what is expected behavior
(“normal”) for an individual in
a particular society or situation.
Nuclear family A two-generation
household of parents and children—
a prime agent of socialization.
Other, the A concept introduced
by Simone de Beauvoir to explain
how a group (men, in her example)
sees itself as the norm, and judges
anyone outside the group (women)
in terms of its own standards and
attributes, rather than seeing that
group independently, with the
attributes it actually has.
Patriarchy A social stratification
system in which men dominate,
exploit, and oppress women.
Positivism Within sociology, the
idea, pioneered by Auguste Comte,
that it is possible to observe social
life in a measurable, verifiable,
scientific way and establish truths
about a society. This belief gave
rise to the “positivist” opinion that
science could build a better world.
Postmodernism A perspective
that denies there can be a defining
“truth” about anything, instead
suggesting that a text, person,
or society can be deconstructed
according to many different
perspectives into many different
“truths.” By its nature, postmodern
social theory rejects being defined
and it is difficult to define.
Poverty Seebohm Rowntree
defined poverty as a state in which
earnings are insufficient to provide
a person’s bare necessities, which
is a subsistence level of poverty.
The term absolute poverty refers
to a living standard based upon
providing basic wants such as
food, housing, fuel, and clothing. In
wealthier countries today, poverty
is usually measured in relation to
the generally accepted standard
of living of the time, known as
relative poverty. Some definitions
of poverty now take account of
factors, such as skills or health, that
might produce social exclusion.
Proletariat In Marxist theory
(see Marxism), the social class
of people who labor for a wage.
Queer theory A cultural theory
that challenges binary notions of
sexuality and instead suggests that
sexualities are cultural constructs
influenced by time and place.
Racism Discriminating against
people, typically identified by
skin color, on the basis of alleged
biological differences, when in fact
such biological differences have
been proven by science not to exist.
Right-wing In the political
spectrum, the conservative ideas
of those who favor traditional social
arrangements and values.
Roles The patterns of behavior that
are expected from individuals in
society. See also gender role.
Secularization The process
whereby religion and its
institutions lose social significance.
Self-estrangement The sense
of alienation from oneself, either
through a negative view of self or
a sense that one’s labor belongs
to another person or organization.
Sexism Prejudice, discrimination,
or stereotyping of people because
of their male or female sex.
Sexual orientation An
individual’s attraction toward
people of a particular biological sex.
Simulacra Images that have no
basis in reality yet appear to reflect
things in the physical world.
Social class A status hierarchy
within the social system, reflecting
power, wealth, education, and
prestige. Although these classes
vary by society, Western models
generally recognize three broad
groups. The upper class is a small
social group that has the highest
status and owns a disproportionate
amount of society’s wealth. The
term middle class refers to well
educated people who do non manual
work, often in offices.
Working class refers to people with
manual jobs, such as factory or
agricultural work.
Social mobility The movement of
people or categories of people, such
as families, from one social class
to another.
Social networks The links
between individuals, families,
and groups with similar interests.
Social structure The social
institutions and relationships that
form the framework of a society.
Socialism A political doctrine
that aims to establish social and
economic equality. Socialists argue
that if the economy was under
the control of the majority of the
population, a more equitable social
structure would be created.
State An organized authority
that has legitimate control over
a territory, and a monopoly of the
use of force within its territory.
Status The amount of prestige
or importance a person has in the
eyes of other members of society.
Stereotype A widely held but
overly simplified image of a person
or social group.
Stigma A mark of disgrace or
an undesirable characteristic,
physical or social, that disqualifies
an individual from being fully
accepted by society. The
marginalization of individuals
in society, because they evoke
negative responses from others,
has been attributed to their having
assumed stigmatized identities,
which are demeaning in some way.
Structuralism The idea that we
must understand things—such as
a text, human mind, or society—by
examining the elements, or pattern
of relationships, in its structure.
Subculture A group that is seen
as a distinct and separate one
within the larger society because
while its members may agree with
most of a society’s values, beliefs,
and customs, they differ in others.
Symbolic interactionism The
theory that the self is an entity that
arises through social interactions.
Urbanization The process of
people moving from rural areas to
live in towns and cities, and the
social changes accompanying that.
The world is increasingly urban.
Values Ideas or beliefs about
the worth of a thing, process, or
behavior. A person’s values govern
the way they behave; a society’s
values dictate what is important
or not important, and what is
acceptable or unacceptable.
_PHILOSOPY_
the Absolute Ultimate reality
conceived of as an all-embracing,
single principle. Some thinkers
have identified this principle with
God; others have believed in the
Absolute but not in God; others
have not believed in either. The
philosopher most closely associated
with the idea is Georg Hegel.
Aesthetics A branch of philosophy
concerned with the principles of art
and the notion of beauty.
Agent The doing self, as distinct
from the knowing self; the self that
decides or chooses or acts.
Analysis The search for a deeper
understanding of something by
taking it to pieces and looking at
each part. The opposite approach
is synthesis.
Analytic philosophy A view of
philosophy that sees its aim as
clarification—the clarification of
concepts, statements, methods,
arguments, and theories by
carefully taking them apart.
Analytic statement A statement
whose truth or falsehood can be
established by analysis of the
statement itself. The opposite is
a synthetic statement.
Anthropomorphism The
attribution of human characteristics
to something that is not human; for
instance to God or to the weather.
A posteriori Something that can
be considered valid only by means
of experience.
A priori Something known to be
valid in advance of (or without
need of) experience.
Argument A process of reasoning
in logic that purports to show its
conclusion to be true.
Category The broadest class or
group into which things can be
divided. Aristotle and Immanuel
Kant both tried to provide a
complete list of categories.
Concept A thought or idea; the
meaning of a word or term.
Contingent May or may not be the
case; things could be either way.
The opposite is necessary.
Contradictory Two statements
are contradictory if one must be
true and the other false: they
cannot both be true, nor can they
both be false.
Contrary Two statements are
contrary if they cannot both be
true but may both be false.
Corroboration Evidence that
lends support to a conclusion
without necessarily proving it.
