Elements of the Short Story

I. Origins
Short stories date back to the oral story-telling traditions which originally produced epics
such as the Iliad and Odyssey (which we will read) by Homer. Oral narratives were often
told in the form of rhyming or rhythmic poetry, often including recurring sections or, in
the case of Homer, Homeric epithets. Such stylistic effects often acted as mnemonic
(memory aid) means for easier recall, rendition and adaptation of the story. Short sections
of such poems might focus on individual narratives that could be told at one sitting. The
overall arc of the story would only emerge through the telling of multiple sections of the
tale.

Fables, which tend to be folk tales with an explicitly expressed moral, were said by the
Greek historian Herodotus to have been invented by a Greek slave named Aesop in the
6th century BC. These ancient fables are known as Aesop's Fables.

The other ancient form of the short story, anecdotes, was popular during the years of the
Roman Empire. Anecdotes functioned as a sort of parable, a brief realistic narration that
embodies a point. Many of the surviving Roman anecdotes were later collected in the
Gesta Romanorum (a Latin collection of anecdotes and tales was probably compiled
about the end of the 13th century or the beginning of the 14th. It still possesses a two-fold
literary interest, first as one of the most popular books of the time, and secondly as the
source, directly or indirectly, of later literature, in Geoffrey Chaucer, John Gower,
Giovanni Boccaccio, Shakespeare, and others. Anecdotes remained popular in Europe
well into the 18th century, when the fictional anecdote letters of Sir Roger de Cioverlry
were published.

In Europe, the oral story-telling tradition began to develop into written stories in the early
14th century, most notably with Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and Boccacco's Decameron.
Both of these books are composed of individual short stories set within a larger narrative
story. At the end of the 16th century, some of the most popular short stories in Europe
were the darkly tragic "novella" of Matteo Bandello. During the Renaissance, the term
novella was used when referring to short stories.

The mid 17th century in France saw the development of a refined short novel, the
"nouvelle", by such authors as Madame de Lafayette. In the 1690's traditional fairy tales
began to be published. The appearance of Antoine Galland's first modern translation of
Arabian Nights would have an enormous influence on the 18th century European short
stories of Voltaire, Diderot and others.

Modern short stories emerged as their own genre in the early 19th century. Early
examples of short stories include the Brothers Grimm Fairy Tales or Nikolai Gogol's
Evenings in a Farm Near Dikanka. Charles Brocden Brown's Somnambulism,
Washington Irving's Rip Van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, Edgar Allan Poe's
Tales of the Grotesque Arabesque, and Nathaniel Hawthorne's Twice-Told Tales are the
first examples in the USA.
In the later part of the 19th century, the growth of print magazines and journals created a
strong market demand for short story fiction between 4,000 and 15,000 words in length.
Among the famous short stories to come out of this time period was Ward No.6 by Anton
Chechkov.

In the first half of the 20th century, a number of high-profile magazines, such as The
Atlantic Monthly, Scribner's and The Saturday Evening Post, all published short stories in
each issue. The demand for quality short stories was so great, and the money paid for
them so high, that F. Scott Fitzgerald repeatedly turned to short story writing to pay off
his numerous debts.

The demand for short stories by print magazines hit its peak in the middle of the 20th
century, when in 1952 Life magazine published Ernest Hemingway's long short story
(novella) The Old Man and the Sea. The issue containing that story sold 5,300,000 copies
in only two days.

Since then, the number of commercial magazines that publish short stories has declined,
even though well-known magazines like The New Yorker continue to feature them.
Literary magazines also provide a showcase for short stories. In addition, short stories
have recently found a new life online, where they can be found in online magazines, in
collections organized by author, or theme, and on blogs.

II. Characteristics
Short - Can usually be read in just one sitting
Concise - Information offered in the story is relevant to the tale being told. This is unlike
a novel, where the story can diverge from the main plot. Usually tries to leave behind a
single impression on the reader. Usually, though not always, built around one character,
place, idea, or act. Because they are concise, writers depend on the reader bringing
personal experiences and prior knowledge to the story.

III. Components
Plot - The action that takes place in the story. It is a series of connected happenings and
their result. In order to have a result, we must have an initial event, or conflict.

There are four stages of the plot, the exposition, complication, turning point, and
resolution.

Exposition (introduction stage) - The Exposition introduces or exposes the reader to the
beginning "facts" of the story: the who or character; the when and where or setting, the
opening mood or atmosphere, the ideas of theme, the window of viewpoint and any
additional details or actions that prepare the reader to understand the plot. Often
expository details act as clues or hints about what will happen next, such clues are called
foreshadowing.
Complication (conflict or problem stage, rising action) - The complication stage
introduces and develops the story's conflict or problem. Conflict is when two opposing
forces meet. There are two ways conflict is typically classified:

A. Conflict may be distinguished by whether the source of the conflict is inside or outside
the character. The terms for this are Internal or External conflict.

B. Conflict can be classified by the type of antagonistic force. Standard conflicts are:
Human vs. Human, Human vs. Self, Human vs. Nature, Human vs. Beast (machine), or
Human vs. Society. Obviously, a character may have more than one conflict.

