SOIL DYNAMICS ‘Shamsher Prakash Professor of Chil Enineoring Uniceriy of Missouri-Rella McGraw-Hill Book Company New York St Louls Sun Franeteo Auckland Rogoti Hamburg Johannesbrg London Maud Mexico. Montre New Des Panama Pans SipPaulo ‘Singapore Sydney Tokyo TorontoCPL 131300 VE i! Pay 8 a ‘This bok was set in Tims Ronan by Sience Typographecs, ne The eon were fuleane V Brova aud Suan Hazlet {he produstion sperma war Pl Gales ‘The drawings were done by 1& R Services tae ‘The ever was designed by Charles A Con Fried Grapice wae priser abd binder ‘SOIL DYNAMICS Copyright © 1961 by McCraw-Hil Ine. Al ight eserved Printed the United Sater of America No part of th publication ‘may be reproduced stored i aetieval em, of Wanstted,in any {orm or by aay means, letonic, echaneal, pootoepying. ering. ot ‘others, whoa ke poe wrtun permaon of the publisher 34567890 FGFG 8987654321 brary of Congress Cataloging in Pblcation Dat Prakash, Shasber Soll dynamics Tncades biographical zeferences aad inden 1 Sol dynamics, 2 Foundations I Tie Tariopes "aer'siss 6028122 ISBN 0.07-05055-2 ‘To my FRIEND Vijaya in whom I found a brother, philosopher, and sage, the imprint of whose personality has influenced every aspect of my lifeCONTENTS Foreword Preface Introduction Soll Mechanics and Soil Dynamics Nature of Dynamic Loads ‘Stress Conditions on Soil Elements under Earthquake Loading. Problems of Dynamic Loading of Sols and Sol Structares References Theory of Vibrations General Detinitions Properties of Harmonic Motion Free Vibrations ofa Spring Mass System ce Vibration with Vicous Damping Forced Vibrations with Viseous Damping Frequency-Dependent Exciting Force Systems under Transient Forces Raylegh’s Method Logarithmic Decrement Determination of Viseous Damping Tranemisibiity Principle of Vibvaton-Measuting Instrumente ‘Systems with Two-Degres of Freedom (Vibration Absorber) Spectral Response Practice Problems Wave Propagation in an Elastic Medium Introduction ‘Wave Propagation in Flastic Reds‘ih contNTS | 33 34 410 au 4n 4 44 ais Chapter 5 st 32 33 34 35 36 37 53 39 510 Su Chapter 6 61 62 ‘Wave Propagation i en Elsie Infinite Medium ‘Wave Propagation ina Sem-finite Este Half Space ‘Waves Generated by a Surface Fovting Final Comments References Rynamic Suess Deformation and Strength Characteristics of Soils Introduction Conventional Soil Tests under Static Loeds Drainage during Shear Tests Direct Shear Test Iriaxial Compression Test Special Requirements of Apparatus for Dynamic Tests Pendulu Loading Apparatus Benavior of Satucated Sands Under Trursent Loading Fefectof State Stress Level aud Number of Pulses on Surength of Cobesive Soils Factors Affecting Stres-Deformation and Swength (Characteristics of Cobesive Soils under Pusating Loads Ozilatory Simple Shear Test Resonant Column Apparates Fild Tests ‘Typical Valse of Soil Constants Final Comments Practice Problems References Dynamic Earth Pressure Problem and Retaining Wall Lateral Earth Presure Problem Behavior of Retaining Walls during Eacthquakes ‘Modification of Coulomb's Theory Modified Culmana’s Construction ‘Analytical Solstions for © Soils Point of Application Experimental Staics on Small-Scale Walls Displacement Analysis Indian Standard Code of Practice Solved Examples Final Comments Practice Problems Reerences Dynamic Bearing Capacity General Failure Zones beneath a Shallow Continuous Footing and Ultimate Beating Capacity nna 18 8 13s mt 9 10 146 ur 132 “7 158 161 18 169 m im m Chapter 8 81 a2 a aa Chapter 9 9t 92 93 oa Criteria for Saistactory Acwon ota Ezuthquake Loads on Footings Effect of Hoionts [oad and Moment Provision of Reevaat Standard Dynamic Analysis for Vertical Loads Dynamic Analysis for Horizontal Loads Experimental Work Final Comments Relerences ‘oting Pile Foundations General Pile lamers Allowable Loads on Pies Etiect of Vibrations on Piles Conventional Method of Analyst of Piles under Lateral Loeds ‘Aedon ofa Vertial Pile under Lateral Loads Solution for Piles in Noneokesive Soils Piles in Clay Dynamic Analysis Soil Modlus Values Group Action Codal Provisions Final Comments Practice Problems References Liquefaction of Soils Introdue Theory Giitetion of Liquefaction Factors Affecting Liquefaction Characteristics Laboratory Suaies on Liquefaction Liquefaction Studies in Tranal Shear Liquefaction Studies in Oscillatory Simple Shear Evaluation of Liguefacion Potential Vibration Table Stucies Liquefaction Behavior of Dense Sands Field Tests Liguefaction Analysis trom Standard Penetration Data Final Comments Practice Probiems References Machine Foundations Iniroduetion Criteria fora Satistactory Machine Foundstion ‘Methods of Analsis Degrees of Freedom of a Block Foundation m v5 v8 196, 19 22 216 a 20 220 20 20 232 2S 29 2s 258 261 267 20 am am mm an 230 23 29 24 3s 320 330 333 33593 96 97 38 99 910 oul an an na ons 917 oie 91 920 921 Detinition of S01 Spring Stiffness Vertical Vibratiens of Block Sliding Vibrations of a Block Rocking Vibration ofa Block ving Vibra of Block SEUSS Foun ling ané Vert Vibaons of «Black Ta Satan for sign and Consracon of Fooneaton fo epaing st pace fx + Bock Foundation Peer iortes Ascording to the Else Hall pce i SEP Vinatoa Accondng to the Esti Ha Space Theory MAE obs Accovdng othe Este Hal sce Theory TERS faunns According othe Else allSpace TROY Foundations fr pact Machines FaaUe Stance for Design and Consucton of Foudatons ter impact asins Seabourn fora Foundation for an Tpast Machine rapes ‘nto flaon an Sercing of Waves Over etrences Indexes ‘Author Inde Sabjct Index MS 353 358 361 367 37 32 FOREWORD In his foreword to Mallet and Pacquant’s book on earth dams, which appeared in 1951 Terzaghi pointed out that the development of every aspect of civil ‘engineering passes through three stages: the empirical, whesein precedent isthe ‘dominant influence; the scientific, wherein great strides are made and overeonfi- dence in the power of science occasionally leads to failures; and the mature, ‘wherein precedent and science combine into a judgment that permits the highest expression of the engineer's ealling The present state of the art of soil dynamics defies classitication into Tosraghi’s stages Rather, soit dynamics isa curious hybrid in whieh progress has been remarkably uneven Patt of the subject consists of the classical ‘dynamics of clastic continua and the classical theory of damped vibrations, already well advanced and needing only 10 be adapted to the geometry of practical problems involving the subsoil The relevant properties of the soils can bbe ascertained by static or by the simplest of dynamic tests. On the other hand, exclusively dynamic properties unique to soils ate dominant in studies of liguefaction. where elasscal theory plays a minor role Uneven progress has tesulted also from two other conditions: the differing ‘origins of the lnads fo be considered in soil dynamics and the relative urgeney of obtaining selations of various practical problems Soifesupported structures may on the one hand be acted upon by dynamic focces originating elsewhere than in the soll Some of the forces are readily calculable, such as those due (0 rotating or reciprocating machines, the Firing of projectiles or the dropping of weights, whereas others are best evaluated prohatitistcally, such as those due to wind or waves In any event, the problem for the engineer is (0 estimate the ability of the soil to withstand the external fouding and to judge the movements, both transitory and permanent, of the soilsupported foundation If the stresses in the soil are small and the move- iments essentially elastic, solution is straightforward and the propesties of the soil demand! very litte attention The solution is by no means so straightforward if the mowsments are inelastic or if repetitions lead to cumvlative displacements Still fess tmetable ate problems in which the motions originate, not from cex/oral forees aeting on a structure but from the supporting soil itself They are transmitted to the structure which then reacts in accordance with its own ai roREWoRD characteristics as well as those of the soil The motion of the soil may be caused by nearby disturbances such as the operation of compressors or pile drives, or bby more distant events such as earthquakes I! Ue latter, the ground motions themselves cannot be forecast in deterministic fashions they are postulated by probabilistic means or by such concepts as spectrs Under some circumstances, fhe ground motions may even induce liquefaction whereupon soil-supported structures will suffer irrespective of their characteristics, The dependence of the development of varioas phases of soil dynamics om need, often fist petoeived by the military, can be illusuated by three examples Considetable progress has been made in detsimining the ultimate bearing capacity of footings and rafts The impetus for research inthis area came largely trom the need to design protective structures against the foree of high-energy atmospheric blasts. For nonmiltary problems the ultimate bearing capacity is teually of litle of no interest in comparison to the movements, particularly ‘When the subsoil is noncohesive and the loads ate recurrent as in forges ot drop hammers Although bearing capacity calculations are often made in connection ‘with the design of such facilities, they have slight significance in comparison with estimates of the cumulative settlement, an aspect of soil dynamies stil in the empirical stage ‘Much of the impetus for obtaining precise knowledge of the clastic proper~ ties of soil under low stress levels came from the need to design tracking radar facilties capable of detecting and locating rapidly moving distant objects Inertia forees genesated by the oscillations of the equipment were of major import. The refinement of the resonant-column test, first found usefol in protective structure design, was due in no small way to the specifi need ro meet the challenge of this problem “aseismic design, with concomitant developments in seismology, is « much broader subject than soil dynamics, but one thet nevertheless required special Gevelopments in some areas of soil dynamics. Tne economic and social impor tance of the earthquake problem has fostered the expenditure of much time and talent. Pehaps this aspect of soil dynamics is ready for the mature stage: fertainly there has been no lack of scientific development in either theory ot aperiment, although field verification of design procedures must await informs: tion from potentially damaging earthquakes ‘The examples could continue, If this book saggests that soil dynamics is far from a homogeneous body of knowledge, that there are major gaps and needed creat of sesearch, and that some problems of practical importance have hardly toon addressed whereas others of limited applicability are more thoroughly tested, then the author has succeeded in reflecting the present state of the art ‘The author is conscious of the gaps and points them out Thus he introduces the fender to what is presently known, provides an excellent compendium of Teferences to mote definitive literature, and suggests wherein further knowledge is gently needed. Ralph B Peck University of Minis, Urbana-Champaign es PREFACE es ‘The problems of dynamic loading of soils and foundations have existed ever since the eatth came into existence Earthquakes cause rupture of earth mass land shake everything supported on it The stady of dynamic behavior of soils and foundations has lagged behind the study of dynamic behavior of steuctures because it was believed, e1ro~ neously, that the superstructure needs to be strengtlened more in poor soils than in good soils However, a large-scale tilting of well-built houses in the Niigata Farthquake of 1964 has focused the attention of the profession on problems of sil dynamics However, i Japan and India, pioneering work on these problems was already underway and the author can take legitimate pride in that the first Tegulat graduate course in “soil dynamics” was offered at Roorkee in 1963 This is till one of the most populat courses with students majoring in the study of soils. Ever singe, lhe texching of soil dynamics has been introduced jn almost all Of the leading schools throughout the world 'As early as 1960, studies on different aspects of dynamic behavior of soils ‘were invtiated at Roorkee A lot of progress has since been made in the field of Tiquefaction of soils, dynamic earth pressures, determination of dynamic soil patametors, analysis and design of machine foundations, aseismic design of Foundations, piles undor earthquake loads, and dynamic soil stracture interac- tion, Progeess has also been made in monitoring performance of machine foundations, "The teaching of different aspects of dynamie behavior of soils has tll now been done with the help of research material which is scattered among a large rpumber of technical journals Thus, there was a great need 10 compile material nto a basic text ot soil dynamics, which may serve as a starting point for cetious stodies of this subject. This objective has been kept in view in planning the present text, The text describes the state-of-art on the subject atthe time of. final compilation as well as provides a basic insight to the reader for whom it ray be the first exposure t©‘The subject has been developed by introducing the reader to the problems in sot dynamics (Chapter 1); tis is followed by theory of mechanical vibrations (Chapter 2) Tn Chapter 3, wave propagation in elastic medium is discussed (inte the concepts which have been applied to the determination of soil moduli vee jrewsed in Chapter 4 Also. laboratory and field determination of these aaa etung wih typical data have been included in this chapter Subsequent epucs are dowsted ‘tv the tai of retaining sails (Chapter 3). foorngs {Chter 6). and ple foundations (Chapter 7h guetation of sols (Chaprer 8) land machine foundations (Crapter 9) saaenMerlal has been arranged logically s0 that the reader ean follow the developmental sequence of te subject with relative ease Every effort has Peer sees ta make the text more-or-less sel-contained, so essential for a fist fet 98 ries esata comprehensive bibliogaphy has been added so the interested reader can sefer to the details of any work Sig wubject of voll dysamics is developing very fasts several analytical techniques and design piocedores may change in the nent future and may aenagate a revaion of the txt, This fact has been brought 10 the attention of serra or at the appropriate places inthe text whesein limitations of present-day knowledge on the subject are also mentioned. Tee preparation of ths text several of my colleagues and stadentshelpes in a vanety of ways. Useful comments were offered by Jai Krishna, Keni Tuba RW. Stepbenson, Masami Fukuoba, Swami Saran, WD. Liam Fine, envoy K Pati Solutions to several problems were done by Vijay K. Pari fiat Khandoker, and Leo Tutek, Vijay K. Puri also assisted in proofreading the ‘entire text Tn tne preparation of his text, material has been frequently taken front publ jourals and books. Thanks are de tothe American Society of Cri) giners for permitting ths use of material from heir poblictions_ pein eetele $9 and Tables 64 and 6 5 and Article 9.18 are reproduced with the station of the Indian Standards InsGtution from Indian Standard 0 eoioys Thied Revision and No. 2974-1969 (Pait 1) First Revision respec: tea to which teference is invited for further details These standards are ‘available from the ISI, New Delhi eerrvemedgments to other copyrighted matetial is given at appropriate places in the text and figures ite Margot Lewis typed the manuscript patiently and with gpeat care and her puinsaking efforts ate acknowledged Mrs, Barbara Haris asisted in editorial work sea great deal to my alma mater, Roorkee University, that offered me tue monderfel opportunity to experiment in this new area and to develop ieytigues of texting and analysis, and to the Univesity of Missouri Rots alfended an opportunity to synthesize the material collected in where 1 was Roorkee Sharmsher Prakash ‘SOIL DYNAMICSi I ' 1 | CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 11 SOIL MECHANICS AND SOIL DYNAMICS “The teim “soil mechanics” was coined by Dr. Karl Terzaghi, who is recognized as the “father of soil mechanics " Soil mechanics deals with engineering proper~ ties and behavior of soil under stress. A systematic study of soils as construction material was initiated by Terzaghi in the early part of this century, Within « Short span of about 20 years, after the publication in 1925 of his fist book on foil mechanics in Geman, the impact of the new science was felt throughout the world ‘Soif dynamics is that branch of soil mechanics which deals with engineeti properties and behavior of soil under dynamic stress Even though “stress Freant both static and dynamie stess in the original definition of soil mechanics, nly satie sess was Tost often implied by “stress” This is the reason why ‘most all the texts dealing with soil mechanies make only a passing reference, at best, to behavior of soil under dynamic stress 1.2 NATURE OF DYNAMIC LOADS ‘Dynamic loads on foundations and soil structures may act due to earthquakes, bomb blasts, operation of reciprocating and roluy machines and Famimers, Construction operations, (Such as pile driving), quarrying, fast-moving Ualfic eluding landing airera, wind, or loading due to wave action of water, The hhature of each of these loads is quite different from the nature of the loads in the other easesaqukes sn energy (E) released Wikia) 5060S SCDSCSTS:SCSC Foomes) 008 2ST ae 28002000 oe Energy closed by an xthguake with « magtude of 63 would be oa the oxder of #10 ergs ‘Reproduce by permission Sart Prakashan