Cosmology The study of the whole
universe, the cosmos.
Deduction Reasoning from the
general to the particular—for
instance, “If all men are mortal then
Socrates, being a man, must be
mortal.” It is universally agreed that
deduction is valid. The opposite
process is called induction.
Determinism The view that
nothing can happen other than
what does happen, because every
event is the necessary outcome
of causes preceding it—which
themselves were the necessary
outcome of causes preceding them.
The opposite is indeterminism.
Dialectic i) Skill in questioning or
argument. ii) The idea that any
assertion, whether in word or deed,
evokes opposition, the two of which
are reconciled in a synthesis that
includes elements of both.
Dualism A view of something as
made up of two irreducible parts,
such as the idea of human beings
as consisting of bodies and minds,
the two being radically unlike.
Emotive Expressing emotion. In
philosophy the term is often used
in a derogatory way for utterances
that pretend to be objective or
impartial while in fact expressing
emotional attitudes, as for example
in “emotive definition.”
Empirical knowledge Knowledge
of the empirical world.
Empirical statement A statement
about the empirical world; what is
or could be experienced.
Empirical world The world as
revealed to us by our actual or
possible experience.
Empiricism The view that all
knowledge of anything that
actually exists must be derived
from experience.
Epistemology The branch of
philosophy concerned with what
sort of thing, if anything, we can
know; how we know it; and what
knowledge is. In practice it is the
dominant branch of philosophy.
Essence The essence of a thing is
that which is distinctive about it
and makes it what it is. For instance,
the essence of a unicorn is that it is
a horse with a single horn on its
head. Unicorns do not exist of
course—so essence does not imply
existence. This distinction is
important in philosophy.
Ethics A branch of philosophy
that is concerned with questions
about how we should live, and
therefore about the nature of right
and wrong, good and bad, ought
and ought not, duty, and other
such concepts.
Existentialism A philosophy
that begins with the contingent
existence of the individual human
being and regards that as the
primary enigma. It is from this
starting point that philosophical
understanding is pursued.
Fallacy A seriously wrong
argument, or a false conclusion
based on such an argument.
Falsifiability A statement, or set
of statements, is falsifiable if it
can be proved wrong by empirical
testing. According to Karl Popper,
falsifiability is what distinguishes
science from nonscience.
Humanism A philosophical
approach based on the assumption
that mankind is the most important
thing that exists, and that there can
be no knowledge of a supernatural
world, if any such world exists.
Hypothesis A theory whose truth
is assumed for the time being
because it forms a useful starting
point for further investigation,
despite limited evidence to prove
its validity.
Idealism The view that reality
consists ultimately of something
nonmaterial, whether it be mind,
the contents of mind, spirits, or
one spirit. The opposite point of
view is materialism.
Indeterminism The view that not
all events are necessary outcomes
of events that may have preceeded
them. The opposite is point of view
is determinism.
Induction Reasoning from the
particular to the general. An
example would be “Socrates died,
Plato died, Aristotle died, and each
other individual man who was born
more than 130 years ago has died.
Therefore all men are mortal.”
Induction does not necessarily yield
results that are true, so whether it
is genuinely a logical process is
disputed. The opposite process is
called deduction.
Intuition Direct knowing, whether
by sensory perception or by insight;
a form of knowledge that makes no
use of reasoning.
Irreducible An irreducible thing
is one that cannot be brought to a
simpler or reduced form.
Linguistic philosophy Also
known as linguistic analysis. The
view that philosophical problems
arise from a muddled use of
language, and are to be solved, or
dissolved, by a careful analysis
of the language in which they
have been expressed.
Logic The branch of philosophy
that makes a study of rational
argument itself—its terms,
concepts, rules, and methods.
Logical positivism The view that
the only empirical statements
that are meaningful are those that
are verifiable.
Materialism The doctrine that
all real existence is ultimately of
something material. The opposite
point of view is idealism.
Metaphilosophy The branch of
philosophy that looks at the nature
and methods of philosophy itself.
Metaphysics The branch of
philosophy concerned with the
ultimate nature of what exists. It
questions the natural world “from
outside”, and its questions cannot
be answered by science.
Methodology The study of methods
of enquiry and argument.
Monism A view of something as
formed by a single element; for
example, the view that human
beings do not consist of elements
that are ultimately separable, like
a body and a soul, but are of one
single substance.
Mysticism Intuitive knowledge
that transcends the natural world.
Naturalism The view that reality
is explicable without reference to
anything outside the natural world.
Necessary Must be the case. The
opposite is contingent. Hume
believed that necessary connections
existed only in logic, not in the real
world, a view that has been upheld
by many philosophers since.
Necessary and sufficient
conditions For X to be a husband
it is a necessary condition for X to
be married. However, this is not a
sufficient condition—for what if X
is female? A sufficient condition for
X to be a husband is that X is both
a man and married. One of the
commonest forms of error in
thinking is to mistake necessary
conditions for sufficient conditions.
Noncontradictory Statements are
considered noncontradictory if their
truth-values are independent of
one another.
Noumenon The unknowable
reality behind what presents itself
to human consciousness, the latter
being known as phenomenon. A
thing as it is in itself, independently
of being experienced, is said to be
the noumenon. “The noumenal” has
therefore become a term for the
ultimate nature of reality.
Numinous Anything regarded as
mysterious and awesome, bearing
intimations from outside the natural
realm. Not to be confused with the
noumenal; see noumenon above.
Ontology A branch of philosophy
that asks what actually exists, as
distinct from the nature of our
knowledge of it, which is covered
by the branch of epistemology.
Ontology and epistemology taken
together constitute the central
tradition of philosophy.
Phenomenology An approach
to philosophy which investigates
objects of experience (known as
phenomena) only to the extent
that they manifest themselves in
our consciousness, without making
any assumptions about their
nature as independent things.
Phenomenon An experience that
is immediately present. If I look at
an object, the object as experienced
by me is a phenomenon. Immanuel
Kant distinguished this from the
object as it is in itself, independently
of being experienced: this he called
the noumenon.