C. In addition, the first event that introduces the conflict is called the precipitating
incident. Once the conflict is clear, it is followed by a series of incidents that serve to
heighten the tension by complicating the problem. This period of escalating conflict is
called the rising action.

Turning Point (solution stage, falling action) - This is where the plot turns toward a
resolution of the conflict. This stage is referred to in two different ways, depending on the
situation.

A. Climax - The climax is the moment of greatest suspense, the moment when the story's
plot "turns" and begins moving towards a resolution. The Greeks called this moment the
crisis.

B. Epiphany - An epiphany is when a character has a sudden realization or insight into

the nature of his conflict. This new understanding causes the plot to "turn" from conflict
to resolution. This modern term was coined by James Joyce to describe the resolutions in
his short story collection Dubliners.

Resolution (falling action, catastrophe, denouement)

In this stage the plot's conflict is resolved. In a tragedy, where the hero self-destructs and
destroys others, there are sometimes scenes that suggest that the final disaster or
catastrophe may be avoided. Such a scene is called the moment of final suspense.

Also, as a tragic or sad plot moves toward its final resolution, relief scenes may occur
which give the reader an emotional break, suggest the passage of time, or that present
necessary information.

Lastly, if the final scene includes an ingenious "untying of the knot" that both resolves the
conflict and reveals secrets and eliminates misunderstandings, then it is called the
denouement.

Setting - The background against which the incidents of the story take place. Not merely
a place, it includes the place where, the time when, and social conditions under which the
story moves along. This can include atmosphere or mood, the tone and feeling of a story,
i.e. gloomy, cheery, etc. In one form or another, setting is essential to the story. Often, the
relevance of the story is lost in another setting.

Characters - There must be living beings in the short story that think or act in order to
keep the story going. They must seem like living and feeling individuals in order for us to
feel strongly about them. The worst thing that could happen for a writer is that you feel
indifferent toward the characters. If we don't care for the characters, we are not inclined
to keep reading.

Four Methods of Presenting a Character: Characterization

- Actions or thoughts of the character
- Conversations the character engages in
- Conversations of other characters have about a third character
- Author's own opinion. This might be overt, or may be implied

Types of characters
- Individual - round, many sided and complex personalities
- Developing - dynamic, many sided personalities that change for the better or the worse,
by the end of the story
- Static - Stereotype, have one or two characteristics that never change and are
emphasized.
Protagonist is a term used to refer to a figure or figures in literature whose intentions are
the primary focus of a story. Classically protagonists are derived from good will;
however, this does not always have to be true. Protagonists cannot exist in a story without
opposition from a figure or figures called antagonist(s). Classically in literature,
characters with good will are unusually the protagonists, however, not all characters who
assist the protagonist are required to be simple protagonistic.

Antagonist is a character or group of characters, or, sometimes an institution of a

happening who represents the opposition against which the protagonist(s) must contend.
In the classic style of story where in the action consists of a hero fighting a villain, the
two can be regarded as protagonist and antagonist, respectively.

Point of View- Presentation of the story

-Author Omniscient (all knowing, all seeing) This is a third person point of view. The
omniscient author, writing in third person, sees whatever he wants to see, inside or
outside his character, in privacy or public, and interprets as he chooses
- Author participant (first person) The author may be the main character, or could be a
secondary character.
- Author as an observer (third person) Involves objective treatment, as though the story
teller had no inner sight into the character's thinking or behavior.
-Multiple story tellers (third person)

Theme - The total meaning of the story. It does not have to be tied up in a simple moral.
In many cases, stories are packages that allow readers to see the outcomes of certain
behaviors. Without a theme, the story lacks meaning or purpose. Sometimes the theme is
stated, sometimes it is only implied. In other stories, the theme may be the direct
refutation of a traditional theme.

Literary Devices - Tools a skilful writer uses to improve the reading experience. These
include:

 Author surrogate, a character who acts as the author's spokesman. Sometimes the
character may intentionally or unintentionally be an idealized version of the
author. A well known variation is the Mary Sue or Gary Stu (self-insertion).
 Back-story, the story "behind" or "before" the events being portrayed in the story
being told; past events or background for a character that can serve to color or add
additional meaning to current circumstances. Provides extra depth to the story by
anchoring it to external events, real or imagined.
 Breaking the fourth wall, when the author or a character addresses the audience
directly (also known as direct address). May acknowledge to the reader or
audience that what is being presented is fiction, or may seek to extend the world
of the story to provide the illusion that they are included in it.
 Conceit is an extended metaphor, associated with metaphysical poetry, designed
to push the limits of the imagination in order to portray something indescribable.
 Chekhov's gun, the insertion of an object of apparent irrelevance early on in a
narrative, the purpose of which is only revealed later on in the story.
 Defamiliarization, technique of forcing the reader to recognize common things in
an unfamiliar or strange way, in order to enhance perception of the familiar.
 Deleted affair, telling of a romantic relationship, but not referred to in current
story.
 Deus ex machina (God out of the Machine), a plot device dating back to ancient
Greek theater, where the primary conflict is resolved through a means that seems
unrelated to the story (i.e. a God comes down out of nowhere and solves
everything, saving the character from peril). In modern times, the Deus ex
machina is often considered a clumsy method, to be avoided in order not to
frustrate readers or viewers.
 Epic Theater, a technique popularized by 20th century playwright Bertolt Brecht,
in which the audience is "alienated" or "distanced" from the emotion of the play.
 Epiphany is a literary work or section of a literary work presenting, usually
symbolically, such a moment of revelation and insight.
 Epistolary novel, a novel in the form of a series documents, usually letters
exchanged between the characters. Classic examples include Pamela by Samuel
Richardson (1740), Humphry Clinker by Tobias Smollett (1771), Les Liaisons
dangereuses by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos (1782) and Dracula by Bram Stoker
(1897).
 False documents, fiction written in the form of, or about, apparently real, but
actually fake documents. Examples include Robert Graves' I, Claudius, a fictional
autobiography of the Roman emperor. The short stories of Jorge Luis Borges are
often written as summaries or criticisms of books that in actuality do not exist.
 Fictional character, a character whose fictional existence is introduced within a
larger work of fiction, or a character in a story within a story. Early examples
include Panchatantra and Arabian Nights.
 Flashback, general term for altering time sequences, taking characters back to the
beginning of the tale, for instance.
 Framing device, the usage of a single action, scene, event, setting, or any element
of significance at the beginning and end of a work.
 Foreshadowing, hinting at events to occur later.
 Frame story or a story within a story, where a main story is used to organize a
series of shorter stories. Early examples include Panchatantra and Arabian
Nights.
 Incluing, describing a different world, such as Brave New World.
 In medias res, when the story begins in the middle of an intense action sequence.
 Irony is the discrepancy between expectation and reality. The three forms of irony
are: situational irony, where a situation features a discrepancy between what is
expected and what is actualized; dramatic irony, where a character is unaware of
pivotal knowledge which has already been revealed to the audience (the
discrepancy here lies in the two levels of awareness between the character and the
audience); and verbal irony, where one states one thing while meaning another.
Verbal irony is the lowest form of irony. The difference between verbal irony and
sarcasm is exquisitely subtle and oft contested, but exists nonetheless. The
concept of irony is too often misunderstood in popular usage. Unfortunate
circumstances and coincidences do not constitute irony (nor do they qualify as
being tragic). See the Usage controversy section under irony, and the term
tragedy.
 Juxtaposition, when the author places two themes, characters, phrases, words, or
situations together for the purpose of comparison, contrast, or rhetoric.
 Magic realism, a form particularly popular in Latin America but not limited to that
region, in which events are described realistically, but in a magical haze of strange
local customs and beliefs. Gabriel García Márquez is a notable author in the style.
 Narrative hook
 Narrative letter
 Overstatement, exaggeration of something, often for the purpose of emphasis
(also known as a hyperbole).
 Parody, ridicule by imitation, usually humorous, such as MAD Magazine.
 Pastiche, using forms and styles of another author, generally as an affectionate
tribute, such as the many stories featuring Sherlock Holmes not written by Arthur
Conan Doyle, or much of the Cthulhu Mythos.
 Pathetic fallacy is the reflection of the mood of a character (usually the
protagonist) in the innate objects. A good example is the storm in William
Shakespeare's King Lear, which mirrors Lear's mental deterioration.
 Personification, the use of comparative metaphors and similes to give human-like
characteristics to non-human objects.
 Plot twist is a change ("twist") in the direction or expected outcome of the plot of
a film or novel.
 Poetic justice is a literary device in which virtue is ultimately rewarded or vice
punished, often in modern literature by an ironic twist of fate intimately related to
the character's own conduct.
 Predestination paradox, a paradox of time travel when a time traveler is caught in
a loop of events that "predestines" him or her to travel back in time.
 Quibble, a common plot device, used to fulfill the exact verbal conditions of an
agreement in order to avoid the intended meaning. Used commonly in legal
bargains.
 Self-fulfilling prophecy, a prediction that, in being made, actually causes itself to
become true. Early examples include the legend of Oedipus, and the story of
Krishna in the Mahabharata.
 Sensory detail or Imagery, sight, sound, taste, touch, smell.
 Side story, a form of narrative that occurs alongside established stories set within
a fictional universe. Examples include Mahabharata, Ramayana, Gundam,
Doctor Who and The Matrix.
 Stream of consciousness, an attempt to portray all the thoughts and feelings of a
character, as in parts of James Joyce, William Faulkner, and Virginia Woolf.
 Symbolism, the applied use of symbols: iconic representations that carry
particular conventional meanings.
 Tone, or the overall attitude that an author appears to hold toward the work—a
novel such as Candide makes fun of the sufferings of its characters, while The
Sorrows of Young Werther takes its protagonist's suffering very seriously.
 Unreliable narrator, a technique in which the narrator of the story is not sincere or
introduces a bias in the way he tells it and possibly misleads the reader, hiding or
minimizing some events, characters or motivations.
 Word play, in which the nature of the words used themselves become part of the
work.
 Writer's voice, a literary technique combining various structural aspects of an
author's writing style