Meera (UF) Ici, fom Elements of Earteuske Bgincrng 69 Ii Kesha tod A. Chandrsearan (1976) Figure 11 Ting of bag ding Nignts farthganke, 1964 (jer Seed and Lan 97) Flgare 12 Automobile snk dai Nigatseanhyuake 1964 Farthquakes} constitute the single most important souree of dynamic load: fon structures and foundations Every eurthquake is associated with a certait amount of energy released at its source and can be assigned a magnitude (Mf, ‘which is ust a number (Richter 1958) Table 1 gives an idea of tae energy astociated with a particular magnitude Due to ground motion during an earthquake, footings may settle, building. may tilt, soils may liquefy and lose ability to support structures, and. ligh structures may float Figure LI shows the tiling of a building during the Niigats ‘earthquake (1964) An automobile that sank into the ground and a sewage tan} that floated to the surface are shown in Figs 12 and 13, respectively A graphic Figare 12 Sewage uestment nk which lated t suas during Nigsta earthquke (After Sed ond tines 1967) + Vibration of the earth's sue aute by waves oigating trom a source of daturaace ia the earth mass ae called eorchgotes An earthquake may te cauied by veleanieeroption or by SMni-uilingproceses isd the earth's may Im the lair ease, the sain energy tat eee tultes de to deformation inthe esth mas is rleeed when the elieace ofthe mater torng. this energy i excocded. Al this sage, siping of he earth mus cceae The poi ase the earth mass where slipyap: or facture begin is termed the focus of the ‘arthquake andthe pint jut above te foc om le earth's surface called the opener, 'A measure ofthe energy tlesed by an earhquik sf mrgrtde As suggested by Richer (0959, the mepritude of a earthguake equals the lope to the base 10 ef the maximum Amptide of the ground motion, at recorded in iinet ata éatane of 100 km Irom he tpiceter on sanded equipment| description of earthquake damage and stiuetoral performance in the United States has been presented by Sleinbrugge (1970) A listing of selected US. farthquakes is also included Krishna and Chandiasekaran (1976) deseribe an Srerage of 12 earthquakes, with magnitudes of 70 or greater, es occurring somewhere in the world every yeat St is interesting to compare the energy of an earthquake with that of a auclear explosion The eneigy teleased by a Hi:oshima-type atom bomb is Box 10% eng, equal to that of an earthquake with » magnitude of 633. Thus, in foams of energy release, an earthquake of the size (iM ~ 86) of the Assam Earthquake of August 15, 1980, is the equivalent of 2500 such bombs exploded fopetier A listing of some past Indian earthquakes and theix magnitudes 1s shown in Table 12 Tt is well known that an casthquake causes random motion in every dizection Figure | 4a shows the north-south component of the May 18, 1940, FI ‘Table 1.2 Some past Indian earthquakes Longa (Gegecs—Magstude Yer Arca Date ea) an wis ute Tae 16 ¥0 13 Bihar Auge 175805 ” 197 Asan hune!2 250910 o ‘Ghiloag Pate) 1900 PalghaiKend) obs 10716 60 1908 Kanga herd BSS 80 1330 Dest ys SB 902 n ie Bhar fais 668 43 196 Andamans fuser 2A DS to 198 Asam (NE) nas 26840 2 1930 Anam (NE) Kavis 787366 56 1955 AN hat 283700 70 ose Balandiber(UP) Oe BY TT 6 1958 Keplote (UP) Dem 300 a0 63 90 Debi hes 8374 60 Boo Badgan (Kashi) Sept? NT 5s 1846 W Nepal feet? 395 BO 6 [es Mondsbad (UP) Aug 28098 33 {9er Nestar Says 9034 ry Iset Kayne ben dT 63 1910 Broach Maras 217 9 57 {970 Bhadnshalem (Ar) Aprid 178 806 6s ors Himachal redesh Jab DSTA 65 Reproduced by pemission of Sasa Prakashan, Meet (UP) lain, from Element of ‘case Engen bys Kalhna apd Ae Chandrasitaran (1976) He 14 (a) Accobropum of EI Cento Farthgashe of May 18, 160 NS component (0) ae Koen Earhquake of et 11, 1967 Horzontal component ong a of Reyna Dam Cento earthquake, which had magnitude of 7.1, and Fig, 14b shows the Stuvlerogram of the Koyna eacthquake of December 11, 1967 On the othe: hands dynamic loads due to reciprocating and rotary machines are more ot less vapdal in nature, The impact of a hammer constitutes a transient load on & Taundation Typical dynamic loading diagrams aze shown for steady-state mo- tion (Pig, 1Sa and 6), for transient motion (Fig, 16), and for pile driving (Fis cia “The above figures ate rather simplified presentations of actual loading conditions, Actual loads in the field may offen dilfer from these simplifiedqare 15 Dynamic ood oe 9 sh state rasa (0! ‘od of loading, Tsay We owsnbeting lasing (2) Pet ‘te oasing 7 asl 0 Farting losing MM. Jest dynamic ed (1) Sngeinyae lang (2) Matiptoinpate fotng igre 17 ace of veri ace ezaion ef ground doe tp dr ing loading diagrams in the following respects: 1 The loading in nature is not truly periodic; that is, the loading eycles are not repeated at equal intervals 2 The peaks in any two cyclés may be different 3 Purely dynamic loads do not occur in nature. Loads are always combinations of static and dynamic loads. Static loads are caused by the dead weight of the superstructure and the substructure, while dynamic loads may be caused thiough the sourees described above All loads, other than dead weight, will be considered dynamic loads in the following text unless otherwise stated. 1.3 STRESS CONDITIONS ON SOIL ELEMENTS UNDER EARTHQUAKE LOADING Loads occur in combination with static and dynamic stresses Uf initial static stress is large and additional stresses induced By an earthquake are small, the resulting effect is similar to that shown in Fig 1.8a. In this figure, « symmetrical pulsating stress system is superimposed on an initial sustained stress If, how- ever, the sustained stress is smaller and the pulsating stess is larger, then the ‘combined effect would be as shown in Fig 186 When a footing is only resting Syme sete Figure 18 One-dinensonal leading condions om si clements uring earthquakes (ter Sod and chan 1965)sues $ L- Se [Nester » 8 gue 19 Two-dieasonl loning conditions cn sol ements daring cathqukes (Afr Sed and Chr, 1966) ‘on the soil, « negative stress cannot occur on the footing (Fig, 18). In such & ase, stresses on the soil beneath the footing act only in one direction ia the case of an embankment, a typical sol element (Fig 1 9a) is subjected to an initial sustained stess before an earthquake, The pulsating stress induced by the earthquake will be superimposed on this sustained stress. Since the soil tloment can withstand shear stresses in ether drection, the resulting pattern will ‘be as shown in Fig, 19 and c 14 PROBLEMS OF DYNAMIC LOADING OF SOILS AND SOIL. STRUCTURES. ‘The problems of dynamic loading of soils and soil structures, which will be dzeussed at length in subsequent chapters, are as follows: ‘Dynamic stress deformation and strength characteristics of soils Earth pressure problems and retaining walls Dynamic bearing capacity and desiga of shallow footings Pile foundations under dynamic loads Liquefaction of soils Machine foundations “The study of stress strain and strength characteristics of soils poses several difficulties the most important being the design of an apparatus suitable for & particular job to simulate field Joading conditims No efforts have been made in PAY part of the civilized workd to standardize any tests for the purpose The Game remarks apply to determining other properties of soils under dynamic loads Tn many stability problems, che dynamic force is replaced by a pseudoeauiv- alent static foree and solutions are obtained This may sometimes lead to dangerous results. Hence, in such cases, a dynamic analysis is absolutely Guential, while in others an estimate of the natural period| of the suucture needs to be made to ensute that resonance will not occur REFERENCES Keshna, J, aod AR. Chapdestharan: “Elements of Bartquake Engioeersg’ Sante Prakabae Meet, UP, India 1976 ica € Re “Elmentary Seismology,” W. H Freeman San Francis, Cal, 1958 Ree Ger KV. Earthguske Damage and Ststoal Performance i the Unite Stats RL ‘Wins (a) “Eariguake Eagncesng,” Prestcel, Englewood Cite N 3. 1970 hap 9 seeds Baie i Chan: "Cay Stengin Under Earthquake Loading Conitions" Sol Mech fi Dios ASCE, vel 92.20, SM 2, pp 5378, 1956 sce eer ST igs "Araya of So Ligestction, Nia Barge" J Sail Meck ‘owt Dro ASCE vl 93.20 SM 3 pp 83-108 1967 4 See Chap 2 for deftaton See Chap 2 for dationos ee Guarren TWO AWOU THEORY OF VIBRATIONS 2.1 GENERAL For a proper understanding and appreciation of the diferent aspects of design Of fourdatzons and soil structures subjected to dynamic loads, it is necessary to be familiar with the simp'e theoretical concepts of harmonic vibrations. Most of the problems dealt within subsequent chapters have been solved for the fonds fctiag harmonically This assumption is reasonably correct for machine founda tions, but for complicated motion this is not precisely the case The departure from reality in such eases will be diseussed in appropriate places 22 DEFINITIONS: Period If motion repeats itselt in equal intervals of time, it is called a periodic ‘motion and the time elapéed in repeating the motion once is called its period Cycle Motion completed ducing a period is reeited to as a ele Frequency The number of cycles of motion in a unit of time is called the frequency of vibrations Natural frequency Ikan clastic system vibrates under the action of forces inherent in the system and in the absence of any extegnally applied force, the frequency with which it vibrates is its natural frequency ) U port vations Vibrations tat om ander the excitation of extra fore NU‘Ginel forced bran’ Forced ibvatons secur a te fequeny of ti luting lige The regency of enaton independent of the ta trequony ofthe atom Jk AC eres of rela The numberof independent coordinates nseseary to,d0 Cbcthe moon ol asptem spel the dere, of reed ofthe ster) A Seittay gona bve several Jewees of fcedoms sucha ystems Site fan fm {Wwsteation Consices the simple pendulum shown in Fig. 21a. The displacee ppoaiion of this system is characterized by @ only. Hence, it constitutes a system Eesitiam > r fy hy oh, L Te L Fare 21 Sytem ith diferent dsprec of feedom (2) One dese of eedom (w= 1) (8) Tw sen eon (Tr et dn 4 3 (0 nit eo on12 soit pres vith one degree of freedom, that i m= L In Fig 21b and c, two and three Independent coordinates ave needed to describe the motion of the systerns respectively Hence, they constitu systems with two degrees and three degrees of freedom, respectively Tn Fig 2 Id, the number of coordinates nezessaty to describe the motion of the clastic cantilever beam is infinite Hence, this constitutes an infinite desree freedom system "ms cy ein nt ee of a ise, leronace is id to ooeur The atmplitodes of motion Treen et ieatomangy, Hence, he determination of the natural e9oen- ies of a system is important] ‘Principal modes of vibration A system with m degrees of freedom vibrates in such “Toomplex masier that the amplitude and frequencies do not appear to follow ‘ny definite patterns. Stil, among such disoideily motions, there are some {pecialtypes of simple and orderly motions called principal modes of vibration; in {principal mode, each point in the system vibrates with the same frequency 'A system with m degices of freedom possesses m principal modes with natural frequencies. More general types of motion can always be represented by the superposition of principal modes ‘Normal mode of vibrations When the amplitsde of some point of the system Uibrating in one of the principal modes is made equal 10 unity, the motion is then called the normal mode of exbration 23 PROPERTIES OF HARMONIC MOTION ‘The simplest form of periodic motion is harrronic motion, which is represented by sine or cosine functions Lat us consider the harmonic motion represented by the following equation: x= Xsinot en where = circular Irequeney in radians per unit time We can represent x by the projection on a vertical diameter of a rotating veetor of length X, as it moves arogad e cincle with constant angular speed o (see Fig 22) Since the function fepeats itself after 27 rad, a eycle of motion iscompleted when wets a2) « ret 2» where 7 = time period of motion Frequency fis the inverse ofthe time petiod hence @3) igre 22 Vectra representation of harmonic motion (‘In order to determine the velocity and acceleration of motion, we differenti ‘te Eq (2 1) with respect to time 1 Velocity = t= ev eorur = o¥sn(ar +) es ‘Acceleration = = ~w°N sin wr = w*X sin(cot + (23a) = 0X (256) Equations (24) and (50) show that both velocity and acceleration ate also harmonic and can be represented by vectors wX and w*X rotating at the same tpend ts that of Xv eso tad/unit time Thee ate, howeve, leading the Epcerent vector by #/2 and epetvely) 8 1 Tin Fig 2, vertea! pojetions of thes vec ate show plotted agaist the time ais The anges betwen the vectors ate Koown as phase angles 8, the weet vector leads the displacement vector by 80": he aceleralion veto tena the plement vector by 10" and the veoity eos by 90°) 8 Example 2.1 We will consider the motion of the piston of a reciprocating machine (Fig 24) The displacement of the piston from the extreme position is Salt) — e058 ~ feos Also Ising = sind ‘Figure 23 Vectra coresenttion of diplacoment, wos, and aceleratonFipre 24 Modon of «piston of eipoeating chine ws went =| (Sse) it we expand the ihthan side bythe binomial here, we get cose A( 5) unto 12) sito ~ael ay awe (cosa) = Aamo 1 (SY +E (2) Subang cori th expen fo, we ae Leama eh(tpaiates E(t) stor | 1h svn bch cota sa and even powers of ind. Now l Smt cost + sea! ~cos20) sin? = (2 ~ 2e0820 + Joos 48) sin'o 3 land, substituting wt fer 0, it ie seen that $ is a function of coswe and cos dnt where n= 1, Terms containing circular functions of whole number multiples of wt are known as higher harmonics. Ic will be seen tha, in this motion, only even higher harmonics ate present; therefore if cos F2 ~ cos20) +344) x(}- rer + fonan) + | IF every ema, (£) "and higher poets can be neglected. Therefore Sao) conor £2(1~ cos2un| Gea rofsinor + 4 Fin 20] a ret(cont + Loos2ur] and : a 24 FREE VIBRATIONS OF A SPRING-MASS SYSTEM Figure 2 5a shows a spring of sifnes in the undefected postion. If we atach 4 mass m of weight I, the mast-spring system occupies the position shown ik Fig.25b. The deflection ofthe spring fom tne undefected positon ie i w hn es where kis the spring constant, defined as force per unit deflection. The poston of the system coresponding to this states referred fo asthe equi potion 1 the mas in this postion is displaced up or down by 2 (Fig 20) then the éxtieme lower postion ofthe mae wll be as shown in Fig 28d The peak peak displcement is refered to as double ampliude (Fig 25e). Figure 25) Shows the free-body diagram ofthe mase I the mass is released from the extieme lower position (Fig, 25d) it tarts te oscillate between the two extteme postions If thete is no texstance to these oscillations, the mass will contnse to vibrate (¢hecetcaly) indefinitely epee 2 aT aS. aT == co Neo yori * Trrstm Figure 25 Sorne-mass sytem (a) Unstetched spring. (8) Equilibria poston. (c) Mass in ciliting postion (a) Mas in mosimum downward rosin) Mass in upward foston(/) re-do digram of as coresponding toc)16 some pwns 1f the mass of the spring is neglected, the equation of motion can be writen as Bea mi en were 2 = summation of all forees in the vertical direction Using the sign wae ation shown in Fig 25 and the inertia force acting opposite to acceleta~ tion, = 8 gga + ke) + WC mg) = mE (28a) Since ky, = Wwe Bet m+ ke =O (28s) Equation (286) is « second.order diferent equation, and its Beneral stu, tion ais contain two arbitrary constants, which can be evaluated from intial conditions ‘The solution of this equation may be writen as Asinayt + Boost @9 lar natural frequency of where A and B ate arbittary constants and «, & the cise the system Pee substitute the above solution in the differential equation, we get (-2+4) 19 z-4 @uy which gives ‘When o,7, = 2, one cycle of motion is coxrpeted, which gives the expression for natal petiod as 2n af ar ale 1; number of eyeles exeeuted in the fore en The nataral feequency of vibration is th ‘unit time and is the reeiprocal of the time pesiod Z,, Ther ee, tye 213) equation 213) can also be writen inthe following frm: he 140) ms Now ns ee) 15) ‘Therefore be 2 | = a] of _j{__j _j igre 26 Relsionsip Sernoor TD atic. deflection and natural ltequeney Favation en shows that natural frequency is a function of static deflec- son’ Using g 981 om 3 and dyin ilimee the egueasy in bere ios shown in Fig 26 eaveney in he VUbitnty constants in Eq. (29) can be determined (com the boundar ‘conditions. Let the initial conditions be characterized by the following values: A= 0. 