Philosophy Literally, “the love of
wisdom.” The word is widely used
for any sustained rational reflection
about general principles that has
the aim of achieving a deeper
understanding. Philosophy provides
training in the disciplined analysis
and clarification of arguments,
theories, methods, and utterances
of all kinds, and the concepts of
which they make use. Traditionally,
its ultimate aim has been to attain
a better understanding of the world,
though in the 20th century a good
deal of philosophy became devoted
to attaining a better understanding
of its own procedures.
Philosophy of religion The
branch of philosophy that looks at
human belief systems and the real
or imaginary objects, such as gods,
that form the basis for these beliefs.
Philosophy of science A branch
of philosophy concerned with the
nature of scientific knowledge and
the practice of scientific endeavor.
Political philosophy The branch
of philosophy that questions the
nature and methods of the state
and deals with such subjects as
justice, law, social hierarchies,
political power, and constitutions.
Postmodernism A viewpoint that
holds a general distrust of theories,
narratives, and ideologies that
attempt to put all knowledge into
a single framework.
Pragmatism A theory of truth.
It holds that a statement is true if
it does all the jobs required of it:
accurately describes a situation;
prompts us to anticipate experience
correctly; fits in with already
wellattested
statements; and so on.
Premise The starting point of an
argument. Any argument has to
start from at least one premise, and
therefore does not prove its own
premises. A valid argument proves
that its conclusions follow from its
premises—but this is not the same
as proving that its conclusions are
true, which is something no
argument can do.
Presupposition Something taken
for granted but not expressed. All
utterances have presuppositions,
and these may be conscious or
unconscious. If a presupposition is
mistaken, an utterance based on it
may also be mistaken, though the
mistake may not evident in the
utterance itself. The study of
philosophy teaches us to become
more aware of presuppositions.
Primary and secondary qualities
John Locke divided the properties
of a physical object into those
that are possessed by the object
independently of being experienced,
such as its location, dimensions,
velocity, mass, and so on (which he
called primary qualities), and those
that involve the interaction of an
experiencing observer, such as the
object’s color and taste (which he
called secondary qualities).
Property In philosophy this
word is commonly used to mean a
characteristic; for example “fur or
hair is a defining property of a
mammal.” See also primary and
secondary qualities.
Rational Based on, or according
to, the principles of reason or logic.
Proposition The content of a
statement that confirms or denies
whether something is the case, and
is capable of being true or false.
Rationalism The view that we
can gain knowledge of the world
through the use of reason, without
relying on sense-perception, which
is regarded by rationalists as
unreliable. The opposite view
is known as empiricism.
Scepticism The view that it is
impossible for us to know anything
for certain.
Semantics The study of meanings
in linguistic expressions.
Semiotics The study of signs
and symbols, in particular their
relationships with the things they
are meant to signify.
Social contract An implicit
agreement among members of a
society to cooperate in order to
achieve goals that benefit the whole
group, sometimes at the expense
of individuals within it.
Solipsism The view that only the
existence of the self can be known.
Sophist Someone whose aim in
argument is not to seek the truth
but to win the argument. In ancient
Greece, young men aspiring to
public life were taught by sophists
to learn the various methods of
winning arguments.
Synthesis Seeking a deeper
understanding of something by
putting the pieces together. The
opposite is analysis.
Synthetic statement A statement
that has to be set against facts
outside itself for its truth to be
determined. The opposite is an
analytic statement.
Teleology A study of ends or
goals. A teleological explanation
is one that explains something in
terms of the ends that it serves.
Theology Enquiry into scholarly
and intellectual questions
concerning the nature of God.
Philosophy, by contrast, does not
assume the existence of God,
though some philosophers have
attempted to prove his existence.
Thing-in-itself Another term for
a noumenon, from the German
Ding-an-sich.
Transcendental Outside the
world of sense experience.
Someone who believes that ethics
are transcendental believes that
ethics have their source outside the
empirical world. Thoroughgoing
empiricists do not believe that
anything transcendental exists,
and nor did Friedrich Nietzsche
or humanist existentialists.
Truth-value Either of two values,
namely true or false, that can be
applied to a statement.
Universal A concept of general
application, like “red” or “woman.”
It has been disputed whether
universals have an existence of
their own. Does “redness” exist, or
are there only individual red objects?
In the Middle Ages, philosophers
who believed that “redness” had a
real existence were called “realists”,
while philosophers who maintained
that it was no more than a word
were called “nominalists.”
Universalism The belief that
we should apply to ourselves the
same standards and values that we
apply to others. Not to be confused
with universal, above.
Utilitarianism A theory of politics
and ethics that judges the morality
of actions by their consequences,
that regards the most desirable
consequence of any action as the
greatest good of the greatest
number, and that defines “good”
in terms of pleasure and the
absence of pain.
Validity An argument is valid
if its conclusion follows from its
premises. This does not necessarily
mean that the conclusion is true: it
may be false if one of the premises
is false, though the argument itself
is still valid.
Verifiability A statement or set
of statements can be verified if it
can be proved to be true by looking
at empirical evidence. Logical
positivists believed that the only
empirical statements that were
meaningful were those that were
verifiable. David Hume and Karl
Popper pointed out that scientific
laws were unverifiable.
World In philosophy the word
“world” has been given a special
sense, meaning “the whole of
empirical reality”, and may
therefore also be equated with
the totality of actual and possible Ananda (H) A state of bliss. the New Testament, which deals
experience. True empiricists Anata (B) A state of freedom from ego with the life and work of Jesus, his
believe that the world is all there is, to which Buddhists aspire. followers, and the early Church.
but philosophers with different Anicca (B) The impermanence See also Hebrew Bible.

