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coating materials
by David R. Clarke† and Simon R. Phillpot‡
Improved thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) will enable Turbines should operate at as high temperature as
future gas turbines to operate at higher gas possible to maximize their efficiency. Until about
temperatures. Considerable effort is being invested, 15 years ago, relentless increases in operating
temperatures were achieved through improved alloy
therefore, in identifying new materials with even
design, the development of blades composed of
better performance than the current industry
textured microstructures and subsequently single
standard, yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ). We review crystals, and internal cooling by air flow through
recent progress and suggest that an integrated internal channels cast into the component. More
strategy of experiment, intuitive arguments based on recent increases in operating temperatures have been
crystallography, and simulation may lead most enabled by deposition of TBCs on high-temperature
rapidly to the development of new TBC materials. gas turbine components1,2. TBCs are complex,
multifunctional thick films (typically 100 µm to 2 mm
thick) of a refractory material that protect the metal
part from the extreme temperatures in the gas (see
Fig. 1). Indeed, in the hottest part of many gas turbine
engines, the coatings enable metallic materials to be
used at gas temperatures above their melting points.
Under such heat flux conditions, it is the thermal
conductivity of the coating that dictates the
temperature drop across the TBC.
To illustrate the benefit of TBCs, it has been estimated3
that a 50% reduction in thermal conductivity will reduce the
alloy temperature by about 55°C. This may not seem large,
†Materials Department,
but it actually corresponds to the increase in high-
University of California, temperature capability achieved over the last ~20 years by
Santa Barbara CA 93106, USA
E-mail: clarke@engineering.ucsb.edu developments in single-crystal Ni-based superalloys.
‡Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The current material of choice for TBCs is YSZ in its
University of Florida, metastable tetragonal-prime structure. Since it has proven to
Gainesville FL 32611, USA
E-mail: sphil@mse.ufl.edu be a highly durable TBC material, it is likely to remain the
22 June 2005 ISSN:1369 7021 © Elsevier Ltd 2005 Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
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(a) (b)
Fig. 2 (a) Thermal conductivity versus temperature for several refractory compounds (after9). The upturn A at the highest temperatures is a result of radiative transport through the
material during measurement. (b) Materials usually exhibiting low thermal conductivity.
high temperatures, quite different from other crystalline temperature-independent value of CV → 3kB per atom, as
oxides but very similar to that of fused silica. (Interestingly, predicted by the Dulong-Petit equation7. Other, more
monoclinic zirconia, which does not contain any stabilizers sophisticated approaches also assume that the major
and hence no associated structural point defects, exhibits the contribution to thermal conductivity in the high-temperature
classical 1/T dependence caused by Umklapp scattering.) The regime is caused by phonons whose mean free path is the
absence of the characteristic 1/T dependence was ascribed to interatomic spacing. For instance, Cahill and Pohl10 have
the fact that both YSZ and UO2-x contain very high suggested that the value computed from their analysis for
concentrations of point defects that scatter phonons. More the minimum thermal conductivity differs by just ~20% from
recent measurements on materials are shown in Fig. 2b. the limit of eq 1, where the phonon mean free path is equal
to the lattice parameter. In a similar way, the low
High-temperature thermal temperature-independent thermal conductivity of fused silica
conductivity and other glasses has been attributed to their random
The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of heat structure precluding any long-wavelength phonon modes,
flow in a temperature gradient. In the first successful model with the dominant phonon contributions being limited by the
for thermal conductivity, Debye used an analogy with the size of the tetrahedral unit of the glass8,9.
kinetic theory of gases to derive an expression of the thermal The minimum thermal conductivity for more complex,
conductivity7: multicomponent materials also has a similar form11 and can
κ = CVνmΛ/3 (1) be expressed12 as:
where CV is the specific heat, νm is the speed of sound, and Λ κmin = kBνmΛmin → 0.87kBΩa-2/3(E/ρ)1/2 (2)
is the phonon mean free path. Both Kittel in 19498 and where Λmin is the minimum phonon mean free path,
Kingery in 19559 suggested that the minimum value of the Ωa = M/(mρNA) is the average volume per atom, E is the
thermal conductivity at high temperatures was that given by elastic modulus, and ρ is the density. (The different atoms in
eq 1 with the phonon mean free path equal to the a molecule are replaced with an equivalent atom having a
interatomic spacing. This simple approach works quite well mean atomic mass given by M/m, where M is the molecular
because, at temperatures in excess of the Debye temperature mass and m is the number of atoms per molecule.) The data
T > ΘD, the specific heat is close to its asymptotic, for a variety of materials is plotted in Fig. 3, illustrating that
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(a) (b)
Fig. 4 Scatter plot showing the normalized magnitudes of vibration of each atom in the x-y plane (a) and the y-z plane (b) for the mode close to 3 THz in 4 mol% Y2O3. For a pure
transverse acoustic (TA) phonon mode, all the atoms would vibrate in the z-direction only; this would be indicated by a single point at the origin in (a) and points at z=-1 and +1 in (b).