7am and f=8y e169) Substituting these conditions in Eq (29), the complete solution becomes em pm Reina soe! Other 1ypes of solutions of Eq. (286) can be written in the following forms (218) a9) Zsin(eye + 9) - and 2 Aexpiogt + Bexp ~Hoy! Example 22 A mass supported by a spring has a static deflection of 05 ‘mm. Determine its natural frequeney of oscillation Sorviox Van eu _ 1, Pale a Vos = 2.30 fo Example 23 Determine th spring constant forthe sytem of spins shown in Fig 27. ™ songsLe = — * @ ° let sping ens son Soe psder nat unit loa is apoio atc Tis shad at aan in lection of fe ratio of x3 /(%,+ X,) and x, /(x, + 2) respectively The deecti tte Se eye Rss y/o #9) 17K eRe tively. ‘Therelore, deflection of point ¢ is y xt a dant les ence, the resulting equivalent spring constant at ¢ is ite)? Kn ot e/a a/R Me xy xg= x and Ky Ky K, then Kygy = 2 | (0) ‘On application 3t a unit load in Fig’ 2 7, the total deflection is 4K KR K ence, equivalent spring constant KK UK, = Ky = Ky then Kogy = K/2 25 FREE VIBRATIONS WITH VISCOUS DAMPING I the force of damping fj is proportional to velocity, it is termed viscous damping. Thus Rend (220) in which ¢ = coefficient of viscous damping (force per unit velocity, FLT), Figure 28 shows a spring-mass-dashpot system. Ifthe mass is displaced by ‘below the equilibrium position, then the free-body diagram is as shown. Using the sign convention shown in this figure the equation of motion may be written mitt k=O Let the solution to this equation be in the form e em where 5 is a constant and will be determined later Substituting this solution in Eq 221), we get (ai (8+ Ss+Alenno wich gives Petseheo ax Therefore 2 Ves) (224) "he general solution can then be writen ss sm del + Bed! (225) where 4 and B are arbitrary constants depending upon boundary conditions Pique 28 Sprig-mase-dastpot stem| 29 son vrwwsacs If the radical in Eq) (224) i 2210, the damping is said to be critical damping eq. and we Bet nV aeheet c= Ime, (226) ‘The rato of actus damping (c) to extel damping (c,) i defined a6 he danping factor (8) 2 Now in 228) Substituting the above relationships in Eq (224 we Bet jae (62 VET ox) Joworet, a slation ations wit €= 2,1 and 02 ate sown in Fig 292 Howeves, ea es ain whch be dang es ts tea 1, the motion is aperiodic and no oscillation occurs If = 1, the ‘motion is, again, aperiodic Since this is the minimum damping for apesiodic motion, the system relutns (0 its original postion in the minimum time, when citically damped (Fig 2.92) 2.6 FORCED VIBRATIONS WITH VISCOUS DAMPING Figure 2102 shows a spring-mass-dashpot system under the action of a force of ‘excitation F such that Fe Rsinot (236) where wis the Frequency of force of excitation “The free-body diagram has been shown in Fig 2.105, and the equation of mation is mi + 2+ he Rysinet (2.312) The solution to this equation is: 2 = Zsin(wr~ 4) (2376)22 son vysaes —_ — + __ — Figure 210. Forced wibrations 4 fr sous damping. (2) S88 Feaet Fyanut Traseanh pat (2) Freetody 5 sige Then 2 = wZcos(wt ~ $) Zasin est ~ 6 + 2/2) and Fa wZsin(ul— 6+) ‘and # vectors at any particular instant The force in be represented by Oa in Fig. 2116 itection to that of velocity Figure 2 Mla shows 2,2, the spring is opposite to 2: henee it ean Sanilaly, damping force <42Z, acts in the opposite gure 211 Vector sation of forces ‘ihratons wih acos damping and, hence, ie repcevented by Ob Similarly, Oc represents the inertia force (rus2Z;), which acts opposite to acceleration The resultant ofthese forces is Fj, > Which most be equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to Fy, Thus, the {splacement vector lags the F, vector by @ From Fig 211b, Fo lk = mat)? + (ca)? 2 fo of %-—— 2 (238) Vk — mut + (co)? and stan “on (239) goatons (238) and (238) canbe exposed in nondimersioal terms as rons 2,2 vt (40a) Yl = mat /kP + (cofky wow 8 = saiedfection of he stem vada the ation oF (Bru 889) vo, "-(S)-7 @ in which» = Hequney aio, an coy, (< ee P(e 2mee) ogy (ey -(esg) - (EE) - eer therefore (2.406) Hence N= 1 (2.41) yo-7F+ ey Similarly oe tan (ay Figure 212 is a plot of N and ¢ versus frequency ratio for 7 varying from 0 5.t L a4 iteavon tr BS ° 7 30 33, cy @0 iore 212 Maple ear ud pas angle noe baton: Rede by ein ere 212 Maw oe Stns rom Tay of Fras wi pein by WT ‘onws) Particular cases Etfect of frequency ratio r for a particular case when & = 0 Wr =o: Nel Wral: N=x trae N=0 ‘Atr = Ly resonance occuts and amplitudes tend 19 infinity The introdue- i "o finite values tion of damping reduces the amplitudes 0 fin ‘The phase angle 9 is zero itr < 1: the displacement z is in phase with the exciting foree Fy and. = 180° ity > 1 J mani tot of damping tator AS the dang intense the peak of he mag lc of dat ry tothe et Th due Co te fat that maximum aa leaped vibra whe the fren eee) (6) esl Farge amped ntial equeny oy which aight alle tha te | dosed nr eqns (5) e moe cody Fy Figite 213 Vecior diagram (a) Amptnue, velcity ‘Eiplacement (8) Fores for freed wbrations ate w (9 For r = ty the phase angle is 90° forall values of damping, except ¥ = 0 Forr <1, the phase angle is less than 90°, and, for > 1. the phase @ is greater than 90° The maximum amplitude of motion at y = 1 and € > 0 is (Eq. 2402) 2-8 e and the corresponding vector diagram is shown in Fig. 2.13. The solution in Eq (2-40a) isa steady-state solution, which is importat most of the practical problems However, there will be tansient vibrat initially, corresponding to the solution given by Eq (235). These vibrations of outs, die out in the frst Few cycles 2.7 FREQUENCY-DEPENDENT EXCITING FORCE, In many practical problems of machine foundations, the exciting force depe upon the frequency of machine operation Figure 214 shows such a syst ‘mounted on elastic supports, with m representing the unbalanced mass places cveentriity from the center of the tolating shaft The unbalanced fore F = (meu?) sinwt Thevefore, the equation of motion may be written as follo ad a“ M~ my EE + mE (+ esinwt) = ke ~ ‘ "GE an ” a Rearanging the tums in the above equation, we get Mi + ci + kz = mec? sinwt @Figure 214 Force of excitation Gu Wo rotate ing unbalance Here M includes m ols0. Equations (244) and (237a) are similar, except that meu? appeats in Eq (244) in place of F, in Eq. (2372) The solution of this ‘equation therefore, is r= ee (2.454) Yu Mey + (eo) Therefore Z<— met (2.456) Ki — Mu®)? + (ew)? and wang 5 04) {In nondimensional form, these equations may be arranged as follows: Moe (an) (248) Plots of quantities in Eqs (2.47) and (248) are shown in Fig, 2 15a and by respectively These curves are similar in shape to those in Fig, 2.12, with the > Figan deena af dreesity Exton nome * ororance’ @ oe = igre 218 Response of syste seth" soating“unbalasces (a) waar fswmney io (6) reget io, ‘imma @ 4 egesy aio ‘or & Jifference being that peak amplitudes occur at (2.49) nd the valve ofthe ordinate for += 1 in Fig 2 15a i % 1 mE 05)28 sou. pysaates 28 SYSTEMS UNDER TRANSIENT FORCES Transient froes may be eaused by earthquakes, lst impacts and (he sudden dropping of Toads In several suc ase, the maximum movon may °c ‘within ror et time after the application of fre, Fos thi reason, demise se pe of secondary importance im wansient Toads, Howeve, response due t© may be gue ne influenced § damping since they consist of & sis of pulses. Case I, Suddenly Applied Load Consider a spingsmass system (Fig 216a) that is subjected 19 she Foren function F()in Fig 2 166 ‘The equation for motion of mass mis given by mt + kx = Fy es The solution for displacement x is given by x= Acosayt + Binet +E Inialy, when ¢= 0, x= 0 and $= 0; score, A = —fo/k and B=0 ‘Thus, Bq. @51) becomes 4 x= Ba cose) 253) ar the fore Fs applied gradually, the state dection i Fo/He Ths, magnilie cation of the deflection N is Magnification versus time has f maximum value of 2, whic S tohed wien ct = # oF f= F/2, where 7 is the system Figme 216 Dyoamic acpi ‘pads to saddealy appli load ( Onedepee freedom stem (2) Scadeoty apred toxl (©) ‘agaiiaon A es) | Case I. Squate Pulse of Finite Duration Consider that the system shown in F con sm shown in Fig 2.17a is subjected to a pulse intensity fora given duration + (Fig 2175) Desied ope of anforn For r <7, the motion is gov ea governed by Eq (251) The solution is given by yo te = coswye) (2550) X= Acosu,t’ + Bsinw,t” (257) hate = 1= 4 The values of 4 and B a d i alr a # at tne rm th incon es t= + as in Eq 216 Substituting x, and 4, fr oa Ear (255) in Ed ee and 3, fom Eqs (255) in E & x Ba Lh PUI ~ 00s wyr)o0s at" + FPsinw,rsinwy (582) ik [1 = cosa)? + sin? oyr]"?sin(aye’ — 6) where on om tan Therefore eh ects Plt = cose) sin(uxe ~ 6) 4 = Pee sine,s/2sin(at’ — 6) esa) pes to pe fine Fore 217 Danis amp | Onegeetratn se (5) « Seep (Magar28 son DEW pe ™ Asinese/2)sin ad = 9) ‘The dynamic magnification N is Nn Bape 2a - 2a 239) “The maximum value is 2 when +/7 = (see Fig 2 17e) I in Eq (2 59), we consider the limiting case where +/T is very small so that sin 21/7 = 97/T, ther 2p ae Ken EF 26) 2/e, Thus substituting in Eq. (260) gives For me, Now k= moj and 7 x, Now Fyr = impulse 1 Therefore, Zt es 29 RAYLEIGH’S METHOD ‘According to Rayleigh’s method, the fundamental frequency} of a continuous ‘laste system with infinite degrees of freedom can be determined accurately by Seaiming a reasonable deflection curve for the elastic system. If the true Seflection curve of the vibrating system is not Known, the use of the static Seflection curve ofthe elastic body gives a fairly aecurate Fundamental frequency. So ilustiating the application of this method, the energy principle will be used, Expressions will be developed for the kinetic (KE) and potential (PE) tenergy Since the total energy is constant, KE+PI dee +Pp=0 « texmum KE = nosing PE angle 24 to Fig £1, eit fhe ring of ah ww Tength, Determine the natural frequency of the speing-mass system 4 Fundamental frequency conespnds (0 the requeney ia theft mode of vibrations. “ily * 191806 Figure 218 System with sing having weight SoLUTION Let the displacement of the mass from the fc ‘of the mass from the equilibrium position be Zand 2 = 29 c0s wyt. Assuming that the extension of the spring is linear displacement of the element of spring at distance x from the fixed support is 2 = FZpc08.n1 Vevocity of element dx = = ~ Se, Zqsinoyt Maximum KE of the element with mass (w/g) ds is 3g (7%) Integrate the expression above to obtain the maximum kinetic energy of the spring AKE aa (oe BE [foe The total maximum kinetic energy is ty w bet (“Sen The maximum potenti energy of he sping may be compute as feos: Maximum potential energy = [Pea + HAz532 som bexasecs Since, in a conservative system, maximum kinetic energy equals the maxi- ‘mum potential energy, by equating the two energies we get (oe 223 = $473 i) ‘The effect of the weight of the spring can be accounted for by lumping - its onesthird mass with the concentrated mass ofthe system Example 2S Using Rayleigh's method, determine the fendamental frequency ofthe cantilever beam shown in Fig 219, Sotin10s The deflected curve of the cantilever beam will be assumed (0 correspond to that of a weightless beam with the concentrated load P acting © atts end. Then i pe 0" SE lexural stiffness of the beam. in which EF Pp i stiffness of beam at the free end k = = = 25 st be - |The expression for the deflected shape of the cantilever is pb) - GY] Ugo a BEL ya Maximus potential energy = 493 = 22098 » ey = Kia = Sy If the weight of the beam is w per unit length and assuming harmonic | | etn \ Maxinum KE of system Figure 249 Fndanental tequency Seer tuition of anver beam | | | Equating the two energies, the fundamental frequency of vibration is The exact solution} would give a= 3515 210 LOGARITHMIC DECREMENT Logatithmie decrement is a measure of the decay of successive maximum amplitudes of viseously damped vibrations and is expressed (Fig, 296) as 8 = log, a) in which x, and x; ale two successive peak amplitudes If xj and x, are determined at times gf and (4g +27) from Eq. 2.35) and substituted in Eq (262), we get (2.63) ey or (2650) (2658) ‘where € is small Ti the damping is very small, it may be convenient 10 measure the dif- ferences in peak amplitudes for a number of cycles, say In such a case, if x, is the peak amplitude of the mth cycle, then 4 Soe Mechanical Viraronsby WT Thomson Preace Hal Inc, Enpewood Cit, NJ, 1988 pasAtso Therefore 2.11 DETERMINATION OF VISCOUS DAMPING ‘Damping cen be determined from either a free-vibration or a forced-vibration test on a system Ina freevibration test, the system is displaced from its equilibrium position ‘and a record of the amplitude of displacement is made. Then, from Eqs. (2656) and 2.62), e-paper (67) or es rom Ess (266) and (2654). 81 yt ew) 8935 Ing 8s, In a forced-vibration test, the system may be excited with a constant force of excitation and varying frequencies. A resonance eurve is obtained (Fig, 220) q or 2 igre 220 Determination of wows damp- Ww Rigg in forced wibrtons by bandwith Fraaeny ate ME ‘netiod Atr= 1 trom Faq @408), Zt Tea 28 eC” If the frequency ratio isr when the amplitude of motion is 0.707 (1/2£), by sing Eq (2400), we get 07 nae? or Lr = 27? 482)? me 8g? or = 271-282) + (1-882) <0 or rtymg lath 262) a 2B P= 88) | esha ar) 2 ee aE] = (1-267) + ey +P or 2- spe agine wae gis small Now Therefore a7) ‘This method for determining viscous damping is known as the bandwidth method. 2.12 TRANSMISSIBILITY ¥ (ie system in Fig 214 represents a very practical system that corresponds toa ‘machine foundation with rotating unbalances We can now compute the forces transmitted to the foundation through the spring and the dashpot The mximum force in the spring is KZ, and the maximum force in the ashpot is coZys the two forces are out of phase at 90° (Fig 211). Hence, thesecon 236 sou owmaes force transmitted F, to the base is = rea + (02% @7a) = neuf = (2 ens) Letting cw/k = 2&7 and substituting Zp from Eq, (2454), we get transmissibility TT, defined as the ratio of force transmitted to the foree of excitation y 1 = PP + ery Tansmissbiity 7, versus frequency ratio o/¢, is ploted in Fig 221 It wil ‘be seen that for § = 0 the curve is the same asin Fig, 212. Also, all curves pass through 7 = V2. For > V2, all of the curves approach the 7 axis asymptod- aly. “The higher the frequency rato, the better the isolation But there may be Sheessive amplitudes at the time of starting and stopping a machine when it fteses through the zone of resonance. Damping help to Timi these amplitudes to finite values) ane mmo? “s sol re e=0 8 ons ea 4 2 oa v 5 Bad °F oe igre 221 Trantsiiy () v6 fe Fuente oes auerey 0 (9) 2.13 PRINCIPLE OF VIBRATION-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS a Upigure 2.22 shows a structure represented asa base undergoing vibrations in the vertical dtection Letx = Xosinor Qn. ‘A vibration-measuring instrument consists of a spring-mass-dashpot system, ‘as shown, mounted on the vibrating base. The relative motion of the mss of the spring is monitored Let the absolute motion of the mass be y and, neglecting wwansients, y= Ysin wr (2.728) ‘Then the equation of motion can be waitten as My = Ky x) ~~ 8) en Letting y — x= and p—& = we get (b+ cd + he = MeXosinot em Equation (274) is similar to Eq. (244) Hence, the solution for Zp can be written asin Eq 2456): ae e75) le= met? + (ea? and 0%) or = QT) % Gaye ae? and = tant 2 7) ‘igure 222 4 vibration mesurng instrament (ie ‘astrument) mounted on a vbrting bse[38 som owwsacs om [90 02 os os 7 30 7 30 pure 223 Response of a vbetion measuring instrument toa vibrting Base (2) Amplitude (6) Phas ene [A plot of Z/Xo and frequency ratio and the phase angle and frequency ratio is shown in Fig 223 ie ‘Displacement Pickup, 1), and for all values of damping £ For large values of © isso low that the y value is ‘Therefoce, ifthe natural requeney of the instrument isso low that large, then the resulting telative motion Z equals Xp Therefore, the instrument functions as a displacement pickup} Using Eq. (2 772) and rearranging, we get i tL | For €= 069, he vatues of VB in the denominator for different /1 are | ve | 1m 0mm om 1am to The instrument thus functions as an accelerometer The frequeney ratio w/in fan accelerometer must be small Therefore, the natural frequency of the instru- | Thus Z, is proportional to the absolute acceleration w*X, of the vibrating base. 1 meat must be hish }} | an susteus wn 1wo.ocoRers oF rareDoM | (VIBRATION ABSORBER) Sa SE Steet is tate om ime = Fasint ~ hye, ~ ky(2. 42) (2.794) and imi, = ky(2)— 23) (2796) Let ws assume the following saluiion for the principal modes 1, Zjsiner (2.7%) 2m Zsinet (72) Substtting these solutions in the equations of motion, we get (-myu? + ky + ky)Z,— kZa = Fy (279) (cmp? + hy)Zy— kz = 0 (2799) i Fost bg,2, a o Figure 224 (2) Viteation absorber. (b) Freebody dageam,40 sou pensucs Let the natural eireular frequeney of the system I above be w,, 80 that eae 2%) and the natual circular froqueney of system 2 above be oy, $0 that “n= VE (2.79h) and it az (2) ‘be the static deflection of the mass m, due to F, Dividing Eq. 279) by ky and Eq 279) by ka, we Bet (2.804) (2.80) and aef (2)la-0 To determine the natural fequencies of the system, is free vibrations need to be consideied. Let the right side of Eq. (2 80a) be 2er0 and then, from Eq (2 80a, 8), we get 4 ks /ky -(2) 2° Teigtcwal | (e) aan Tesolin ot his teeny equation wi ve the antl eens of ne ey caren ing hem RE el (82) [ley -pecro(B\ gyre This is the general method for solving the natural frequencies of a two-degre feedom system In Fig 224, if system | constitutes the main system, then system 2 is tibrations absorber, since it can reduce the amplitudes of vibration of the mat system appreciably, as will be shown below From Eq. (2806), we get a 283 (e/@m)° ‘ Substituting Z, in Eq @80a), we get i ah he & uy BT ey) a(S) ] Therefore = (w/on) - (ste 2 [1 (fon) Jt + ha/es~ (o/ou)?] = ha/ky Silt, when solving for Z;, we get 2- > 1 (2 846) [1 (w/oa? From Eq. (2.844), it is seen that Z, (2.85) Then (2.86) ‘A negative sign indicates that Z, and fy are in phase opposition In fact, Z, becomes zero at this frequency because the force k3Z, exetted by spring 2 on mass m, is equal to and opposite to the force of excitation F, The size of the absozbet m, and its permissible deformation Z, depend upon the magnitude of the disturbing force Fy (= kzZ2) 215 SPECTRAL RESPONSE. In Sect 26, the solution for displacement was obtained for a singledesree freedom system with spring, mass, and dashpot, and excited by & forcing function of the form Fysinwt The solution ean also be expressed in terms of velocity (2) and acceleration (2), all of which are simple harmonic solutions. If we consider a multidegree freedom system, excited by a forcing function such as ground motion dusing an eaithquake (Fig | 4), it is possible to obtain timewise solutions for displacements, velocities, and accelerations, The forcing‘a mathematical function, and it may De ined as dsplaczment (of the ground) Te auanties a0 examined 25 8 expressed a itn, abich may of ay pot be expressed ata Delhene set tee known as reponse quantities When examining he Were of satya bulding, we can study he stresses, stain, bending ‘moment, Of Yap other sesred quantity, Thus, the exponse of 8 SSN Ce ‘be studied in aye iplacements veceties, accelerations, stress, sins, bending mo- ears shea, and any oer parameter that we may choose vs shea Shown that a system is not vibrating im one of principal snot ihe complex motion can be cepresented a 2 sim of movons Cone ‘Fondiag to the prieipal modes of wbations as flows function is no longer expressed 88 Yainwt = AyXsinogt + An Xs singat + Aw XsSinwat FHA X SNe esp in which ‘ysinurthe resultant motion with being the maximum esP008= reine of the deszed parameter, say displacement Mrpavameters of motion in Ist, 2d, eth mode respec: tively “Ags ine mode patcipaton facior_(This needs some desesipton) Aw Ane Leta system have three degrees of feedom witb natural freqnenels She yp andy, respectively, in thee modes The diplset response of this Sie vo an exetation fution, such as the EL Cente ‘earthquake of May 18, tee orbed out ia he fist, second, and thd mode °F vibrations. 