views believe that the world does of existence. Bodhisattva (B) Someone on the
Arhat (B) A perfect being who has path to becoming a buddha, who
not account for total reality. Such
attained nirvana. puts off final enlightenment to help
philosophers believe that there is a
Artha (H) The pursuit of material other people to reach the same state.
transcendental realm as well as
wealth, one of the duties of a person Brahma (H) The creator god, one of
an empirical realm, and they may
in the “householder” stage of life, the the Hindu Trimurti.
believe that both are equally real.
second phase of the ashrama. Brahman (H) The impersonal and

_RELIGION_ Ashkenazim (J) Jews from

Eastern and Central Europe, and
unchanging divine reality of the
universe. All other gods are aspects
their descendants around the world. of Brahman.
Key
Ashrama (H) The stages of life, of Brahmin (H) A priest or seeker of
(B) Buddhism
which there are four, in the Hindu the highest knowledge; the priestly
(C) Christianity
social system: student; householder; class and custodians of dharma.
(D) Daoism and other
retiree; and ascetic. Buddha (B) An enlightened being.
Chinese religions
Atman (H) The individual self. Canonization (C) The process by
(H) Hinduism
Avatar (H) An incarnation of a which the Christian Church declares
(I) Islam
Hindu deity; especially the various that a person is a saint.
(J) Judaism
incarnations of the god Vishnu. Charismata (C) Spiritual gifts
(Jn) Jainism
Avesta (Z) The principle sacred conferred by the Holy Spirit of God
(S) Sikhism
texts of Zoroastrianism. on believers, manifesting in forms
(Sh) Shinto
Ayat (C) The smallest entries in such as the ability to heal, or speak
(Z) Zoroastrianism
the Qu’ran, which are short verses in tongues.
Adi Granth (S) See Guru
or “signs.” Christ (C) Literally, “anointed one”;
Granth Sahib.
Baptism (C) The sacrament that title given to Jesus.
Advaita Vedanta (H) A school of
admits a person to the Christian Confirmation (C) A ritual in which
Hindu philosophy developed in the
Church in a ritual that involves being those who have been baptized
9th century, which gives a unified
sprinkled with, or immersed in, water. confirm their Christian faith.
explanation of the Vedas, and
Bar/bat mitzvah (J) The ceremony Covenant (J) An agreement
focuses on the idea of Brahman.
marking a Jewish boy’s or girl’s between God and the Jewish people
Ahadith (I) See Hadith.
admission to the adult religious in which the Jews are identified as
Ahimsa (B, H, Jn) A doctrine of
community; the state of having the group he has chosen to play
nonviolence of both thought and action.
reached religious adulthood. a special role in the relationship
Akhand path (S) A complete and
Bhakti (B, H) An active religious between himself and humanity.
uninterrupted oral rendition of the
devotion to a divinity leading Dao (D) The path or way that
Guru Granth Sahib.
to nirvana. an individual aims to follow; the
Allah (I) The name of the one God.
Bible (C) The collection of books underlying way or pattern governing
Amrit (S) Sweetened holy water
that constitute the sacred text of the working of nature.
used in religious ceremonies; the
Christianity. The Christian Bible Darshan (H) The worshipping of a
specific Sikh ceremony of initiation.
comprises the Old Testament, which deity by means of viewing an image
Analects (D) The collected sayings
includes the Jewish books of the law, of the god or goddess.
of Confucius and his contemporaries,
Jewish history, and the prophets; and Dhamma (B) A variant of dharma,
written by his followers.
most commonly used in Buddhism.
Dharma (H) The underlying path or
pattern that characterizes the cosmos
and the earth; it also refers to the
moral path that a person must follow.
Dukkha (B) Suffering or
dissatisfaction; the idea that all
life is suffering, the first of the Four
Noble Truths defined by Buddha.
Eightfold Path (B) The path of
disciplined living that Buddhists
follow in the hope of breaking free
from the cycle of death and rebirth.
Followers aim to achieve correct
understanding, intention (or thought),
speech, conduct, occupation, effort,
mindfulness, and concentration.
Enlightenment (B) Discovery of the
ultimate truth, and the end of dukkha.
Eucharist (C) One of the main
sacraments, involving the taking
of wine and bread as the blood and
body of Christ; it is known as Mass in
Catholicism, Holy Communion in the
Anglican Church, and the liturgy in
the various Orthodox churches.
Fatwa (I) A nonbinding judgment
on a point of Islamic law given by a
recognized religious authority.
Four Noble Truths (B) A central
teaching of Buddhism, explaining
the nature of dukkha, its causes,
and how it can be overcome.
Fravashi (Z) A guardian angel who
protects the souls of individuals as
they struggle against evil.
Gathas (Z) The most sacred texts
of Zoroastrianism, supposedly
composed by Zoroaster himself.
Gentile (J) A non-Jew.
Gospels (C) The four books of
the New Testament of the Bible,
attributed to the apostles Matthew,
Mark, Luke, and John, which tell of
Jesus’s life and teachings; Gospel
(good news) can also refer to the
content of Christian teaching.
Granthi (S) An official who takes
care of the Guru Granth Sahib and
the gurdwara. A granthi is also a
skilled reader of the sacred book.
Gurdwara (S) A Sikh temple; the
place where the Guru Granth
Sahib is housed.
Guru (H) Teacher; (S) One of the
10 founder-leaders of Sikhism.
Guru Granth Sahib (S) The Sikh
sacred book, also known as the
Adi Granth.
Hadith (I) Traditional accounts of the
deeds and teachings of the Prophet
Muhammad; the second source of
Islamic law and moral guidance after
the Qur’an.
Hafiz (I) A term of respect for a
person who has memorized the
Qur’an.
Haggadah (J) The body of teaching
of the early rabbis, containing
legends, historical narratives, and
ethical precepts.
Hajj (I) The pilgrimage to Mecca, the
fourth of the five pillars of Islam; all
Muslims hope to make this journey
once in their lives.
Halal (I) Conduct that is permitted;
specifically, the correct method of
slaughtering livestock, and the meat
from correctly slaughtered animals.
Haram (I) Conduct that is forbidden;
something sacred or inviolate.
Hasid (J) A member of a Jewish
group founded in the 18th century
that places a strong emphasis
on mysticism.
Haskalah (J) The Jewish
Enlightenment, a movement
among European Jews in the
18th–19th centuries.