The larger scatter for this mode indicates that the concepts of polarization and wavevector are no longer meaningful in this material. (Reprinted from14. © 2001 Blackwell Publishing.)
The search for alternative TBC while still preserving the metastable zirconia structure16.
materials Similarly, reductions in thermal conductivity have been
In seeking potential new TBC materials, it makes sense to reported17 for compositions in which some of the Zr4+ is
explore other refractory materials. However, since there are replaced with Hf4+. While the measurements have been made
numerous crystal structures known to the mineralogical and on porous coatings rather than dense materials, hence the
crystal-chemistry communities, and each can be formed from contribution to the low thermal conductivity from porosity is
several different elements, there are literally thousands of unknown, the results indicate that these materials warrant
possible compounds to search. Faced with this complexity, further investigation.
initial attempts have focused on exploring oxides with Pyrochlore oxides
structures related to zirconia. More recently, the search has Since the fluorites do not offer any other viable candidate
been broadened by using insights from atomistic simulations materials, attention has turned to the pyrochlores,
and crystal chemistry. A23+B24+O7, because several zirconate pyrochlores have
Fluorite oxides lower thermal conductivity than YSZ3. This class of materials
A natural place to look for other TBC materials is among is also of fundamental interest because of the close
fluorite-structured materials. The obvious candidates include relationship between the fluorite and pyrochlore structures
HfO2, CeO2, and ThO2; UO2 and transuranic fluorite- (Fig. 5). The pyrochlore unit cell may be viewed as eight
structured oxides are precluded for obvious reasons. Also, fluorite unit cells, each of which contains, on average, a single
although doped ceria exhibits comparable thermal oxygen vacancy. The close relationship between the fluorite
conductivity, it is not a practical choice because of and pyrochlore structures is well illustrated by the yttria-
volatilization. Measurements on both HfO2 and ThO2 are zirconia system. The pyrochlore Y2Zr2O7 is actually unstable
similar to those on monoclinic ZrO2. to the disordered fluorite material (ZrO2)2-Y2O3, i.e. heavily
However, recent research has shown that co-doping doped YSZ. However, replacing the Y3+ ion with larger ions,
zirconia and hafnia can result in reductions in thermal such as La3+ or Gd3+, results in a stable pyrochlore structure
conductivity. The most intriguing observations have been up to at least 1500°C. Likewise, replacement of the Zr4+ ion
made on co-doping YSZ with a mixture of one trivalent ion by a smaller ion, such as Ti4+ or Mo4+, also stabilizes the
larger than Y3+ and another trivalent ion smaller than Y3+, pyrochlore structure.
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(a) (b)
Unoccupied 8a
Fig. 5 (a) The unit cell of the high-temperature cubic phase of zirconia has the fluorite structure, with O ions shown in red and the smaller Zr ions shown in yellow. (b) One-eighth of the
unit cell of the pyrochlore, A2B2O7 structure, with the oxygen in red, the B4+ ions in yellow, and the A3+ ions in blue.
The pyrochlores are also attractive because many are thermal conductivities, but they decompose easily and are
refractory up to temperatures well in excess of 1500°C and unsuitable for environmental reasons.
thermally stable. Moreover, they can be formed from a wide Co-doping of pyrochlores on both A and B sites has been
range of cations18, since the A site can have a notional charge proposed to further reduce their conductivity and also to
of 3+ or 2+ and the B site cation can have a valence of either modify their thermal expansion coefficients22,24. Some
4+ or 5+. Consequentially, there can be extensive success has been achieved, at least up to ~800°C, as
intermixing of different ions on the same crystallographic exemplified by studies in which La2Zr2O7 was doped with
sites. 30 at.% of Nd, Eu, or Gd and the thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivities ranging from ~1.1 W/mK to reduced from ~1.55 W/mK to ~0.9 W/mK for Gd doping. For
~1.7 W/mK at temperatures between 700°C and 1200°C comparison, the undoped, fully dense stoichiometric Nd, Sm,
have been reported for zirconates of Gd, Eu, Sm, Nd, and and Gd zirconates25, and 97% dense La2Zr2O720, were all
La19-22. Although other pyrochlore compositions have yet to found to have essentially the same conductivity
be measured, they have been explored extensively using (~1.5-1.6 W/mK) at 700°C. Whether this temperature is
atomistic simulations23. The predicted thermal conductivities sufficient to evaluate if the minimum thermal conductivity
are shown in Fig. 6. These studies suggest that the zirconates has been attained was not reported, but any further
may indeed have the lowest thermal conductivities of the decreases are unlikely to be significant. Interestingly, site
stable pyrochlores – the plumbate pyrochlores have lower disorder alone does not appear to have much effect, at least
Fig. 6 Contour map of thermal conductivity κ as a function of the ionic radii of the A and B ions for pyrochlores A2B2O7, determined at T=1200°C by simulation. (Reprinted with permission
from23. © 2004 Taylor and Francis.)