1940, can Pe eum cspacementin three modes can be determines, Tg actual Taplaconent ofthe sjsten isa fanetion of the three maxi ‘values, The Ist Gisplacemey on comitutes the most 0 the vibrations, and 36h ‘succeeding ress Ghode eontibutes&tlaiely smaller degree fo the Ke! er There- tiahet Pnode participation facior may be regarded os WoBA™E factor for the To, onsen (isplacement in this ease) in a pastels MORE 1) ‘evalua rarieithe total maximum response of te system. Feusher ‘a particular mode $on ve rine to negative displacements Theteore, to dete the maximum ae of the system, tb root mean square value ofthe fesPOns= 2 ‘each mode is usvally considered “Thug, the maximum response of the actual system ye ame a ta A plot ofthe maximum response of single-dereefeedom Ie against perio (or fequens) under iffrent dampings i ermed the pane spectrum (288) const Sos 21820 supped ot weatn § za 2830 igte 225 Aveage spectral (acceleration) esponse cures osne (1959) prepa the average seta response ces fo four one 0059] reat See al calls, and Oba Washington These curves may be adopted after corrections if necessary ig, Washingtcn Tre sacren vade sees tom eathqtkesPevods of src= trator no ae a pe nen rae om Patinahpe my ao be wed for converting one Teponse quantity to the other mune (2.894) (2.898) where S = spectral response celeration fo = velocity d= displacement 6, = natural circular frequeney in a particular mode ‘The above treatment is included only to develop fundamental fundamental concepts and is not at all exhaustive. A detailed mathematical treat 1 subject is Bi isotat at ana stment of the subject is given 4 GW. Housne, Behavior of Stature: Daring Earth 1S Hes, et 1 Earthquakes, / Eng Meck Dio ASCE, vol 85PRACTICE PROBE EMS ain he ta buaple2 unig, to bs dive xeon fo wy ad sie 2 a finest od son nd hme wes oN aoe oa tn egetons fon forthe sens own Fig 2260 b ands and deen Ae aoe Detrmieciea acing im ibe ysem it Fg 226ban¢ gare 226 Systems wih one Sec of feeon in Prob 27 1 set vp the equations or wot of theses shown i Hg 2924 bc and and ene Tregoeney equston and aatrlfequncies _ en pened by Ea (4), shows te pak mpd ces a reese ‘ 1 Vine s1¢> 0707 mayan Dis te silence of va wih he eof EAE ee ete vacoe din fom «fe wan ecard sowns0 ig 288 oe rae hn aguec- depend excitons, te danping fetr€ een By Be LEMOS ™ (8) 1 ges the pak ano ere fy and fm ute a wich ne apie = mes te pak mete face" ot ing” and "ei! 27 apn waa you udetnd by “were reponse “owe print 22 Eel wt Per mca” tural tequengy” “Wacamisi,” “Sam damping Figure 221 Systems with wo degree of teedom in Prob. 23 28 An unkacwn weight ataced to the end ofan unknows sprig Khas x nara frequency of 3s span Itt hg weigh is added to 7, te aatual euency i lowered 9 75 cpa Determine the ‘wight Hand sping coostant K 39 A body weighing 65 kis suspended fom a sprog which dees 157 om under he lou 1s fubjced to adamping effet adured toa valve O25 Unc that sequied fr eral damping, Find {he bntr frequency of The wnariped end damped vibaons and in he ner ease, determine the ‘Sho ot nacasive emplitodes. ifthe body i wbjeted to a periodic dstrbing force with ‘Govino vale of 25 Kgs frequency ual o 075 times the natural undamped frequency, i {te ample o fovea vibrations snd the phase ilerence wih expect to the during fore. 240-A tOeerdiameter pole wih 410s leagh is guided so that i Nats verizaly ia mater The {pen prvity of he poe ates i O81 Find the ple’ natural frequency| TT CHAPTER THREE WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN ELASTIC MEDIUM 3.1 INTRODUCTION aves are generated in 4 continuous medium due to a dstarbance pe Waves at Sioble is dropped ito lage stil pond, waves ae generates It smedinm 4 Pe itons Nery if asmall loating object, sich a5 8 Pie of ca ave in a te sufac othe ll water efor dropping the pebble, tbe inode on ne ef cotk oxclates about is original position wile the enced np el vay fiom the point where the pebble was donned wae cote soe thatthe waves travel i one divecton wth cers Ya vi coe of cork and, hence the water esi wand fro with « we wile the Fsentsom the velocity of wave cavel This phenomenon ¥&y frequently observed by a child na similax mannes an earthquake pr rasage of sires waves that eniinale from vies may also be generated, both at the ssl mass Wa et a (im 20) «ge (#2) (0%) als 3} 7 OT Vay and by using the expression for rotation from 2a, 3304, we Bet %._ ou Bs GW, oe @3 which implies that rotation is Similar expressions can be obtained for 3, and propagated with velocity IS er Vo Combining Eqs (8356) and (38a) and substituting for G in terms of from Eq. @ 28a), we get (3 38a) (3.388) ‘A plot of ¥;/¥, is shown in Figure 3 10. (Richast, 1962) SS i Figure 3.10 Retin between Poisen's ao Ronee 1 and elects of propagation of compre l . ‘on (P) shea (5) aad Raylagh (R) waves, oa ae eas in eemiamfinte late mesium (Afr hai 1962) From the above analysis, it can be seen that an infinite elastic medium ean sustain two kinds of waves as follows: 1 Compression wave (also called primary wave, P wave, dilatational wave, itrotational wave) 2. Shear wave (also called secondary wave, $ wave, distortonal wave, equi ‘voluminal wave) The two waves which represent different types of body motions tavel at ifferent velocities It may be noted that the particle motion associated with the compression wave in the tod and the dilatational wave ia the infinite medium is the same, but the wave-propagation velocities are different. Ia the rod, «= VE/p Bu in the infinite medium, 9, = (X+2G)/p This means that the compression wave travels faster in the there can be no lateral the rod The second type of wave motion (distortional) propagates at the same velocity (y= VG/p) in both the rod and the infinite medium 1k will be seen from Eq (3.356) th ge and Eye Since water is seltively incompressible as compared to the soil skeloton, the measurements ofthe velocity ofa compression wave in water-saturated soils will sot be a representative velocity for sil, but for wator Since water as no shear strength and, henee, has zeio value in shear modulus, the velocity of a shear wave in water-saturated sols represents the sel property only This fact mst be considered while planning velocity measurements Table 31 lists the veloety of wave propagation in compression and shear for diferent materialsble 3.1 Velocities of Compression Waves 2, und Shear Waves et sa Moist cay own at tera iste Dene sand aed grave Pinegrined md Meato eae’ sand Medivmesied grovel After Ban (1962) Fee ERE Sotto the valet ef wave propagation i mater 4 WAVE PROPAGATION IN A SEMFINFINITE ELASTIC HALF PACE practice, the solutions for wave propagation in an infinite elastic body have ereette Since foundations are supported on the sol the boundary conditions ‘Pronimating this situation are those of a semi-infinite half space, Tt will be veemetnas in See. 33. that the medium is homogeneous, isotropic, and elastic. parr Claatic infinite medium, it was found that there are two types of body ves, the compression wave and the shear wave In an elastic half space, it will we that another wave, the Rayleigh wave, shows up. The motion of a vifined to a zone neat the boundary of the half space. The st obtained by Rayleih ES a ater described ution for this wave was detail by Lamb (1904) “The study of waves propagating i terest in the study of the dynamics of ceiitace of soi on the propesgation of waves in soil will be discussed {The haf space may be defined in the xy plane only with z assumed positive the downward direction (Fg 310) For a plane wave traveling in the = ‘rection, particle displacement is independent of y disecfion If w and w are iSplacements in the x and z directions, respectively, and v =O, then au _ aw ay ayo in a zone close to the surface is of practical bases and foundations. The effect of the then, if the action of body forces is neglected, the equations of wave Propas: con ave the same as Eqs. (331) and (333): ant ecran pt ox a sos cress 0» Figure 3.11 Wave propagation ia ciate Half space, legend of coord: ‘A general solution of these equations may be written a6 , aye wae tar (3.394) Bot _ aye a OF (63%) in which 4* and y* ate analytic functions Since the in which ° and ¢* jons Since the = axis i perpendicular Seatac foal psn oe > Coming eel onaston waves with frequency w, @* and y* may be expressed as ot =e 6(2) (402) y= eafn.z) (6.400) Then the equations that shou i : hc the equations that should be sued bythe fneions # and y area (Pe ee=o (3 4la) (P4E\p a0 in which 416) rs oa singe 2However, qf and o,7 represent wave lengths of longitudinal and transverse ‘waves. Hence, hand k are reciprocal values of the wave lengths, and is always lager than Particular solutions of Eqs (341) may be assumed as follows: gn ders (42) ye Be bigins (3.430) in which eae (44a) payee 44) A, B, and x are arbitrary constants determined trom boundary conditions Let the boundary Surface z= 0 be subjected to the action of extemal notmal forces distributed over the entve plane; these forces induce normal stress equaling 0 = oye" (3.45) It is assumed that the tangential stresses on the border plane equal zero; that is, te 0 (3.48) Stresses o, and r,, may be expressed through functions @ and ¥ as follows: (47a) oh (3.47) [By substituting expressions for 6 and ¢ from Eqs. (43) in the right parts of Eqs (347), when = 0, we get ~ Biyad + (2x7 ~ 2) = 0 @ 48a) (0x2 = k2)4 + 2ixpb= 2 (3.486) Hence a 2x aK 9 (3.490) Fix) @ 6 = 2xa %0 (3.496) P70) 6 oe in which . Fx) = 2x? =)? = Axa G50) sng Hs (3.39), ( 43), and (3 49), we obtain (2x? ~ k2)e“** — 2eapte"* ng ERR Bae pan (Ste) pec aneet sn (3518) In eider to transform the exciting force into one acting along the line x 2 06Fig 311), we assume = pit nid Substituting this expression in the right past of Eq. (3.51), and integrating with respect to x fiom ~ 20 to -+e0, we obtain the following expressions for the displacements w and v, ip_ pre xl(ex?—K)e-* ~ 2ape“P Je" wk as dx 0.520) p_ preal= Ox? K2)ennr + aye mene OI a dx (0528) Equation (3.52) corresponds to the forced waves induced by an exciting force acting along the line x = 0, 2 = 0. Velocity of Wave Propagati Free susface waves occur where the waves are induced by some initial excite- ment om the border surface Assuming, for this case, that a) = 0, constants and B of Eq 3.48 and 6, may then be determined from the following expressions: ~ tixad + 22-2 )B=0 53a) Qxt-1)A + 2x08 =0 (530) Equation (3 53) will give solutions other than zeto for A and B only when the deteiminaat ofthis system equals zero. Hence, we get Fix)= 0 os) Equation @ 54) may be used to determine x Instead of this equation, which contains itvational expressions, we may consider the following equation, which does not contain radical signs (Barkan, 1962): FA x) = (2x7 = KAY = 16632 = HP)? — xt wifi forse!) at =1 whieh Sox) = (Ox? = BY + Aaa Since & > h, one ofthe roots of Eq (355) lies between | and +00 It can be how Guat the other two roots Tie between O and //R°, if they are real “The tus sot corresponds fo postive values of « and i therefore, this root toe net satly the condition J(c) =O The last two roots make @ and 8 veete and imaginary Therefore, they do not satisfy the equation F(x) = 0 sanee equation, has only one root, x7 = Nj which i larger than creratone A> K2 For a Poison rato of 05, the real root of Eq 355) dy Ra 04678 or v= 025, all roots of Eq. (955) are teal they are equal to @- V3) Lisi to#v3) Of these roots, only the last satisfies the conditions of the problem: its value is ALL = dn LS VE = 1 087564 Similarly, in Eq. 342), if we designate ase were vp isthe velocity of propagation of the Rayleigh wave under considera- tion, iti clear that op = £0, aah Fory=05, op = 095530, Fory = 025, op = 091940, ‘Thus, its seen that surface waves propagate with somewhat smaller velocity than chear or transverse waves. Thus, op is less than 2, plot of &,/e, for Uitferent values of v iz shown in Fig 3 10 (Richart, 1962). Ts thus seen that thece are three principal waves in an elastic balf space ‘These waves have different vdocities of propagation. Knowing their velocities i in ony to prdiet in which order the waves wil ative ata given point duc 103 disturbance at another point 4 Aisa ot of Fg 59) eying the requiedconlitons Sos anita 0) Particle Motion at the Surface In ado oped reiting the order of anv of Trade al of waves along he ste, “oe neds y amb to ue in teas es ” from a point source at the surface of an ideal medi ‘ws Tone Gistaness 8 point source acts at the surface of an elz ‘hall spe ser ene fm mie nar mnes Ti in a saver vl depend on he pat ips ithe inp nf stot Seno hen ween wn in Fig 3.12a will develop (Richart, Hall, d Wont 910 Thee wats hve thes sae sonore seal roa ‘satele ota Rayleigh (R) wave The horizontal and ‘ee fon reson seperti in Fig aoa ayer Contre pat maton o Fike 312 Wave te rom ss lace point source deat medium (Reproduced by pemitsion of FE Richar, JR. Hal fa R. Hil Jr and RD Wood, Hb + Engewood Cit, NI, 191 and ates Lent 1908), 7 Mt OM Foun, Prentce Hak,68 sou psa “A pattcle atthe surface frst undergoes an esilatory lateral displacement ‘on the arrival of the P wave, followed by a relatively quiet period leading up to nother osillation atthe arrival of the S wave This is followed by an oscillation “of much larger magnitude when the R wave artives "The time interval between wave attivals becomes greater and the amplitude of the oscillations becomes smaller with ineteasirg distance from the souree, In tddition, Pavave and S-wave amplitude decays more capidly than that of an R Gave. Therefore, the R wave is the most sigrificant disturbance along the Meatace of an elastic half space and, at large distances from the source, may be the only clearly distinguishable wave Mf the horizontal and vertical components of the particle motion starting at point G@) in Fig 3 12a and b are combined, the locus of surface;particle motion Forthe R wave can be drawn as shown in Fig 3.12c. The path of the particle motion describes a retrograde ellipse | agfhowves cosenaep oy a suneace FOOUNG ‘& | Gees tie nntnion ny te ina af el 5 Claas, making font oe ee silos oe sac of an |] elastic half space will be considered. The energy ‘of the oscillating footing is | Yransmitted away by a combination of P, S, and R waves 5 \ ‘The basic features of this wave field at a relatively large distance from the Soa IN te te a 968) Thedsune em te soe of ‘each wave for a medium with » = }{ The body waves (P and $ waves) propagate ca ave oa edi = Lge empl wae ont and eR aay curd om. Send song a lous wave ont of he waves" encounter an increasingly larger volume of material as they travel sae esi ia tah ware deneas wth Oe Sg a ace dey decent Hem th sore, Ts Sets ogee Te ape of te body wars Seo gol iit nthe diane om te et Be “However, along the surface of the half space, the amplitude decreases as I/r% The amplitude of the Rayleigh wave decreases as 1/ VF (Woods, 1968). 