Hebrew Bible (J) A collection of
sacred writings that form the basis
of Judaism, including the Torah,
revelations of prophets, and other
sacred texts; the equivalent of the Old
Testament in the Christian Bible.
Icon (C) A sacred image, usually
depicting Christ or one of the saints,
which is used as a focus for devotion,
especially in the Orthodox Churches.
Imam (I) Leader of prayers in a
mosque; or, one of the great leaders of
the Muslim community in the Shi‘a
branch of the faith.
Incarnation (C) The belief that in
the person of Jesus Christ, divine and
human natures were made one.
Jihad (I) A religious duty to struggle
against evil in the name of God,
whether spiritually or physically.
Jina (Jn) A spiritual teacher.
See tirthankara.
Kaaba (I) One of Islam’s most sacred
buildings, sited in Mecca inside the
Masjid al-Haram mosque; a principal
destination for those on hajj.
Kabbalah (J) An ancient Jewish
mystical tradition based on an
esoteric interpretation of the
Hebrew Bible.
Kaccha (S) Long shorts worn under
other garments by Sikhs; one of the
distinguishing “five Ks” of Sikhism.
Kalam (I) Discussion and debate,
especially relating to Islamic theology.
Kami (Sh) A spirit or deity in Shinto
religion. There are many thousands
of kami in the Shinto pantheon.
Kangha (S) A small comb worn in
the hair by Sikhs; one of the “five Ks”
of Sikhism.
Kara (S) A steel bangle worn by
Sikhs on the right wrist. One of the
“five Ks” of Sikhism.
Karma (B, H) The law of moral cause
and effect that influences our rebirth
after death.
Kesh (S) Uncut hair; one of the “five
Ks” of Sikhism.
Khalsa (S) The community of
initiated Sikhs, founded by Guru
Gobind Singh.
Khanda (S) A two-edged sword of the
kind used by Guru Gobind Singh in a
ritual that marked the founding of the
Khalsa; now a symbol of Sikhism.
Kirpan (S) A sword worn by Sikhs;
one of the “five Ks” of Sikhism.
Kirtan (S) Hymn singing that forms
an important part of Sikh worship.
Koan (B) In Zen Buddhism, a
problem or riddle without logical
solution, which is intended to
provoke an insight.
Kojiki (Sh) The sacred text of Shinto.
Kosher (J) Sanctioned by religious
law; especially food deemed fit to eat,
according to Jewish dietary laws.
Kundalini (H) Life force or energy
that is coiled at the base of the spine.
Lama (B) An adept spiritual teacher
in Tibetan Buddhism, specifically one
who has undergone particular yogic
or other training, or one who is
considered to be the reincarnation
of a previous spiritual leader.
Mandala (B) A sacred diagram,
usually depicting a conception
of the cosmos, used as a focus for
meditation and in other rituals,
especially in Tibetan Buddhism.
Mantra (B, H) A sacred sound or
word used to bring about a spiritual
transformation; in Hinduism, the
metrical psalms of Vedic literature.
Matha (H, Jn) Monastic and similar
religious establishments.
Matsuri (Sh) A festival or ritual in
Shinto. Many feature processions
of shrine-bearing worshippers.
Maya (H) The illusion of the world
as experienced by the senses.
Mihrab (I) A niche in the prayer hall
of a mosque, indicating the qibla.
Mishnah (J) The first major written
redaction of the Jewish oral traditions
and also the first major work of
rabbinic Judaism.
Mitzvah (J) A commandment from
God, specifically either one of the
10 principal commandments, or
one of the 613 instructions found
in the Torah.
Moksha (H) The release from the
round of life, death, and rebirth; also
known as mukti.
Mool mantra (S) A statement
of Sikh belief in the oneness of god,
composed by Guru Nanak; also called
the mool mantar.
Mudra (B, H) A symbolic gesture,
usually with the hands.
Mullah (I) An Islamic religious
scholar, who may also preach and
lead prayers in a mosque.
Murti (H) An image or statue of
a deity, seen as the dwelling place
or embodiment of the deity.
Nirvana (B) The state of liberation
from the round of death and rebirth.
Puja (H) Worship through ritual.
Puranas (B, H, Jn) Writings not
included in the Vedas, recounting
the birth and deeds of Hindu gods
and the creation, destruction, or
re-creation of the universe.
Pure Land (B) The paradise where,
according to some forms of Buddhism,
the souls of believers go after death;
known in Japanese Buddhism as jodo.
Purusha (H) The eternal and
authentic self that pervades all
things in the universe.
Qi (D) The life force or active
principle that animates things in
the world, according to traditional
Chinese philosophy.
Qibla (I) The direction that a Muslim
should face when praying—that of the
Kaaba in Mecca.
Qigong (D) A system of breathing
and exercise for physical, mental, and
spiritual health.
Qur’an (I) The words of God as
revealed to the Prophet Muhammad
and later written down to form the
sacred text of Islam.
Rabbi (J) A teacher and spiritual
leader of a Jewish community.
Rabbinical (J) Of, or relating
to, rabbis.
Ramadan (I) The ninth month of
the Islamic calendar; a month of daily
fasting from dawn until sunset.
Ren (D) Benevolence or altruism
in Confucianism.
Sabbath (J) The rest day of the
Jewish week, lasting from sunset
on Friday to sunset on Saturday.
Sacraments (C) The solemn rites
of Christianity. The Catholic and
Orthodox Churches recognize seven:
baptism, Eucharist, penance,
confirmation, ordination, extreme
unction (last rites), and marriage.
Most Protestant Churches recognize
only two: baptism and the Eucharist.
Sadhu (H) A holy man who has
dedicated his life to seeking God.
Salat (I) Prayer; the second of the five
pillars of Islam. Muslims are expected
to pray five times each day.
Samsara (B, H) The continuing
and repeating cycle of birth, life,
death, and rebirth.
Samskara (H) Imprints left on the
mind by experience in current or
past lives; Hindu rites of passage.
Sawm (I) Fasting, especially during
the month of Ramadan; the fourth of
the five pillars of Islam.