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in dense Gd2Zr2O7; suitably heat-treated, this compound can materials at high temperatures. Although amorphous
be produced as either the pyrochlore or its fluorite allotrope, materials can have significantly lower thermal conductivity at
and yet the thermal conductivity was the same within room temperatures than their crystalline counterparts, the
experimental accuracy25. Moreover, thermal conductivity was data suggest that the difference is not significant at
found to vary only slightly over a wide range of temperatures well in excess of the Debye temperature.
(ZrO2)2-Gd2O3 compositions away from the pyrochlore Nevertheless, some have advocated using nanocrystalline
stoichiometry, especially at high temperature25. Together, materials, as they offer the potential of limiting thermal
these observations raise the intriguing question as to what conductivity by incorporating grain boundary scattering as an
factors determine whether co-doping can lead to significant extrinsic phonon-scattering phenomenon. This may prove to
reductions in high-temperature thermal conductivity. be an effective strategy for many materials, but there is not
Other oxides yet any definitive evidence at elevated temperatures. A first
Apart from the fluorites and pyrochlores, many other oxide study of nanocrystalline-stabilized zirconia ceramics has
compounds have been proposed as candidate low- indicated that there is no grain size effect30, while a later
conductivity materials. These include the garnets study on films has shown a significant effect for grains below
(Y3AlxFe5-xO12)26, monazite (LaPO4)27, and the ~25 nm31. Even so, the benefit conferred by being
magnetoplumbite lanthanum hexaaluminate (LaMgAl11O19)28. nanocrystalline was less than that associated with the
While they all have rather low thermal conductivity disorder of Y ions and O vacancies in YSZ.
(<~3 W/mK), none offer the prospect of compositions with A major concern with amorphous and nanocrystalline
lower conductivity than the pyrochlore zirconates. materials is their long-term stability at elevated temperature:
In contrast to these other classes of oxide, the perovskites, glassy materials tend to crystallize and nanocrystalline
ABO3, comprise a class of crystal structures that can materials tend to rapidly coarsen and lose any initial
accommodate a wide variety of different ions in solid solution, advantages of being nanocrystalline. Nanocomposites may be
including ions with large atomic mass. Many compositions more resistant to coarsening, but early investigations of
are stable to very high temperatures. Although some zirconia/alumina laminates indicated that they became
members exhibit rather low thermal conductivity at high spheroid and then coarsened. Nevertheless, the potential of
temperatures, none has yet been found to have conductivity nanocomposites for thermal barrier applications has not been
as low as the zirconate pyrochlores. One explanation is that explored systematically. Of particular interest would be
the perovskite structure is more rigid, as the octahedra are nanoporous materials that resist coarsening of the porosity
corner sharing. Several that appear promising on the basis of while retaining their fracture toughness.
their mean molecular weight unfortunately undergo phase
transitions at intermediate temperatures. For instance, Future directions
SrZrO3 transforms from orthorhombic to pseudo-tetragonal The search for low thermal conductivity materials for thermal
at about 730°C, accompanied by a change in volume20. barriers is only just beginning. The vast range of chemical
However, one hopeful development in the area of perovskites compositions of all refractory oxides and minerals precludes a
is a recent report of very low thermal conductivity in a purely Edisonian approach to identifying promising
coating made of a layered perovskite with Ruddlesden-Popper compositions; it is simply too time consuming and costly. The
structure29. While fully dense materials have not been most rapid progress will probably only be made by using a
studied, the very wide range of potential compositions in this combination of intuition about crystal structures and
class of crystal structure and the possibility of forming a complementary atomic-level simulations to guide
variety of other layered structures, there is plenty of scope experiment. Two recent examples serve to illustrate this.
for further work on perovskites. The first is the systematic investigation of pyrochlore
Glasses and nanocrystalline materials compositions using simulations, resulting in the predicted
For many years, it was considered that the high-temperature thermal conductivities mapped in Fig. 6. The capabilities of
conductivity of silica glass represented the lower limit – the such simulations are illustrated in Fig. 7, which compares the
so-called amorphous limit – to the thermal conductivity of calculated and experimental values of the thermal
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