7 Te tds oe eee ine compen (we a hPa oon a enon an the price motion soeatd With the shear (5) wave is a transverse displacement ‘that is normal to. the ih be He) SE ye tion gate oh he Rane 3.12c Thé shaded zones along the wave fronts for the body waves indicate the 2une The sade at a rent a Tanto of Be parle sve ama ot a ace theca fhe sous) a ss oe pone vial and goats ech which decays with depth but according to seperate distributions) x y I, rane Sans Lal) exec \ mye Fle 31 Ditton of depen wae 4S fing a8 4 Aamogeun ie ‘wopic, elastic hall space (After Woods, 1968) “ soak seicalyeclsng ier cma sou, te alae of 5 womogeneous, isolgopic, elastic half space, Miller and Pursey (19S4, 1955 cern at dation oft putengy smog te te este veaves was 67 percent lor the R wave, 26 percent for the S wave, and 7 percent for the P wavéjpTue fact that swo-thirds ofthe total input eneegy i transmited away fiom a eurface energy source by the R wave, which decayy, much more Slowly with distance than the body waves, indicates that the Ut wave is of primary concern for foundations on or near the surface of the round \¥\ ) 36 FINAL COMMENTS » Analytical solutions for the-velacity of the propagation of the body ¢ ropagation of the body waves (P ‘and S waves) and the surface wave (the R or Rayleigh, wave) have been inode There are wo major pacts! apliations of thee solos in si synamics sc propertin of he soi ae dete bea se rs eer pron co campo ial in ny dang ne oe a se uonnt slum apparatar The applinton of hws echniqsn parioulat eases demonstedin Chap 4 hese ecinaass Sczand the soncent of seometl damping hi ge appiaion in po- pang Toundatoneondsevinatingfooungs as with comprgsor de ciprocating” ‘machines n Chap 9)© tn warenaaturated soils only velocities of S-wave propagation must be idterpined The Powave sel is representative ofthe modulus of nate vsthst than the modulus of soil) 2° ‘ithe cud of wave propagation due to a vibrating footing, the footing was scsored te be ciculat and placed at the surface of a semi-infinite space. (In weeetice a footing 1s more oiten rectangular than circular. Also, a footing it Traaye embeded to certain depth below the ground level) Nevertheless, the AEE the problem as a simplified ideal cae does aot reduce ts practical au Gp tace the departure in the practical results as compared with the wantstea! predictions besed upon simplified assumptions helps ether in refining » the analytieal tools ov in generating fest data that may Oe used in developing are atten factors to the anzlytical solutions. In either ease, the design and tnalytical tools are sharpened! i should also be noted, however, thatthe soils are nether homogeneous and isotopic not elastic. Therefore, explanations ofthe gaps between prediction and ‘cual behavior need to refer to this fact also Further the sols eccur ia layers Analytical solutions for elastic waves in layered systems are available (Zoeppriz, 1919; Ewing, lardetky, and Press Teer Guifthe and King, 1965; and Richart, Hall, and Woods, 1970) The qeflection and refraction of waves are used to determine the depth of overburden ‘Reaping soils for eivil engineering projects, but these fall outside the seope of this text REFERENCES actaa, D D:“Dypanics of Base and Foundations.” McGraw-Hill Book Co, New York 195 see PAL W'S derdeuby, and F Pes “Ehtic Waves i Layered Mea” McGraw Hit ‘Book Cay New York, 1957 Ca Na RE. King: “Applet Ocopysc for Engines and Grol” Ferman Press, New York, 1965 elo Ht Stss Waves in Sli” Dover Pblctos, In, New Yor, 195 Kel pronation of Tremor over he Srtace of am Eat Sol, Ph, Trane RS Londen, Ser A, vo! 203 pp. 1-42 September, 1904 ve 24 trues, Phe field and RaiauonImpedence of Meshal Radiators os the ae eeaunfiale hotrpee Sci Proc R Sec Lemon, ol 223 pp. $21-54 eon lg sn he Parton of Easy betnen Etc Waves in» Semetnfinte Sli Fro Bac Landon, Sar, 0 23, pp 55-69. 1955 payiegh Oe Waves Propagate along the Pane Serace fa Else Sod Pre, Landon Math Sees vo 1 pp. $1 1885 ‘alban FP Foundation Vibeatns, Tans, ASCE, vl 127, pat Lpp 863-498, 1962 Fearne RD Woods Wibatons of Sil and Foundations,” Prentice Hall Engen Clit, New leey, 170 1 ERS GN Coote “Theory of Elasticity” McGraw-Hill Book Co, New York, 1951 P55 Young and W Wewes, 3: Vibration Problems in Faye” thay Job Wie and Sone Ine New Yor. 197 Woods RD Sresing of Suice Waves Sil ‘SMA pp 951-909, fly 198 owpprte Rs Nocke Gey Wis Gating Mattos pp 66-94, 1919. Soll Mech Found Dic, ASCE vol 94, 80 ‘CHAPTER FOUR DYNAMIC STRESS DEFORMATION TION AND STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS 4.1 INTRODUCTION Dope, Gere dams funtion polos me Sided ny ie sal inn apt lag sn amp eons ot eagle fonds Shear strength evaluated in terms of strain rates and stres-strain characte stain rates and str er Dynamic moduli, Young's modulus, Dynamic moduli, Young's modulus, shear modulus, bulk modulus, and 3. Poisson's ratio 4 Damping 5 Liquefaction parameters: « and pore-pressure response 2 elie sheating stress ratio, eyelic deformation, In this chapter, conventional static sol tests are summarized fits, followed : by a detailed discussion of laboratory and field methods used for determining ©| the relevant dynamic soil properties. Values of the dynamic soil modull for typical soils are presented also. Tiquefaction and parameters associated with Equefaction ace discussed in Chap. 8 LOADS 42 CONVENTIONAL SOIL TESTS UNDER STATI ‘Because diverse rock weathering processes cause soils tobe formed in nature, no Ramus agency has control over the properties of soils, This is the main iMfference between soils and conventional building materials, such as steel and ‘conciete, whose properties are almost tailor-made Ty sddition, soils at any given site are not hemogencous, either areally oF re absolutely essential that soil tests be swith regard to. depth. It is therefor igh and other pertinent performed at all construction sites (0 evaluate the sren properties of the soils Tn all laboratory strength (ests, loading conditions be reproduced as accurat hall wasotopy, sain rate, and drainage condition be modeled Testing prob Lat are more difficult as rates of strain increase as in dynamic problems ‘Equipment for testing sil under static loading conditions has been some- what tundardized for a long time It is desitable to deseribe briefly the cewventional equipment and the types of tests that can be performed “Although a number ot methods are avaiable for sheat-testing of soils, the most commonly used are the direct shear test anc the triaxial compression test Before describing the actual tests and their in‘erprotations, itis necessary (0 discuss dhainage conditions, which have a very important bearing on the shear strength of soils it is of paramount importance that field ely as possible. This requires that 43 DRAINAGE DURING SHEAR TESTS strengths are to be determined willbe saturated life of the structute. Drainage conditions before sind during shear influence the shear strength of saturated sols In shear tests, sei are Tust subjected to normal or confining stess, which is usually main- tGined constant. An incieasing shear stess is then applied until failure occurs Shocs tests have been devised to measure the shear strength of soils under three “itferent limiting drainage conditions, as discussed below: Most soil deposits whose shear at some time during the design 1 Unconslidatedundrained test or “quick txt”: In these tests, no drainage is parmited under applied nounal or confiing load, ot during shear Thus, rermnprmal load is not transferred to the soil grains as intergranular pressure but custs a8 a hydrostatic excess pore pressite. It cannot, therefore, mobi- ze any frictional resistance Preventing dtainage during, shear prevents Volume changes that might otherwise take pace ON AND STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF $0188 7 2 Comoldaedandramed text or “comadatedsack test”: In these tt, sil tr conta (lowed fo sin) nde applied normal oe ng lo sn ings pte dvng shear Alough wie hang a esa ring mal ing, hi et pose Sting shear Ths) 5 nave ea pore eis deveping Ging shee rane eo ow fae fs, fl sean nage) Allowed ude noma er coining lus Fre ang ao porte 8 shear 30 that excess hydrostatic presses do not exis in the pores and all stresses are always intergranular. “ 44 DIRECL SHEAR TEST The diet shear testi the okest and ns it coldest and simplest sil property tet This test escmed i et seu appa ig 41) contig th open, ed frame ind # twee moveable ame Ye Spe pnd fn te bo pparacis, onthe in each frame. Depending on drainage conditi Por _ stones or brass gratings are placed on. the dom of the sample sn ors aie lcd oF Be ep ad Boo of espe Spacing siews ae wsed 2 Fe tse to provide space Between the two halves ofthe sna ike ant pc goed ty he mS fal but The aod be eg spe been te fo aes te box htop hal aie om a gn ta gen he pace eee two halves, but the space should not be so lan le tbe so a hespce hol ters ht el ul wl te Avera ond, Py ist 1, Pain then applied and the sample subjected to shear in Patt pe aan a4 Te henge bay mend a proving ing or Toad cell The selaine motion betwen the ope and rE EB some EB) =f ze The ge 41 Det shear apparatnlower frames (shearing displacement) is measured on & dial gauge or linear variable differential uanstucer (LVDT) The vertical displacement is also measured by a dial gauge or LVDT, adjusted at the beginning of the test so that both up and down movements can be obser "The sate of sheering is berseen OS and 20 mm min ‘The data obtained irom direct shear tests are usually plotted as shown in Fig. 42a, which shows plots for a dense as well as a loose sand The upper curve is a plot of the ratio of shearing to normal stress (r/e) versus the shearing Gisplacements The lower curve shows changes in the volume of the sample Cinder shearing displacements. In the case of dense sands, shear stress corze- Sponding to the (+/@)yaq i & measure of the peak strengih of the soil If the Shear displacement increases, the shear resistance of the soil is reduced and realy constant lower value of 7/2, corresponding to point B, is obtained. This italled its ultimate oalue Well-defined peaks are exhibited by dense sands and sensitive and stiff clays only “The sol samples ate tested at different normal stresses. A plot of normal stress o, and sheat stress rat filue, is made (Fig. 426). This plot is generally 2 straight line for sands and normally loaded clays For precompressed clays, i is urved (curve b) but it isapproximated by a straight ine. The shear parameters ‘Cand ¢ are read fiom this plot, Which is reersed to as a Mohy strength envelope "Volume changes take place during shear tests on saturated sands where free iainage i permitted or in dry sands. Loose soils reduce in volume, while dense Sands generally expard (dilate) during shear (see Fig 42a) If the initial void ato of the sand is such that the net volume change from the initial to the final Yolume at failure is zero, then thie void ratio is called the ertieal void ratio ‘The concept of the critieal void ratio was advanced by Casagrande (1936) ‘and Taylor (1948), However, it was shown that the critical void ratio is not an independent soil parame-er but depends on the confining pressure as well. As the normal of confining pressure increases, the void rato for the zeco-net-volume Change (criieal void tat) decreases Thus, the citical void ratio is not a unique propery of the sands This concept is’ useful in understanding the shear properties of the sands and thei fiquefaction characteristics if Toose saturated sand at a void ratio above the cial oid ratio rapfély deformed, the grains tend to become more compact For this to occ Jyater must Flow out of the voids Ifthe loading is so rapid that there is no time Tor drainage to occut, any load on the soil must be carried instantaneously by the pote water The pressure between the grains is thus considerably reduced, irenerating a cortesponding reduction in the shear strength. If the strength is Teduced to 2610 by a complete transfer of the initial intergranular stress to the pote water the sand is sid to fiquefy ‘On the other hand, when a saturated sand at a void ratio below the eritical void tatio is deformed. “he void ratio increases If the loading is so rapid that there ino fime for water to scep into the sand, chen water can no longer fil the 0 00 O10 ot Sharing eeemant. my rd @ o Foe 42 (6) Ip des she Sem 420) Tal dt hw st. (Pom D7. Tor dnt Mc prin of i yan Sn nN Terk) Sg eh eei seby increasing the vids_As 2 result the pote wate i putin teson,theieby increasing he Tesulting, pressure between soil giains and causing a temporary on drained tests, there is no no tendency forthe vole 0 chang in tend te vata oer fleas the san nantes so the Suength ‘would be the same whether or not drainage occurs) 45 TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST esis and volume xa shear tent in general permit beter conto of case Su Sheu than sitect shear tts do. Figure 43 is diagrammati SERS.SRaNs taatconpourtesiicten ne ‘nena pwn ep sence des The di suite ute coacdwiha ingen mei nee a ee aerate the water the paces of the sample (ion he Ghambr Mad the povous stones pode aces t te sl for i ant opener =e ee ars ea ig he al Te chanson ysl pemtecont” a eae 8 cae ener unfomly on te reo Ree sand boom fading cos “<* sl la pled ow eo i cine Le ing ny ed eel Thea SRN A inc teion h em rw sample eens ina igre 43 Tris apparatus Proving ning and abutting against the top of the chamber. Volume changes i Grained tests are measuied by the amount of water that flows into or out of calibrated burette In undrained tests, the volume change tendencies of the soil genecate pon ‘water pressures. If the drainage system is closed, the pore pressuse can by ‘measured by an electronic pressure transducer, manometer, ot other pressurt gauge Ditferent Types of Tests The tests mentioned in Sec 4.3 ean be performed in triaxial test machine. Test interpretations are as follows: Unconslidated-undianed test ow saturated cohesive soll When an overall a, Pressute is applied to the soil sample, the entze sires is taken up by pore wate: since drainage is not permitted (81, = 6) Neat, the deviator stress (a, ~ 05) is applied until failure occurs Drainage is ‘ot permitted during this stage of the tes, either. The pote pressure at failure i au, In Fig 44, citcte | represents the Mobr circle of total stresses at failure. If fn undrained test is repeated on a similar sample with a different confining Pressure (circle 2) and the Mohr strength envelope is plotted, it will be a straight line parallel to the o axis Since any variation in chamber pressure simply ee o stench Pipre 418 Compacson of stress conditions causing fai ere 38 Copcion of te ng faite for ferent sat (2) | pulse (8) 30 100 \ Sts pt arm Ar 1 ewe 419 Conbiains, of sutaed snd ating sees easing fire and to Airetonl ouding im Sen Francisco Bry mint (After Sed and Chan 1965) aNO Fels mt +0 ——- === Ieee bene Se Ses ot noma 09 g re 420 Reson eee a Pam napus ar Send Ch 1980) ati tere C | cape aces and wal stain wer pubatng ood conons a Soe Pe aarp one ESL eae ress sin enone felt eee 18 ne ‘Ureonscosia wae’ ess Stesipue fer pert pa ne gue 421 Reasnihip betncen Stl se anc fal tain under plating loud eonons Wieksburs ly cay (Aer Sed ond Clan 1968) rote that the stress conditions in one- or two-diectional loadings are the s sinoe the pulsating stress is either smaller than or equal tothe sustained stres: The effects of wave form of loading and anisotropic consolidation on stresses causing failure were not appreciable. Total sicess and total stain ui pulsating loads are plotted in Fig 420 for San Francisco Bay mud and in 4421 for Vicksburg silty clay For comparison, the stress-strain relationshipt {hese sols have also been plotted from a normal strength test The general forms of the total-stress-total-strain relationships are sin despite the wide variation in the properties of the two soils. In situat involving 10 stress pulses, total stress versus total strain is somewhat higher | ‘he stress-strain relationship of a normal test; if there are 100 stress pulses, th slightly below the normal plot Therefore, it may be concluded that in all ce where the safety factor is between 15 and 2 and the number of stress puls between 10 and 100, the stress-strain from a normal stcength test approxim the static stressstrain curve 4.10 FACTORS AFFECTING STRESS-DEFORMATION AND. STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF COHESIVE SOILS UNDE(- PULSATING LOADS, Based upon the studies described above, the variables on which st deformation and strength characteristics of the cohesive soils depend are st marized below: 1 Type of soil and its properties (for example, water content, 74, and state disturbance) Initial staic (Sustained) stress level Magnitude of pulsating stress ‘Number of repetitions of this stiess Frequency of loading Shape of wave form of loading, One-ditectional or two-directional loading 411 OSCILLATORY SIMPLE SHEAR TEST Sess ina triaxial compression test does not adequately simulate the fic loading condition. For many deposits, a major part of the soil deformation m ‘be atributed to the upward propagation of shear waves from underlying laye AA soil element, as in Fig. 422 at xx, may be considered to be subjected to series of eycie sheas stains or stesses that may reverse many times during earthquake, as shown in Fig £23 In the case of a horizontal ground sutfas there are no shear stresses on the horizontal plane before the earthquake Dus} the earthquake, the normal siresses on this plane remain constant while cye shear stresses ate induced during the period of shaking4 son pewasees ec IA TI PIE ( ee oer Pe ; > ecb AM I eee Emre ranma gf ear ae to Scxosten TeSfot te venga itfr from those develope in triaxial cOmPrES ‘other field conditions th snd Seed, 1968) sion teats ate as follows (Peacosk a 1 tte fel, there is ele reorientation Of principal stress directions a principal scsi iniialywertcal ANS ES ‘through some angle ee the ign and et of is inital postion 27 iaianial corapression test the 2 eae pineal tess can act only im hes the vertical oF horizontal ireation 2 In the field, the soi 3 Im the field, deformations are presum os, while in a triaial compression 6, vione, equal to minor pancipal stress dutin sant prneipal stress dung lateral cOmPresiOn clement is initially consolidated t0 a condor to oceur under plane-strain cond he intermediate principal stress i i axial compression or equal he simple shear device consists essentially of SmPle OCT arrangement vend an electronic recording system for apptying a cyclic Toad to the soil, for appiin. 