Sangha (B) An order of Buddhist
monks and nuns.
Satya (H) Truth, or what is correct
and unchanging.
Sefirot (J) The 10 emanations, the
attributes of God in kabbalah.
Sephardim (J) Jews who come from
Spain, Portugal, or North Africa, or
their descendants.
Seva (S) Service to others, one of the
important principles of Sikhism.
Shahada (I) The Muslim profession
of faith, translated as, “There is
no God but God; Muhammad is the
messenger of God”; the first and
most important of the five pillars
of Islam.
Shari‘a (I) The path to be followed
in Muslim life and, therefore, Islamic
law, based on the Qur’an and on
the Hadith.
Shi‘a (I) One of the two main groups
of Muslims, consisting of those who
believe that Muhammad’s cousin ‘Ali
was his rightful successor as caliph.
See also Sunni.
Shirk (I) The sin of idolatry or
polytheism.
Sruti (H) The Vedas and some of
the Upanishads.
Sufi (I) A member of one of a
number of mystical Islamic orders,
whose beliefs center on a personal
relationship with God. Sufi orders can
be found in Sunni, Shi‘a and other
Islamic groups. Sufism is associated
with the ecstatic whirling dances of
the dervishes.
Sunna (I) Muhammad’s way of life,
taken as a model for Muslims and
recorded in the hadiths.
Sunni (I) One of the two main
groups of Muslims, followers of those
who supported an elected caliphate.
See also Shi‘a.
Sutra (B, H) A collection of
teachings, especially sayings
attributed to Buddha.
Talmud (J) Text made up of a body
of discussion and interpretation of
the Torah, compiled by scholars and
rabbis, and a source of ethical advice
and instruction, especially to
Orthodox Jews.
Tantra (B) Text used in some
kinds of Buddhism (mainly in Tibet)
to help users to reach enlightenment,
or the practices based on such a text.
Tirthankara (Jn) One of the 24
spiritual teachers or jinas who have
shown the way of the Jain faith.
Torah (J) The first five books of the
Hebrew Bible, seen as representing
the teaching given by God to Moses
on Mount Sinai.
Trimurti (H) The trio of principal
Hindu gods—Brahma, Vishnu, and
Shiva—or a threefold image of them.
Trinity (C) The threefold god,
comprising Father, Son, and Holy
Spirit in a single divinity.
Upanishads (H) Sacred texts
containing Hindu philosophical
teachings; also known as the
Vedanta, the end of the Vedas.
Vedas (H) Collections of hymns
and other writings in praise of
the deities.
Wa (D) Harmony, in which the group
takes precedence over the individual.
Wuwei (D) Uncontrived and
effortless doing.
Yin–yang (D) The two principles of
the cosmos in Chinese philosophy,
seen as opposite but complementary
and interacting to produce a whole
greater than either separate part.
YHWH (J) The four letters that
represent the name of God in
Judaism, considered to be too holy
to utter, but pronounced “yahweh.”
Yoga (H) A form of physical and
mental training. One the six schools
of Hindu philosophy.
Zakat (I) The giving of alms in
the form of a tax to help the poor;
the third pillar of Islam.
Zazen (B) Seated meditation.
Zurvan (Z) The God of time; in some
forms of Zoroastrianism, the primal
being, from whom were derived the
wise lord Ahura Mazda and the
hostile spirit Angra Mainyu.
_GEOGRAPHY_
http://www.enchantedlearning.com
/geography/glossary/
Altitude is the height of an area,
measured from sea level.
Antarctic Circle is an imaginary circle at
latitude 66°30' S, around the South
Pole.
Analemma is a figure-8-shaped
diagram that shows the declination of
the sun (the angle that the sun is from
the equator), for each day in the year.
If you took a snapshot of the sun at
the same time each day (from the
same location), the Sun would make a
figure shaped like an analemma during
the course of a year (this is because
the Earth is tilted on its axis and
because it doesn't orbit the Sun in a
perfect circle).
Antipodes are a pair of points that are
on opposite sides of a planet (like the
North Pole and the South Pole).
Archipelago is a group or chain of
islands clustered together in a sea or
ocean.
Arctic Circle is an imaginary circle at
latitude 66°30' N, around the North
Pole.
Atoll is a ring (or partial ring) of coral
that forms an island in an ocean or
sea.
Azimuth is the angle that a line makes
with a meridian (a line of longitude),
going clockwise from north.
Bathymetric map is a map of the
bottom of a body of water, noting the
depth contours (these are called
isobaths).
Bay is a body of water that is partly
enclosed by land (and is usually
smaller than a gulf).
Butte is a flat-topped rock or hill
formation with steep sides.
Canal is a man-made waterway used
for transportation or irrigation.
Canyon is a deep valley with very
steep sides - often carved from the
Earth by a river.
Cape is a pointed piece of land that
sticks out into a sea, ocean, lake, or
river.
Cartographer is a map maker.
Cartography is the study and the
construction of maps.
Cave is a large hole in the ground or in
the side of a hill or mountain.
Central meridian is a meridian that
passes through the center of a
projection. The central meridian is
often a straight line that is an axis of
symmetry of the projection.
Channel is a narrow body of water that
connects two larger bodies of water
(like the English Channel). A channel is
also a part of a river or harbor that is
deep enough to let ships sail through.
Cliff is a steep face of rock and soil.
Compass is a device that always points
north. It is used for navigation.
Compass rose is a design on a map
that shows direction. It points which
way is north, south, east, west, and
some intermediate directions on the
map.
Conic projection is a type of map in
which a cone is wrapped around a
sphere (the globe), and the details of
the globe are projected onto the conic
surface. Then, the cone is unwrapped
into a flat surface.
Continent is the land mass on Earth is
divided into continents. The seven
current continents are Africa,
Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe,
North America, and South America.
Contour is a line on a topographic
map that represents locations that
have the same altitude.
Cove is small, horseshoe-shaped body
of water along the coast; the water is
surrounded by land formed of soft
rock.