2 (gs), whieh contains a square same swith a side length of 6. | bow of Hekoess of about 2 eri, is provided wilh fixed side walls and to =e outs sample may Be subjected to, formats ‘of the ‘Fig 423. Aschematic dingram ia the ends of the shearing chart wah foray (Peacock and Seed, 1968) Kiet (1951), Hvorslev and Kav 22 ob) Bjerrum and Landsa (1966), and Presest ‘Nandkusaran, and Joshi rigs have described the appara frites respectively at their centers sata from simple shear tests have best alyzed to determine shes parameters, soil moduli, Tiquefaetion potential of fend damping, as well a8 eae Param sands (Chap. 8). Prakash, Nandkumaren, type shown in Cyatls rotate simultancously at find Bansal (1974) reported test ' ewe 423 weaned sri cond 4 | SSR _ HET ii Tor element of vil ber | 2 ad sortase during an ea ‘ake Fe 424 Shea ag (oe a ot Sms stating on of ge end pte and cil imple se i cae ad Seat 168) or cd pd ll ermnes data on three tifa ais 4 non hail mi dnb oma sng ite cnn ck a, 438 oye deren Sorry oe suber of eis vrs toa (Foe ta mate of om am a lem fe ts are made for dynamic shear stress intensit 5, See fem Fora she nom Sn 292 g/t al he lyr me ea css frequency ‘was 0.175 Hz. a/em and ihe “vbwe 7 pi ent ew st ond Stn samp Ia 3 gut of ny es on ous nal sess jimilar data were obtained for other \ roquencies of O35 Hr 05d Set for other samples and at lequencies of 035 Hr and Assuming that fie eorespod "honing tt lr ovens i denen oa sae ea ecagh enlope oral ts sl teroasiae Babamanranrevinnuiernnennniannnnh ont x0) re 425 Tne cr fs (0 fond eae) deems aes er Prakash Nanako and Fh 1977) pape i we 426 Number of eyes Hoi er cneet in welry sino shat Sores Can 92 kg/en, f= 0175 Jab tahermahth Mantua ond Bas 1s) ‘roe 427 Dyoami ther seo 6 Bova: Bre (Zea in 30 gees in same 20 ele peak Nondzararan end Box ‘ore TPF] . ce aa Ec ee | | : , | ten ge 426 Mots eneope or static and dynamic reses (a) SM (8) CL (e) CH (Aer Prakash ‘Nenlomcran and Bana, 1974) piotted in Fig. 428 It can be seen from this figure that the strength parameter ¢ js reduced under oscillatory tests while the angle of internal friction remains Almost constant The cohesion intercept decreases with increasing frequency ‘Also, the more compressible a soil, the larger the reduction in the cohesion parameter. ‘The shear-stress-shear-strain celationship may be as shown in Fig 4292 The soils exhibit nonlinear stress-strain characteristics from the very beginning ofthe loading cycle For purposes of analysis, this behavior may be represented» o tre 429 (0) Sessa eave of «si and ()bicar model (er The and Sed 1968) by a bilineat model asin Fig. 4296 (Thiers and Seed, 1968) The bilinear model is defined by three parameters: 1 Modulus G, until limiting strain y, 2. Modulus G, beyond stain 3 Suain% lesermined bythe the drtion of sini revesd, behaviors again dt ants Gynt ssn sae of 2, is deveopd ad hemos Ce fols the behavior This pattern then continues throughout the ¢ a ai co US eum pl ftom spe shear esting of San Franciso Bay i” ia 1c records of deformation and load versus time for and Te soned tom on te Fa a ig £29 shows chp for |, pe 2 rien Frances By (2) C880 1.0) Hore 40 Susser ann BREA eo ster Ties onl Sk 188) Figure 431 Eifet of eye lading on dy mami mot (e) Dynamic modulus G, (2) Dynamic moduls Gy (After Thiers and Sed 88) (21 Oyrarie mash and cycle 200, with about 4 percent shearing strain. The decrease in peak load as the number of eycles increases is reflected by the progressive flattening of the stress-stcain curves Similar tests were performed at different peak strains, and plots of dynamic modulus G, and G, versus peak strain are shown in Fig. 4:31 Thiers and Seed (1968) also studied the reduction in static shear strength and static secant modulus at | percent strain due to 200 eycles of peak stains of ifferent magnitude up to 4 percent and found that while strength reduction was only about 20 percent at 4 percent peak cyclic strain, the static modulus after ‘clic loading decreased to about 50 percent of its initial value 412 RESONANT COLUMN APPARATUS The resonant column test for determining modulus and damping characteristics of soils is based on the theory of wave propagation in prismatic rods (Richart, Hal, and Woods, 1970) Either compression waves or shear waves can be + See Chap. 3100 sox pynAuacs ropagated through the soil specimen. Previously solid samples were wsed elena sampes ave ben wed with ange In ih napa the extn fequency adjusted ul he apesimen esonats The moduli computed from the resonant fequeney and the geometic properties of te Specimen and the driving apparatus. Damping is determined by switching o the diving power at resonance and recording the amplitude of the decaying vibrations ftom which the logaithmic decrement can be calculated ‘Woods (197) presented chonologal development of the us of resonant column apatats in geotechnel earthquake ering, Cent, mor a 80 resonant column devices ae aval in 6 counties around the wor the latest being the one fabricated forthe fist time in India at Roorkee (Prakes and Srivastava, 1979) 433 FIELD TESTS measure shear meds eral types of field tests have Been developed to Gaming, and Poison’ tat Desciptons of the most widely wsed eis are given below. Cross-Bore Hole Wave Propagation Method In the eross-bore hole method (Stokoe and Woods, 1972), the velocity of wave ‘Propagation from one subsurface boring to a second subsurface boring is measured At least two bore holes ate required, one for the impulse and one ot “fnote for sensors. As shown in Fig. 432, the impulse 1od is struck on top, ‘causing an impulse to travel down the cod to the soil at the bottom of the hole. Te shearing Between the sod andthe sol cess shear waves that ave horizontally through the soi tothe vertical motion sensor in the second hole; time required for a shear wave to traverse this known distance is measured Figae 422 Sta shoving eros toce bole techniue for measure at of vost of WAVE Popa [DYNAMIC STRESS DEFORNATION AND SIRENGTH CHARACEERITICS OF ont 1 ‘There are four sources of major concern in conducting cross-bore hole shes {esis the bore holes, the seismic sousce, the seismic receiver, and the recordin and timing equipment Although a minimum of two bore holes must always be used, for extensiv investigations and for increased accuracy, whenever possible, thiee or mote bot holes are suitable. If bore holes are installed in a straight line, wave velocitic can be caleulated from the intervals of time required for pessage between an: two bore holes. Thus, the necessity for precisely recording the triggering time i climinated (Stokoe and Hoar, 1978) In addition, the bote holes must be vertica to properly measure travel distance In general, any bore hole 10 m or most deep should be surveyed using an inelinometer or another logging device for setermining verticality (Woods, 1978) Although both impulsive and steady-state scismie sources are in use, impul sive sources pledominate, The major eileria for a seismic souce ate: | I must be capable of generating predominantly one kind of wave 2 It must be capable of repeating desited characteristics at ¢ predetermined encigy level. Velocity transducers (geophones) that have natural frequencies of 4to 15 Hr are adequate for detecting (receiving) the shear waves as they artive ftom the source. The receivers must be oriented in the shearing mode and should be securely coupled to the sides of the boring The recording equipment should be able to resolve arrival times of up to (02 ms or 5 peivent of the travel time. Storage oscilloscopes are often used for this as well Up-hole or Down-hole Wave-Propagation Methods Uphole and downhole tests aa be petformed by using oaly one boie hole In the sphole metho, the sensor paced tthe suas and shea waves ae feneated a various depths within te borehole In the Sownhale netted, the ciation is applica at he surface and one or mote senor ate placed a diferent depts within the hole (Fig 43) Both the up-hole and the dowrshole Bethods sive average vales of ave the sol between the excite son andthe sensor if one sensor Hse, or between the semaine I mate hen 8 a 1 Upto 10) Gown no gure 438 (a) Up-ole and (6) ss |. oweole techaiquer fr mete ‘srerent of veloc af wave pop U ition1. ee iow =| | sp 45 ine fenton for domehole survey (Afer mat and Yoshirars 195) isa schematic diagram cone is used in the bore hole (Richart, 1977). Figure 4 34 is a schemati Gfoine down-hole survey with all’ principal elements included (Imai and Yoshimura, 1975) ‘x ‘Surface-Wave-Propagation Method — avleigh waves and Love waves canbe used to determine shear modulus of sis RI utace (Chap) The Rayegh wave (R wo) eaves ina zone close a ee oe pound nace ca be defamed = aa we BSR Soncne to Incian Standard (15249-1978), a mechanical seer et to onk at eppronimatey 10 He One ay i drawn ava fom the oa ine oclater One of the geoptones connected fo the horizontal SINE ofthe oscflosnpe fied 30cm aay fom he exits slong & 187 Fs Sha the som ax of the geophone is vest sma geophons Santo tothe vere plates ofthe oslloscore, moved along thi ay away from the oscillator The sensing axis of the geophone is kept vertical until gore 435 Detormed shape ofa hall pee surface (Ajer Woods 1978) DAME SIME DHEORMAION AND STRENGHI HIARAg the Lisesous figure on the omillossope soreen becomes a citcle/The two signals are atthe same frequency and 90° out of phase. However, ifthe phase angie i differen than 90°, the Lissajous figure isan eps, and for zero phase angle is {straight line (Doebelin, 1966) ‘The distance between the two geophones is rmeasured. This distance is then a measute of the wave length of the generated Rayleigh wave. The testis repeated with the oscillator's other frequencies of cperation. The test can also be conducted by using a phase mete in place of an escilloscope (Lin eases where uniform soils extend to infinite depths and the Lissajous figure is a circle, the wavelength A of propagating waves is given by: we Anas (i) in which S is the measured distance between geophones Velocity of shear waves o, is given by: por (42) in which / is the frequency of vibration at which the wavelength has been measured « When the test is conducted by using a phase meter, the phase angles corresponding to different distances between geophones are recorded and curves are plotted of the phase angles versus the distances From the curves, the stances $ between the geophones are determined for a phase difference of 90° The remaining computations remain unaltered. The elastic modulus £ and the modulus G of the soil medium are caleulated as follows: - , ¢ E= 2poi(1 +r) (43) “) = (om) aa” in which p= mass density of soil 6,= velocity of shear waves P= Poisson's ratio of soil Table 4.1 gives representative values for Poisson's ratios that ean be used in lieu of measured vatues The effective depth of the R wave has beon empirically slated to one-half A (Fry, 1963; Ballard, 1964) Table 4.1 Representative values of Poisson's ratio (+) uy 05 Send 03.035 Rock °104 sou resasacs rough tain Standard scoramende tat the macnn ols so teat aoe, wave eos cae tude it We Ne movnted on peel foce i ot 20 lage hat the se the Mack, prove sr note tha ae ves are equ 0 ah 208 tom he son Ut ene some dnd weg maybe ween the lor 8 the absence ofa block sbenct of or eth ls eeommencs the use of = ames 1 1t ieee iy of wave propagation he aime a ss te it or stan of 90:0 40, Pons are ak oh age ranged ou or eas oly pikap of 4 geophone embeded ths as nd atte oni the aa ines, Wan 2 Ste sa ee i a mputo ghamme fing fom Regt of 2 9° nea this point Mago the ound. Ante geophone math Fa ee ee of teal ines The ime ken 2) te WV 2 ep vbuaned b) feeding the owPo o MEBCS 8 tae know 0 pated fo he lleent known stances beeen We sr Te ey a eae ines Te est may be pated MSC pickups along cach of conve vas of wave vale heart Be fnventieated sae rape ave ines of compression waves and he corresponding See tinea selene led, ad Sai A Stance hone se punt. The vale of he average velo) # obtene a ak «es in which e-= velocity of compression waves $= distance v= corresponding time of tavel of waves Elastic modulus & is determined by equation = pl tia 46) pa Ty 49) Depending upon the nature of the medium involved, arsivals of com presion and sheat waves may be dsingushable fom, records, if the Tyesion an ohn pickups ate large enough. mths eas, both E and © 2m be ‘determined independently Block Resonance Test Indian Standard (S 52481978) recommends the Blok ssanaes, OL for Indian Srmpodulys and damping values. A standard Deck 15 x 075 x determing Cau either atthe surface or m a pit 45% 275 HM & suitable Capes (Fig 4 36) ands excited in oth rion and veil modes \ see {owe = . je a | _ Figure 436 Setup fora bleh resonance wat (2) Seen (8) Pl Foncedsertatbration ts F won test Fot the vital ira pickups are fixed on top of the block ate tase wo tar the pean fp of the Hock gs show it Fig 4366 30 that fey fee lal oth of Thea wich wos Spe ernie man mote ho rowing io opp diets Gs Chap By movado he ok hat ener Pu) vibrations. The line of action of the se ssa dnl 3 ving force past on 1 of giniy ofthe block After suitable dynam force arse he i peed a “Sens Magione the ealnr egy nee tp nl aly om TP vt mas ena he in an Bu se eed The sme srocedure is repeated for the various dynamic fc ral ce level pen ee ie force values At any fore level Sequoia danni os Soud pot seed 20 prc el at of the block and motor-osillator asse ofthe lock and meter smbly. A form for recording results of this im din ean pt te Mock Tes #6 sation pickups are mounted on the block with one on tof * Son fe wae See sl“Table 4.2. Resonance test: alg a) & seio (res Gariopetk feomeron 0 Acetraton au © 2720. (50/9480 01H HARA LEME UF SOS 107 of each acceleration pickup is amplified and recorded. The remainder of the procedure isthe same as that described for vertical vibrations Determination of coefficient of elastic uniform compe forced-vertical-vibration tests, the ampli is given by An ion of soll_ In the case of, tude of vibration 4, ata given frequency afi “ in which a, represents the vertical acceleration of vibration, in millimeters per second squared, of the block at frequency f, and fis the frequency in hett2, ‘Amplitude-versus-frequency curves are plotted for each force level to obtain ‘the natural frequency of the soil and the foundation block tested (Fig, 437) The natural frequency at diferent force levels will be different because different forces cause different strain levels below the bl ‘when choosing appropriate design parameters The coefficient of elastic uniform com; following equation: lock and this is accounted for Pression (C,)F of sol is given by the in which f, (4a) tural frequency in vertical vibrations ‘M=mass of the block, oscillator, and motor A=contact area of the block with the soit | it i rT 1 me Figure 437 Amplitide-va- l= | feng pt om eal oo to ele 1 Gis defined os the ope of ses vers eetie 95, Chap 9) Cyan Bae elite foe Ea (4 Bhutan (Peatach wo, 1976) | seement curve of plte-ond ts (ee See108 som Devasccs From the value of C, in Eq (48) for the test alock of contact area 4, the value of C,, for another area 4, may be obtained f rom the equations} a G eff 49) Relationship between shear modules, Young's modulus, and coefficient of elastic Relations colon Values of sear modus Gand Young's modolus & are lated to eachother by the equation (Barkan, 1962) 5 x 4.10) « +r) (4.10) in which » = Poissons ratio ‘Ccan be oblained ftom E by the equation: @ny in which 4 = area of contact ‘Determination of coefficient of elastic uniform shear of soil In a horizontal Mbration test, the amplitude of horizontal vibvations (4,) ean be obtained by the equation = 41 er ee in which a, = horizontal acceleration inthe direction under consideration and Trequency in horizontal vibrations in hertz. Amplitude versus frequency Teyves ate pleted for ech force level to obiain tae natural frequency Jn, oft sob tnd block tested asin Fig 437. plot of amplitude with height of block icsmines ts mode of vibrations The coeficien: of elastic uniform shear (C)3 of sil is then determined by the following equaicn: 60) ae P= trol 4 Ths ration i yal ar al vars in he bse area the foundations and may Be an Per scs are than 10, he val G, oad fo 10m! may be Sd ss dope st er sess the clas tera iphcemen: cave of ca pis | for be Heck sade consideration For ied dconion, se CAP 9 ea erat wien the second ata foqene/ an the negative sgn Wn fy fest satura Feeueney) in which y= Me worizontal resonant frequeney of block sol system ) Sc mae ine net he k,l, a mo bot the horizontal axe passing through the center of gravity of the block and perpendicular to the direction of vibration " cp mono of nr of the Baek, enllatby and motor about the horizontal xs posing tough te centro the contact en Of the Hock snd sol and pepeniclar 10 the deston of 1 =woren of ini of the foundation contact area about the howontal se paing though the centr of avi of he sen 2nd papentul oth deco of ation The coeticent of elastic uniform shar (C,) for an aren (A) is given by the following equation: 6 or ts foundation in ai Indian Standard also recommends tha re vibration tex that fe vibration tes be performed b path Hack nag ms nial ston ob ng wih 2 hame ot vera extn, From the natural Tequeny the Cu Ce a and G values can then be determined etoeney I Go Gavan GAG a1 Damping In foreed-vertial vibration tess, the value of dampin of soi is given by the following equation: wing conficient ¢ (ais) in which hs wo frequencies on the amplitude freq frequency plot at which the amplitude is equal 1 x,,/V2 "we ‘ecmetinen apie frequency at which ampliude is maximum (ces ag lita (eesonant Irequency) (Fig ‘The logarithmic decrement and henee the dampi rence the damping in the system from the freevibration record are easily determined in a free-vibration test fev y 4 free-vibration test (see Sec. 210ae Figare 4238 Determlantion of damping from foreed-verseabbraton text Cyelle-Plate-Load Test ‘The equipment for «cyeliplate-load testis similar to that used in a statiesplate Ipod tat Tris assembled according to details given in IS 1868-1971 and Backes (1962) o+ in textbooks on foundation engineering ‘Arerthe equipment has been set up and arranged the inital readings ofthe iat gauges ate noted and the fist increment of static load is applied to the Sate Tks load is kept corstant for sometime until no further settlement occurs aunt the rate of settlement becomes negligible. The fina readings of the dial rages are then recorded The entire load is removed andthe plete i allowed to vevsand When no further rebound occurs, the readings of the dil gnuges art ‘euin noted. The load is then gradually increased until its magnitude is equal in seine to the next higher proposed slage of loading; the Toad is maintained onstant and the final dial gauge readings are noted. The entire load is then ‘SGawed to zero and fina dial gauge readings are recorded when the rate of rebound becomes negligible ‘The cycles of loading, unloading, and reloading are continued until the estimated ultimate load bas been reached: the final values of dial gauge readings ae noted each time “The magnitude of tte load increment i such that the ultimate load # teached in five to six nexoments The clase bound el the plate corresponding to each intensity of loading ean be oblained from the data obtained during cylicplae-oad tests, as shows aig 4390 The load intensity versus the elastic rebound i plotted as shown in Fig 4396 The value of G, can be ealeulated from the equation given below c= Z kg/en? (416 in which p = conespond.ng load intensity in kilograms per square centimeter and , = elastic rebound corresponding top in centimeters HL IRMA ARISEGS OF Sous HLL Figure 4:39 (a) Lond intensities v t 422.9 a i tne is een (vn nyo 414 TYPICAL VALUES OF SOIL CONSTANTS A large amount of data Factors affecting the soil been des om the values of sot cons constants have been lntied and cassie OdUIUS, Gye is expe naw Is expressed by Eq. (4 17) (Hardin and Black 1969), Goma = 1230008! 