Cylindrical projection is a type of map
in which a cylinder is wrapped around
a sphere (the globe), and the details of
the globe are projected onto the
cylindrical surface. Then, the cylinder is
unwrapped into a flat surface, yielding
a rectangular-shaped map. Cylindrical
maps have a lot of distortion in the
Polar Regions (that is, the size of the
Polar Regions is greatly exaggerated
on these maps).
Degree is a unit of measurement; a
degree is also written °. There are 360
degrees in a circle. Each degree is
divided into 60 minutes, written as the
symbol '. For example, 10 and a half
degrees is written 10° 30'.
Delta is a low, watery land formed at
the mouth of a river. It is formed from
the silt, sand and small rocks that flow
downstream in the river and are
deposited in the delta. A delta is often
(but not always) shaped like a triangle
(hence its name, delta, a Greek letter
that is shaped like a triangle).
Desert is a very dry area.
Dune is a hill or a ridge made of sand.
Dunes are shaped by the wind, and
change all the time.
Eastern Hemisphere consists of Africa,
Asia, Australia, and Europe.
Equator is an imaginary circle around
the earth, halfway between the north
and south poles.
Estuary is where a river meets the sea
or ocean.
Fjord is a long, narrow sea inlet that is
bordered by steep cliffs.
Forestry map is a map that notes the
density, kind, size, and value of the
trees in an area.
Geography is the study of the Earth's
surface.
Geologic map is a map that notes the
structure and composition of geologic
features, like the presence of minerals,
rock types, earthquake faults,
underground water, and landslide
areas.
Geomorphology is the scientific field
that investigates how landforms are
formed on the Earth (and other
planets).
Geyser is a natural hot spring that
occasionally sprays water and steam
above the ground.
Geographical coordinate system is a
system that uses latitude and longitude
to describe points on the spherical
surface of the globe.
Glacier is a slowly moving river of ice.
GPS is short for global positioning
system. GPS devices tell you your exact
longitude and latitude (it gets the
information from orbiting satellites).
Gulf a part of the ocean (or sea) that is
partly surrounded by land (it is usually
larger than a bay).
Hill A hill is a raised area or mound of
land.
Ice shelf is a thick slab of floating ice
that is next to land.
International Date Line (IDL) is an
imaginary north-south line (at the
180th meridian), in the Pacific Ocean,
at which the date changes. The east
side of the IDL is a calendar day earlier
than the west side. The actual IDL used
is not a straight line, but zigzags
around certain populated areas.
Island is a piece of land that is
surrounded by water.
Isthmus is a narrow strip of land
connecting two larger landmasses. An
isthmus has water on two sides.
Key of a map (also called the legend) is
a small table accompanying the map
that explains the symbols that are used
on the map.
Lagoon is a shallow body of water that
is located alongside a coast and
separated from the ocean by a strip of
land or a sandbank.
Lake is a large body of water
surrounded by land on all sides. Really
huge lakes are often called seas.
Landmark is a monument or some
prominent object (like a mountain or
lake) that is used to designate a place
and determine one's location.
Latitude is the angular distance north
or south from the equator to a
particular location. The equator has a
latitude of zero degrees. The North
Pole has a latitude of 90 degrees
North; the South Pole has a latitude of
90 degrees South.
Legend of a map (also called the key)
is a small table accompanying the map
that explains the symbols that are used
on the map.
Longitude is the angular distance east
or west from the north-south line that
passes through Greenwich, England, to
a particular location. Greenwich,
England has a longitude of zero
degrees. The farther east or west of
Greenwich you are, the greater your
longitude. The Midway Islands (in the
Pacific Ocean) have a longitude of 180
degrees (they are on the opposite side
of the globe from Greenwich).
Map is a graphic representation of a
place. There are many different types
of maps that have different uses. Since
a map is 2-dimensional representation
of a 3-dimensional world,
compromises must be made. Different
maps differ in the relative accuracy of
the depiction of the area, the shapes
of objects, actual distances, and
compass direction. Maps that
accurately relect area are often called
equal-area maps (an example is the
Albers equal-area conic map). Maps
that maintain the shape of objects are
called conformal. Maps that correctly
show the distance between areas are
often called equi-distant maps (note
that the shortest distance between two
points on a map is generally not a
straight line. but a curve). Navigational
maps need accurate compass
directions maintained on the map (like
the Mercator map).
Map projections There are many ways
of making maps. Since a map is a 2-
dimensional representation of a curved
surface (a globe), the map cannot be
perfectly accurate. These map-making
methods are called projections
because cartographers have to project
a 3-D surface onto a 2-D map. There
are many different types of projections
that have different uses. Some
projections preserve compass
directions but distort areas (like
Mercator projections), while others
preserve area but distort distances and
compass directions (like Robinson
projections).
Map scale of a map is the ratio
between the distance between two
points found on the map as compared
to the actual distance between these
points in the real world.
Marsh is a type of freshwater, brackish
water or saltwater wetland that is
found along rivers, pond, lakes and
coasts. Marsh plants grow up out of
the water.
Mercator projection is a type of
rectangular map (a cylindrical
projection) in which the true compass
directions are kept intact (lines of
latitude and longitude intersect at right
angles), but areas are distorted (for
example, polar areas look much larger
than they really are). Mercator
projections are useful for nautical
navigation. Geradus Mercator devised
this cylindrical projection for use in
navigation in 1569.
Meridian is a circular arc (a great circle)
of longitude that meets at the north
and south poles and connects all
places of the same longitude. The
prime meridian (0 degrees longitude)
passes through Greenwich, England.
Mesa is a land formation that has a flat
area onthe top and steep walls -
mesas usually occur in dry areas.
Mollweide projection is a type of
sinusoidal projection map in which the
entire surface of the Earth is shown
within an ellipse. Lines of latitude are
parallel to the equator, but lines of
longitude are curved in such a way
that area distortion is minimal. The
distortion is greatest at the edges of
the ellipse. This type of projection was
created by Carl B. Mollweide in 1805.
Mountain is a very tall high, natural
place on Earth - higher than a hill. The
tallest mountain on Earth is Mt.
Everest.
Northern Hemisphere is the half of the
Earth that is north of the equator.
North Magnetic Pole is the point on
the Northern Hemisphere of the Earth
toward which a compass' needle
always points; at the North Magnetic
Pole, a compass' needle will stand
vertically. It is now located near in
northern Canada (and its location
changes over time).
North Pole is the point on the
Northern Hemisphere of the Earth that
is farthest north. It is 90° north of the
equator.
Oasis is a place in the desert that has
water and is fertile.
Ocean is a large body of salt water
that surrounds a continent. Oceans
cover more the two-thirds of the
Earth's surface
Orthographic projection is a type of
map in which is essentially a drawing
of (one side of) a globe. There is a lot
of distortion of area in this type of
map, but one gets the idea that the
globe is being represented.
Orthophanic projection (meaning
'right appearing'), also called the
Robinson projection, is a widely used
type of map in which the Earth is
shown in a flattened ellipse. In this
pseudocylindrical projection, lines of
latitude are parallel to the equator, but
lines of longitude are elliptical arcs. In
a Robinson projection, area is
represented accurately, but the
distances and compass directions are
distorted (for example, compass lines
are curved).
Parallel (of latitude) is a line on a map
that represents an imaginary east-west
circle drawn on the Earth in a plane
parallel to the plane that contains the
equator.
Peninsula is a body of land that is
surrounded by water on three sides.
Physical map is a map that shows an
areas natural physical features, like
mountains, lakes, and rivers.
Plain are flat lands that have only small
changes in elevation.
Planar projection is a type of map in
which the details of the globe are
projected onto a plane (a flat surface)
yielding a rectangular-shaped map.
Cylindrical maps have a lot of
distortion towards the edges.
Planimetric map is a map that
represents only the horizontal
positions of features (and not the
vertical positions, like heights, which a
topographic map shows).
Plateau is a large, flat area of land that
is higher than the surrounding land.
Political map is a map that shows
cultural features, like the political
boundaries of countries, states,
provinces, and cities.
Pond is a small body of water
surrounded by land. A pond is smaller
than a lake.
Prairie is a wide, relatively flat area of
land that has grasses and only a few
trees.
Prime meridian (0 degrees longitude)
is the meridian that passes through
Greenwich, England.
Projection is a representation of one
thing onto another, such as a curved
3-dimensional surface (like the Earth)
onto a flat 2-dimensional map. A
projection is a representation of one
thing onto another, such as a curved
3-dimensional surface (like the Earth)
onto a flat 2-dimensional map. There
are 3 major types of projections,
cylindrical, conic, and planar
Quadrangle is a four-sided area
bounded by two lines (parallels) of
latitude and two lines of longitude
(meridians) on a map.
Range is a chain of mountains and/or
high elevations.
Reef is an undersea growth of coral
near the surface of the water.
Relief map is a topographic map that
uses different colors or shades to
indicate elevations.
Reservoir is a man-made lake that
stores water for future use.
River is a large, flowing body of water
that usually empties into a sea or
ocean.
Road map shows major and minor
highways, plus cities and towns. This
type of map is used by road travelers,
and often shows other information
useful for travelers, including parks and
campgrounds.
Robinson projection This type of
projection was first made in 1963 by
Arthur H. Robinson; it is also called the
Orthophanic projection (meaning
'right appearing').
Scale of a map is the ratio between the
distance between two points found on
the map as compared to the actual
distance between these points in the
real world.
Sea is a large body of salty water that
is often connected to an ocean. A sea
may be partly or completely
surrounded by land.
Sea level is height of a sea or ocean.
Sinusoidal projection is a type of map
projection in which lines of latitude are
parallel to the equator, and lines of
longitude are curved around the prime
meridian.
Sound is a wide inlet of the sea or
ocean that is parallel to the coastline; it
often separates a coastline from a
nearby island.
Source is the beginning of a river.
Southern Hemisphere is the half of the
Earth that is south of the equator.
South Magnetic Pole is the point on
the Southern Hemisphere of the Earth
toward which a compass' needle
always points; at the South Magnetic
Pole, a compass' needle will stand
vertically. It is now located just off the
coast the continent of Antarctica (and
its location changes over time).
South Pole is the point on the
Southern Hemisphere of the Earth that
is farthest south. It is 90° south of the
equator.
Strait is a narrow body of water that
connects two larger bodies of water.
Swamp is a type of freshwater wetland
that has spongy, muddly land and a lot
of water. Many trees and shrubs grow National Geographic Society in the late
in swamps. 1990s (replacing the Robinson
Topographic map is a map that projection).
represents elevations on it.
Tributary is a stream or river that flows
into a larger river. Tropic of Cancer “Faber est suae
The Tropic of Cancer is an imaginary
line of latitude at 23°30' N. Tropic of quisque
Capricorn The Tropic of Capricorn is
an imaginary line of latitude at 23°30' fortunae”
S. Tropics The tropics is the warm,
-Appius Claudius Caecus
equatorial region between the Tropic
of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
Tundra is a cold, treeless area; it is the
coldest biome.
Waterfall When a river falls off steeply,
there is a waterfall.
Weather map map is a map that
shows weather conditions for a time
period. Weather maps show storms,
fronts, temperatures, rain, snow, sleet,
fog, etc.
Valley is a low place between
mountains.
Volcano is a mountainous vent in the
Earth's crust. When a volcano erupts, it
spews out lava, ashes, and hot gases
from deep inside the Earth.
Western Hemisphere is another name
for the Americas (or the New World).
Wetland is an area of land that is often
wet; the soil in wetlands are often low
in oxygen. Wetland plants are adapted
to life in wet soil. There are many types
of wetlands, including: swamp, slough,
fen, bog, marsh, moor, muskeg,
peatland, bottomland, delmarva, mire,
wet meadow, riparian, etc.
Winkel Tripel projection is a type of
pseudocylindrical projection map in
which both the lines of latitude and
longitude are curved. The Winkel
Tripel projection was adopted by the