2973 =) 7 +e Invi OCR conan to 3 eltctiveallaround € = void ratio wes pst f= Sacto tha factor that depends upon the plasticity index of clays Haudin (1978 recommends that this sess by taking y= Parameter given it Ta a his equation be used forthe ani it Bt BY the mean ceive ipa ese is related to the plasticity index, PL “The112 sou pruoucs Table 43 Values of k = ° ow 030 oat oa 1 030 veseee Equation 4.17) can be expe in & more convenient form a follows: AOCR’ =e Gage = AOE (9)! “) By inuoducing zy} the parameter A is dimensionless, whereas dp and Gay in Eq. (419) are in lb/in? and the constant 1230 has the dimensions (lb/in?)P. It js also desirable to change the form of the void ratio function in Eq (4.17) by Testing (418) Fle) 03 +07 (19) in Eq. (418) The function F(e) is less complicated than the void ratio function in Eg, (417), but gives about the same elfect as ¢ in the range 04 < ¢ < 12 For veiy large values of e, Eqs (418) and (419) give monotonically decreasing alles of G,q while Eq. (4.17) ives Gyyy = 0 for ¢ = 2973, with Guy increas jng for ¢ 22973 Equations (418) and (4 19) will approximate Eq_(4 17) for 04 ce < 12 by taking n= 05 and 4 = 625. Figure 440} shows a plot of {Ga (OCR p,)"?] versus the void ratio from laboratory and field measure: ments (Hardin, 1978) ‘The elastic parameters required for computation of soil constant are and y. Fot most purposes, it will sulfice to use » = 0 12, m= 05, and values of in Table 43 For preliminary analysis, Fig 440 can be used as « guide (Hardin, 1978), For clean sands, it was found that G is dependent on 4 and ¢ (Richast, 1977), Analytical expressions were presented for the shear modulus of clean sands as (a)? Gan 100 my for round-grained sands (e < 080) and Gyan #326 CNRS (5,y* (4 + a stants for atmenpbers presare . Ti Ge tre, 1 i dinensoaless eae sffoes acametr in Hara's (978) propo sschein rein for intarntinottopy For dean sands, vais fom 1200 to 1509 asd for sls fod cays sare ow 7 10 2000 DYNAMIC SIRESS DEFORMATION AND STRENGTH CHARACIERSHCS OF 808 113 we Figure 440 East sites fom laboratory ad fk ; ld measoremets: IIa, sity sad sis and sgn; 2—lib cesm sands: lab dense, weltgadedgravelsand with some foes 4b, ‘catvely ifr clean grave F, ily ty sands, sits snd eae at Ferdake Clams aad El eases by SW-AA (ITI) Feld sande ate and ely at Arson ot (10) sites AB anc (Aer Hardin, 1978) " for angulatgrained sands In Eqs. (420) and (42), G and & have units of ¥ilograms per square centimeter Both equations were orginally established to correspond to shearing strains of 10~* or less. Equation (420) gave values slightly lower than those obtained by pulse tests (Whitman and Lawrence, 1963). Iastki and Tatsuoka (1977) 1ecelly determined experimentally that QT =e 0 Gnu = 900 = EP (5) 2) from tests on clean sands (O61 < e < 0386 and 02 < op < 5 ke/em*) at shear ‘ng strain amplitudes of 10~® For shearing strains for 10~*, their results agreec with Eq (420) “ass Comparison of G from Difteres Several comparisons have been made among G,,, values obtained by different Usts in the field and in the laboratory Cunny and Fry (1973) reported on laboratory and field evaluations of Gay 1114 sites which contained a variety of soils. The steady-state suiface vibration Testsrethod (Rayleigh-wave method) was used for evahiating Gyy in the field. The resonant column test was used in the laboratory rrom evaluation of test data, the laboratory-determined shear and compression moduli were found to range within +50 pereent of the in situ moduli It was pointed out that the cross-hole method should give better values of v, at depths from which undisturbed samples were taken, and that inclusion of the secondary time effect would bring the laboratory cohesivesscil values nearer to the field values. The secondary tine tfeet is negligible for sands. Stokoe and Richart (1973) and Iwasekl and Tatsuoka (1977) found agreement between the resonant column and the crose- hole field test values. Prakash and Puri (1980) reported in situ data on dynamic soil constants for several sites from resonance tests on blocks, as per Indian Standards, the shear modulus test, the wave propagation test, and the cycler plate-load test The modulus (G) values were reduced to a mean effective ‘confining pressure (3) of | kg/em? using Eq. (423): f= (% y (423) Gn The relationship between C, and G, a recommended by Barkan (1962), was sed to ealeulate Cv G i (a2) in which A = area of contact and » = Poisson's ratio The detailed values of shear moduli for the seven sites are shown in Table 44 A plot of G versus strain is shown in Fig 441 A plot of normalized >| PR arose Fone 44 Noxmalzed shar mols (G/Gqy,) 5 sear aan (Ar Proksh and Park, 1980)wesor peer xs0 ame - eons Se zee ro rye ammo x scOxST sLOxET ha Pape mq os ‘emp eco oor noir ert cow anda vO1Xee ose Fut HumLOX comune @ Foxes owe ust sco smo Yo foxes Goes tat a Poe 2 porxer gues eet weecox womens © sorxoz Soe vast“ seomsy aroun v Sorxor ome Goer og pd desi men9, putamen oes wat msoe yee or oct “ad = S55 wtmssocox Su scon st 4 . £6 ct Site we sue Tax Su ame oat nd oom O90 oust sr 96 Lise sdwercox song eat var peg “toned sortase ‘ 8 zt > : tt ee sora seme amnad msn ag sorseery —Smayssoy “mmpem oS raed ‘arooa uma S908 OREN Ve SIS) PHY ION SHOUT ays TUNLNAD JO SAOEA HPAI, 6gst c6t © ’ come) ar poeoossy ou we ev weyed) Weaacox m= ScORst soo et as wigwocox sone sox gt-reeoxs04 eo “PO ee im osm moro x sauna ost Ox et SUI vay a ‘ so 7an1 awa 161 os Saneoa "pom, ash reco ot poms 25/8 sever srs 1DYNAMIC SIMESS DBFORMAFION AND STRINGIE CHARACTERISTICS OF SOULS 121 ‘modulus (delined as C-value at a particula strain, divided by G-value at stain of 108) and strain is shown in Fig 442. similar plot for sands and clays was also made by Richart (1977), who presented a good summary of correlations between dynamic constants and shear stain 4.15 FINAL COMMENTS: ‘Stress deformation and strength characteristics of soils under static and dynamic foads depend on soil characteristics, such as void ratio, relative density, stress history, and preconsolidation pressure, and on initial static stress level, pulsating sicess level, number of stress pulses, and, to a lesser degree, the frequency of loading and the shape of the wave form, In silts and clays, with an inital safety factor of 1S oF 20 and between 10 fand 100 stress pulses, the total stress (static plus dynamic) versus total strain curve is very close to the stress-strain plot under static loading The study of shear parameters in oscillatory simple shear shows that cohesion intercepts decrease appreciably in more plastic clays under oscillatory loads and the angle of internal friction remains constant Several laboratory and field methods are available for determining soit ‘modulus. The laboratory methods are oscillatory simple or triaxial shear, and resonant column apparatus A laboratory apparatus to measure the ultrasonic longitudinal and shear wave velocities was reported by Stephenson (1977) The field methods include eross-bore hole tess, up-hole or down-hole tests, surface- wave techniques, block resonance test, and cycliexplate-load test Simple equations have been developed to use available data to make preliminary estimates of the soil modulus at low strain amplitudes for sands and clays. Also, certain noncohesive deposits from in situ tests were studied to elecmine variations of soil modulus with strains Theiefore, depending upon the strain value associated in a particular problem, a reasonable estimate of the soil modulus ean be made Ishihara (1971) suggested values of stain levels from several field and laboratory tests and the corresponding state of soil Fig. 443) However, it is recommended that the soil modulus be determined for a wide ‘ange of strain levels; a suitabte value may then be picked. A correction for ‘onfining pressure differences between field and test conditions also needs to be made, as per Eq (423) ‘Woods (1978) compiled a table of advantages and disadvantages of field techniques discussed in the chapter (Table 4 5) . The effect of a high confining pressure on the dynamic soil modulus has not . been investigated to any extent The problem is of great importance in seismic analysis of high earth and rockfill dams, such as the Tesi and Kishau Dems lthich are proposed to be built in the Himalayas and will each be about 300 m igh Preliminary work in this direction has been initiated at Roorkee {mactual analysis of substructures, its convenient co express the stress-strain ce in a mathematical form For monotonic loading, Kondne’s (1963) hyper- Taxi 018 mma ma das 3100 iT 1932 os 16 ons ea wa tex ors <070m ee Bie Tier nner tebe, bration 2m: followes en em Fores tyanyee ‘tty cy ute Pu (1K)ae “\- ni we | 3 igure 449 Sain lee! asoitd with een in sit and Toray tts (afer Zthae, 1977) ible 4 5 Field techniques for measuring dynamic soil properties* ‘Save Ober velo ia stoinue ecion XX Powave selecty ‘Works frowrsurace Low stein amplitder = cao = Se cae soni vooreneen eet rose x x Reversible polarity Neat! to survey holes: se Downhole or X x (One hole only “Measures average velost!| a Reversible polarity wpe Finds low velocity ‘Ambient noise near } ‘Works in limited space surface te mn summa ontoanine Sean hee x sgea ices f om ween Soe ia Pape eih que Wikely wed in past one ‘surface soils ‘influence | aster Woods (197) fesoremente Advantages Disadvantages Depths antiga Reverie play Mises ow vlsity 208 bola has been adopted in several cases However, for cyclic stress-strain, Richart (977) and Desai and Christian (1977) recommend the use of the Ramsberg- Osgood (1943) model The detailed treatment of the subject is beyond the seope of ths text PRACTICE PROBLEMS: 44 List and discus the factor allectng shar srg of cohesive sis under stats and dyaaile eats 42 Dilferentte between the suc of uditurbe and remodel sie Draw sresesrin cares for bow I an undisturbed clay sample x brated, wht type of stare do you expect afer the ‘hao hae ome 43 What do you understand by a “teas contl” and arin control” type of het testing deve? (2) i he pendulum loading apparstar x sre conto} Ope or & Hon contol pe? (3) Ie Seats apparates for sepetitine fad applications. "te oe zn™ conte? 44 Dasrbe th tet ofthe folowing onthe strength of clayey soi (2) Number of pes of loading, (9) Waveform of patting load {() Onecdinensions! and toordimenions! lading (@) Drainage conditions (Lanting tie 45 A clay sample. 38 em in diameter and 8 em lng ie eubjected to one-dimensional paling ‘16 The frequency of land spplietion i? Hy and sssinod load 210 ‘De’ a eel onamic sete verss fot ssi for ths sample Supevinpose on this agra ‘esta arent vere ra nan vnconfined test on thi se ow does tis plot ifr tm the one i Fig 4217 46 List and disc the methods for detaining dynamic sil module of sis 47 List and discus the Tacos on which the 2) mada depend In 4 ven case, how are ‘otectons forte vaaon in thn factors applied wo determine the vale for you problem? 48 List and cus the pronsions ofthe Indian Standard or determining dynamic el mds If You were to write a standard of your own how woul! you seve these proven? 49 The folowing ase were pated at he proud setae fo Gterine the vale Fhe Younes Fos and Cy the cocteient of ela uniform compresion forthe design of 8 omer Foundation at «tie able 4.6 Verteal-vibration test data Age “Amplitude Sensing eee = C 1s wo o0mTs 2 30 moots 3 6 sto 0310, 4 o Bs Ow 5 20 wo oss é Ho bo a0A eric aon es ts mace onan M480 soma Win 15075207 mh netic stir of he ang matt elitr’ Te deta cine re Be a nees Uae it eo pie 70am te ame te spon ond nen of h/e rs $a Fee etatia ot pve ao sveng au fae! ie of compen mae ocr cemenordian ts cto: heen gopones of Se de pond neato 20s bw he roped dep the fosndon 26300 Ths uta tee fonon #1 8m Compute Vat EG REFERENCES ndesn,D OC Bap, and¥ R Melamot:Eviming Inte Shear Mods xt Competent Te Pao asc Spay Coenen Boia ghee nd Sl Dram, Pes fo egy hi, Soe 8 = ne 23.8 tat and Gapa “Repro So Quactic for Hany uty Vb “- ‘Equipment of Fectilzes Project, Kanpur,” Earthquake Engineering Studies, Schoo! of Research are gitar Papen Unvesyof Rotn Rooke In 987 natn Foie evan So See Modul Depts yl St Vibratory Tonge” "YB Sy slue aperNo. 40, bese 1984 ute, B Be "Systane De a Feta” McCraw Book Coy New Yr, 95 Bett nods tanta Dine Soe Sa Tess oa Noregitn Quik Ch, Crecinine, ot 26,00 1 pp. 120 March 1966 nd Nf Seamons: "Compara of Sher Sueagth Charceistis of Normally Consol Tid Guys” Resear Conference co Sher Sueagn of Cohesive Soil, ASCE, Boulder, CO pp TH-T26 June 1960 “cusapnds, A: Characins of Cobesonlas Sols Aeting the Stability of Stopes and Earth it, J aston Sec iw Eng, vol 23, . Ly 196 " BNWT, Shannon’ Stets Delormaton and Suengib Ciactestics of Sail under Byaaaic Lands Pro, Scond ft Conf. Sail Mech Toundanon Ergin 08, 2 29-3, 38a. Tad “Research on Stese Deformation and Strengih Characieristes of So and ott oaks Under Tesaint Ldn.” Harvard Soi Mechanics Seis No 31,1986 Stang of Sol Under Dyoiie Lends, Tras ASCE, pp 75-72 Discusion, p25, 198 cans, RW. aad ZB Fy: Vibratory nS and Laboratory Sil Moduli Compared, J Sot Mech: Found. Do, ASCE, vol 98, x0 S412, pp 1S5-1076, 73 Das € §, ani} 1 Christin “Numenesl Methods in Geomechanics,” McGraw-Hill Book Cay ‘New Yash, 1977 Doebein, EO “Measurement Sysems: Appiation asl Design” McGraw-Hill Rock Co, New York, 196 DeoescheV B,J R Hall Jr, and F E, Richart, Je Bec of Amplitudes of Vibration on Shear Noi St, Pes of he lateral Saran on Wane Propet on nent Properties of Earth Mater, Aboauerg, NM, 197 : Fo, 2-3 "Derelpmsot sad Evaloaton of Sel Beasng Capaciy, Foundations of Stuctrey WBS, Fehaleal Report No 322 ep 0 By 1968 Hardy BO! Tae Natoe of Siee-Sraia Beatie of Sls, Sate ofthe Art Report Poe ASCE ‘Seily: Cononnce en Barhgace Engineering an Sol Dyna, Psapp) 50, June W8 wrod WL. black: Const w Vibration Modu of Nocaaly Conslted Clays Sa Tie. Found Die ASCE vol 98-80 SM 6 pp UB11597, November 1978 wand VP Deneve: Sher Module and Dao in Sois: Measurement and Prarie: Filet 7 Sal Mack Found Die ASCE, wel 98, 0 SM 6, pp 60-624, 19722 “Mech Fand Deo ASCE, ol 98.90 SM 7 pp 667-02 19Db. * Hvonley. MJ. and RT Kautna’ Torsion Shear Appar and Testing Procedure, USA ‘WilervaysExpsiment Staton ulktn No. 38 May 192 16 pp fl, Ty aod MYoshima: "The Reltion of Mechel Properties of Sole to Pe and $-Wa ‘eles fr Sal Ground Tapa” Rept RD-TT, INT Ua Reser ase, O: com. 1978 toda Stadard Method of Loud Test on Soi 1518197, Irey_Indian Stand lastatio "Rew Deb Indian Standard Metiod of Tet for Determination of Dynami Proper of Sl 18 $24.19, 1 te dan Standards nstsom, New Debi Indon Sandon dentition and Closet of Sls foc Goel Ealing Prone. 1 "198-97, late, dan Sundar estan, New Det we snkihara, K Fer Afocting Dypamie Propet of Sis Pra Furth Avan Renal Cofen on Sol Mechanics and Founion Enger, Bango, vl 2, Aust 171 Iasi T ad Tatsusha: Dynami Sal Proper wth Eph se Comparison of Laborator “Ts with Fel Mesuremets Pra Sith Ward Conereme on Earthquake gine, NO Date vo Iepp 15-156 nay 1972 jena, W:Tesng of het Surat Swedes Gvecnow, vol 2 pp 208.22, 1951 Kendnet RL: Hypertate SuesrSiain Reyne: Conesve Sls, 7 Sal Mach’ Pound Dio ASCE, ot 88,00 SMI. po 1154 1969 tee D: Earth Motion fom the Atomic Rom Test rm S.vol 34 pp. 198207, 1946 Par. D.and ML Ser: Dyuoic Tesla Spl Sher Bebanset Sad," Geet Eee ‘Dio ASCE, vol 101, no. GT 6 pp. 53-59 June TS escort, W Hand HB Sed: Sant igetarion Under Cyc Loeding Simple Shur Conditions 7 al Mech Found Dio. ASCE 401 93,90. SM 3 pp. 699-0, Nay 1988 Prakash $: “Inrodetry Si Teng” Aa Pubiing Hose, Bombay, 168 ‘tnd 8 'M, Basaveon “Report on Soil Character fr Heavy Aero Engine Bs, AEF ‘handiprh” Barthuake Engineering Stuer School of Rear and Tani in Evthgaske Engineering, Unive of Roorkee Roorkee. 1968 ‘and A'S Ara: Report on Sal Charactrsis for Hwy Duty Forging Hammer Found of Hindasun Aeon Li Koraput” Earngoke Engin Stas, Schl of Research ad Teng argue EaperigUsorty f Roa, Rot, ind MK Gupe: “Report on Dynamic Proper of Soll for Dis Power Howe Toda” Earhguate Egincring Stade Scho! of Research and Traaing ia Ears Engrg, Unversity of Roark Roorice, ind, 1970 aed ‘Report om Dyamie Proprio Sl for Dil Fower Hote Sihin arbauake gineering Studie, Scot of Research nd Tein fn Earthquake Engineering. Univesity of Roorkee, Root, ada 1971 nd P Nadas: "Bebo of Sd Clay Mixture slaty Soar” Symp on Tepes Loading of Sl with Partnar Refer oa Pasar, Unie of Now Sah Woes, Se 9 thd VK Bans: Behavior of Sci Under Orsilstory Shear Sues, Proc 0h ‘Sra on Erhauae Engrg, Roe, Is pp. 17-38, November 14 sre tod VHT Desig and Peronaaae of a8 Onto Stor Box, J ndon Gach Se a 3, 0,2, pp OLE. AP PS. ated VK "Par: Natural Pequncy of Block Foundations Under Free and Forsed Tinton, 7 non Grouch wn Oto 1T2 tas" Dynamic Properties of Sls fom Tost Tete unpubl repr, Univesity i Minoar-Rol, MO, July 1960 1G anja, P Nakumaran eta “Repo on Soi avxiatons fr Cet Facty at “aja (HP )” Stes cad ou al the Gl Eagineing Depart and te Shoo! of Resuareh and Teaining in Farthquake Eagiaerag, Unverty of Roorkee, Roorkee, Tod oy5 Saran, t Report on Geoteshnial Investigation for Penden Cemeat ‘Aut Cement Factor Som Bhotn” Geotechrieal Eapnering Sues, Universiy of Roorkee, Roorkee odin 156 wed P Sonate: Design and Performance of « Rernant Column Deve” J Indon este ol 9, 0.4 pp 317, Octobe 1979 pus YR. Nacrl Feeney uf Block Foundations under Tree and Forced Vibrations. A Svein sbitied in peri fullent of the reguemens forthe degree of Master of Enpieesng im Sal Mechanics and Foundation Engneenag. University of Roorke, Rocher, Inia 98 Reminerg W. and W 1 Osgood: “Desepiog of Sto Strain Carves by Thee Parameter," Tech, ‘Not 12 National Advisory Commitee on Aeronautics Washington, DC, 983, sr E, Je: Dyoame Sire stain Retains for Sls, Sate of the At Report, Proc Nah Terntinal Covernce an Si Mshancs nd Foundation Engen, Toye, vol 2, PP easel 1977 TTR Hay and RD Woods: Vibration of Soi and Foundations Prentice Hall, Ie, Tngiweod Clif, NJ. 1970 Rowe An Apparat fo he Appleton of Spe Shear to Sail Samples Proc, Tid It ‘Con Sol Mesh. Found Emin! 1 pp 186-191 1959 seed HB So Svength During Futhqukes, Poe Secon World Conf Barge Brag ol pp 185184 1960 tnd € K Chan; Clay Stength Under Earthquake Loading Condions, J Sal Mech Pad Bi. ASCE vol 92 95 SM2 pp 337%, March 1966 wad | WN. Feat: ‘Apraratas for Reposted Loed Tests on Soil” Spe! Technol Paton No 204 ASTM Philadpha 199 ANI. Londgren.Investiation of the Elect of Teansiet Loading onthe Stengh and Detornion Characters of Saturated Sands” Prac ASTAF, vol 34, 9p 1288-1306, 1954 Sines M LACK Coan teats Cyche Tra Srngth of Sunéard Test Sand", J Geot rae ‘by AScé, yo 12 no. OTS pp S1-S23 May 1976 Sogh, B, and §Prkashe "A Tet Bose of Sol Mechanics” 4h ed, Nemehand and Bro, Roothee Indi, 1976 ‘Stoalign W Grand RG Absia: Nonifocm Contions in Isai Test Specimens” Frc es Canerance om Shar Sig of Cohesive Sais ASCE, Boulder, CO, pp 24-357, 1960 Bvcptemon, BW. “Ulvasoic Lest for Detemieig Dynami Si Modul," Dynamic Getcha "a Test, ASTM Spc! Toa! Pubcaton No 684, pp. 19-188, 197) (/Swhoe,K Had FT Richart. isa at Laboratory Shear Wave Veloce, Proc. Seenh Int “Co Sel Mesh, Food. Engin vl 1 pp 4-109 1973 (cht HD Woods, Inte Shear Wave Veociy by Crowle Med, 1 Sel Meth Found, Dio, ASCE. vol 98 n0.5M 3, pp 4-400 1972 ind WF our Yarbles Afleing Tosi Seamic Msurement, Prec ASCE Specaty Conerene o Farthguce Erenoing and Sal Das, Pasadnd, vl 2p 919938, Tone, re [SW AA" Sol Behavior Under Eartguake Loading Condition. Interim Report No 1, Subeonast ‘No 2384 Unio Cavbide Corp for US Atomic Energy Commision Contract No, 7405-Ene- ee 1971 Taylor DW Fundamentals of Sil Meshaniey, Jon Wiey Sons, En New You, 1948 Them G Re. and ft B Seed: Cyeie Sen Strain Characienscs of Clay, Sal Meck Found ‘io SCE, vol Bt, no SM 6 pp SESE, March 168. ‘schebotat GP: Discussion on Stengthof Sas Under Dynamic Leads by A. Capra aad ‘W IShaanan Trane ASCE p. 825 198 Whicna, BV" Testing of Sse wth Trait Loads” ASTM Spec Tech Pub No 232,p 242 15h “The Behavior of Sis Unde Trapient Landings Proc Path It Conf So Meck Found Engin wl tp 207200 19570 a Ric DSC STRESS DEFORMATION AND STRENGTN CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS 127 Se seg ot an Dig Rap Longs Mech = Semoeees es cad Di ASCE, vl 94, —resn ieenc Dacron, Sal Meh fend De ASCE, a, “tre ASC, a 9, 585. 3B Woodh kD: Measurement of Dye pres Stl he Ar. Pe se ASC Sp ve Conference on Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics, Pasadena, Sune 1978. ‘Sec coi YF Richa Pray a Sal Dyas a Apt co Fosdaon ric Ste of te At Rep, Pree Nik facmsinal Conroe on Se Mean tn endo inn, TS 9 605 iy 17CHAPTER FIVE DYNAMIC EARTH PRESSURE PROBLEM AND RETAINING WALL 5,1 LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE PROBLEM auth pressure problems wre encountered in retaining walls, bulkheads, sheeting ea ero in cuts, culverts, tunes, and coferdams, In many cases the lateral prestut instatially indeterminate and s not a welldefined and fixed quant Uipendiag upon the natuce of the sie alone rthet, it depends pon fe door rion between the structure and the soil and isa function of the deflections arrtformations of the structure The classical earth pressute theoriss Weis roped by Coulomb (1773) ang Rankine (1852) Tetzaghis theory (1941) isan Enmrovement over the ealir theories (Terzaghi and Peck, 1967) However, i setaining structure does not undergo any deflection, a8 69 abutseet ots basement, none of the above theories is applicable: This epic 6°) aaaaen ca ist, to be followed by a bret review of Rankine’s end Coulomb's aecree for the sac case The question of earthquake-type loading on etaining wall will then be presented in detail Earth Pressure at Rest “The stresses acting on an element of soil in neta! soil mas ae represented 8 Tig 51 Tho soll deposit is assumed tobe seminfinte, isotropic, homegenea Fae dais Soll can deform verially under toad, but cannot deform Merely aan snet infinite extent If E and y ace the modulus of elasticity ang because aii, expectvely, of the soil mass and o, and ay are vertical and Poison ates intensities, espesivly, at any depth (Fig, 52), then it ean be 1 bald Figee SAL rest Intra prenices in a semivinfnite tropic, bomogencou, and cic man shown that on Koo, in which ” 52) Now es ” and 4 = Po = Kore (3) where po is designated as earch presswe whe i esi th pressive at rest, and Ky the coeficient of earth cua ctonshin exresed by Ba. (3) it vad for tletive sues, The tu tral presse bolow te wate ble determined trom he fective and eal components of pete. The vale Ky not determined from Polo's ratio, since soils are not elastic in nature and do not have a well-defined Poisons aio Instead, Ko depends om the relive deny of and and he processes by which the deposit was formed. The values of the coefficient of ath pressure at rest, in Table 5.1, are based on experience in the field Rankine’s Earth Pressure Theoty ‘A body of soil is said to be in a state of plasrc equilibrium if every part of it sin fan incipient failure condition Plastic equilibiium, which can develop in a Table 1 Typical values of Ky Sal wpe Ke Remake ‘Loose nd 04 The tule pressure Dene sand 06 many deph ithe sum of 03 Ito presures de to 06 feces neta sess ossmi-iniunite mass of cohestoniess sous #nen acted upon by the force of gravity, vine by Rane =) Ie'Fig 82a a bm hovzontalsrlace of reo stn sane weighty At depth elow AB, the vera pressure Bn -ni-infinite mass of cohesion- ‘on abis 64) ‘After deposition ofthis nass of soil, the value of the lateral earth pressure 7, eorresponds 10 the at-rest value; that is, Pam Pom KoPe st 1 a veitical plane, the normal the normal stress on the veiticl al stresses im the soil mass at Since this clement is symmetrieal with resp stress on ab is a principal stess Consequently, fide also i8 & principal stress Thos, the princip Titel ext contin (6) Rankine slate of plas quien Hosa aetve fio (dM stress and strength diagrams (e J Mlustrating passive conditions) onions (2) Mohr depth 2 on plane ab and vertical planes are, respectively, jar and a= Kore In Fig. 5 2d, circle I corresponds to the at-rest condition Now, as the soll mass stretches, plane ce moves to the left to position ¢,¢,, lateral pressure (a minor ‘principal stress in this ease) decreases, and the diameter of the Mobr cizcle increases. According to Mobr-Coulomb failure criteria, the greatest diameter that a Mohr circle ean have is when the Mohr circle (II) is tangential to the Mohr strength envelope, The origin of planes is Q,, and O,F, and O,F, are failure planes inclined at 45 + 9/2, each to the major principal plane ‘A relationship between major and minor principal strestes at incipient failure is given by L+sing a Tsing 6s « w(as +3) 64% w Sens 59 « Pea = AND 69 « nw Ben ker 6 whete Ky the coeicen of active earth prssne, Keay te 63) "he" Trane Iu should be noted that once the lateral earth pressure is reduced to the active value, further stretching of the mass has no effect on py, but sliding occurs along planes in the direction of O, F, and O,F,, which are horizontally inclined at 45+ 6/2 It should be further noted that failure will be incipient on all planes parallel to 0,4, and O,f The vertical aces of such planes in Fig. $2¢ constitute the shear pattern The corresponding, distribution of pressure on the ‘ides and at the base of the soil mass is shown in Fig 52h The above concepts ofthe states of plastic equilibrium in an active condition may he extended to a retaining wall problem if the following assumptions are made: (1) the wal face is smooth and vertical and (2) the deformation condition fot plastic equilibrium \ssatistied If the soil mass is compressed and section cc moves to €3¢,, the Mohr eitele corresponding to this state of stress is shown by circle TI (Fig 52d) Failure Planes, originating from Oj (the origin of the planes) in this case, are toward O;F, and Of, each of which is hosizonially inclined at 45 ~ 9/2, which is the tection of the minor principal plane in this condition. The sheat pattern is sketched in Fig 52 The soil mass is said to be in the passive Rankine stat. The lateral pressure can be determined in this case also by using the132 sou vw equation en, (559) sine oy (1) he min prinia es vn 1280 = Kyre 69) wre he cnn of pase earth presire ene — alse? konpe ttt —we(s +8) 610 Tk should aguin be noted that, once the Rankine passive resistance has been mobilied, further compression of the sol causes ro increase in soil resistances see fippage occurs along the failure planes indicated inthe shear pattern ig 52/) Coulomb's Earth Pressure Theory Unlike Rankine’ theory, Coulomb's theory of easth pressure does not assume the mall surface to be smooth, In addition, Covlomb's method can be adapted to thy boundary conditions, for example, inclined walls with a breaks inclined aay oom and nonuniform slopes, and concentrated and distributed surcharae sais A modified Coulomb method is used to determine the increase in static earth pressure due t0 a dynamic load (See. 53) “Assumptions made according to Coulomb's theory are the following: The deformation condition is satisfied 2. The slope of sliding surface is linear When the boundary conditions for Rankine’s theory are satisied, the wo theories yield identical results vnesording to this theory. the earth pressure is calculated by considering the cquiltum conditions of a sliding tial wedge, abc, (Fig $a), The forces ‘acting on wedge abe, are the following 1. Wi, weight of the wedge acting through CG of abe, } Balu pressure Py inclined at & with the normal to the wall where 8 8 te ‘angle of wall friction 3, Reaction R, inclined at angle @ to the normal 1 face bey ‘The triangle of forces is shown in Fig 5.36. isthe valve of earth pressure conesponding to assumed failure wedge abe, Since this is only & tial weds sors Pas age made by assuming bes, BC (not shown) as failure surfaces and caer rueing force triangles similar to the one in the above figure The maximum value of P is the active earth pressure Py DYNAMIC EARIN PRESSURE PROBLEM AND RETADNING WALL 138, i 7 igure 53 (a) Fores sting om asuse fire wedge ita noncobesve el (b) Fore tune Coulomb derived the following analytical expression for active earth pres- pp O~ 2) L costacos( +) 7 (1 4 sin( + 8)sin(g — 1) cos(a — f)eos(S + a) For demining earth pes in aes si the sms excp tht fora seve cea fee of eesn C, «bye Sencolon ey and occa adhesin C= es ab at inh dewton fb Sintip Ste hip 346 nce pognon owas for assumed failure wedge abc “ SP wears v 5(510 ipne 54 Forces on the assumed laure wedge in a cobeve sil (8) Force plygonigure $$ Culzaas cons CColmann’s Graphical Construction soem tion t determine lateral ert presutes for noncohesve Jest Couto theory war suazsted by Cuan (8), Let Se gal ih way nda an nln Te ant SUpirnt sand teange oneal ions The ale wePe Stpein Cumann constuction (Fig 9.) ae fl Draw a dimensional sketeh of the wall sow ws ‘with the horizontal through 6; bs is kno Draw a line BS at an angle ¢ with the h uth OS know Lis known as the earth shane «fata gt é orn 1e weight of wedge abcy, to a convenient scale along parallel to the earth pressure line 6L, thtough dj and inter is the earth pressure for tial Anes i ae made nein sp 1 Ho with asthe i wedges Then byes te taco ath prse ads know ce nce Dram se pall fo BS and tangenal 1 thi crv. The maximum ordinate in the direction of SL is obtained from the point of tangency t Lhis is the active earth pressure according to Coulomb's theory ‘Coulomb's theory does not indicate the distribution of earth pressure on the wall. For backiils inclined horizontally at a uniform slope i, the pressure Gistribution ean be shown to be hydrostatic (Terzaghi, 1943; Prakash, Ranjan, and Saran, 1979) Hence, the total earth pressure acts at a height of H/3 above the base of the wall and is inclined at an angle & with the normal to the wall To determine passive pressures, the slope line BS (Fig. 5.5) is drawn below the horizontal line and the rest of Culmann’s construction is unaltered. A brief review of earth pressure on a retaining wall has been presented. The behavior of a retaining wall under an earthquake will now be examined, to be followed by procedures for analysis and design of 2 retaining wall 52 BEHAVIOR OF RETAINING WALLS DURING EARTHQUAKES, Le us consider a retaining wall abed of height Hf (Fig 56a). Let us assume that the retaining wall has undergone enough displacement under static conditions 80 that the earth pressure on the wal is active earth pressure P,, and it acts at a height of 11/3 above the base. A failure wedge bc has also developed. Figures $66 and c show ground motion and retaining wall movement, respectively Let the ground motion be represented by oa dusing the time f, from left to right (Fig. 566) Because of inertia, the tendency of the wall is t9 move fiom right fo left during the time interval ¢,. Let the wall movement be o,a, towards the left from its equilibrium positon, that is, away from the backill "The failure wedge abc is also moving in the direction ofthe wall during the time interval 1, Now, three situations need to be examined: | The rate of movement of the wall and the failure wedge is the same In this 28¢, thete is mo further interaction between the wall and the failure wedge Thetefore, the pressures on the wall are unaltered ‘The wall moves out at a rate which is greater than the rate of movement of the failure wedge. In this ease, the interaetion between the wall and the failure wedge is reduced and the earth pressure may decrease as compared With the active value under static conditions 3. The rate of movernent of the failure wedge is greater than that of the wall Ia ‘his case, the earth pressure on the wall will increase. As a limiting condition, it itis assumed that the retaining wall does not move at all, then the increase jn pressure is the maximum, although this is an unsealistic condition that will never be tealized in practice for free-standing walls 1 dela incase136 son prsasaes a won ie igre $6 Respoos of resi ml to round sang () Retaining wall (9) Ground mation (Wal deplacement re cn te sen fom te above sun ht wal movement les wether press ‘or increase tne crres onthe wall ae unalteds reduced, ” He es inara ff, the wall moves ot Tom ay wo by The ae o eee is bys ob smaller a at om O12 Fea ee etaen he ine te 6) oH ae Fm pave ean fo move om to ight Thi mover roa eeu te penne ofthe tell Hwee, ie) Fee ee eer the dace ot te wal oc rom te Sapes arth pressure P, inclined at an angle 6 to normal to the wall 3 Soll reaction Ry, inclined at an angle $ to normal on the face bey 2 Horuontal inertia force Wa, acting at the center of gravity of the wedge abe, 5 Vertical inertia foree 2 Wha, Weight W, and the inertia forees =H, and Wjay cin be combined to give ‘resultant #7, sueh that We wyleay ra 6) The sesaltant Hj is vertically inclined at an angle y, such that ye tant 619) Tee ‘he wiangle of forces is drawn sm Figure $7 and the value of Py exermined in which Pay Put 8Pay Tha weaimum valu of is determined by considering other tril surfaces such ne bes or be (90t shown), as in Sec. 5. This total earth pressure i made ‘Up of 8wo components Coulomb's active earth pressure P, as determined in See 51 for static condition 2. Tneease in earth presse Aj, due to earthquake ‘he point of application of P, is 1/3 above the base of the wall, whereas that of APs is recommended at 24/3 above the base of the wall (Jaeobs0 ‘pave the base of the wall (IS 1893-1975). However, this topic slomb's analytical enpression for total aetive earth pressure (Eq (5.11) changed by inertia fores tothe following: pean ha SO ¥— ol =) copes acos(8 +a +4) . 1 iz sin(g + 8)sin'g ~#-¥) ]7)" ae aettasssal } 54 MODIFIED CULMANN’S CONSTRUCTION » dawns tna i See st A modi ton eis construction ioe Propose by Kapila (1962) to ot ec bere pee eae “The modified constuction is cated ou as fllows (F858): 1. Draw a dimensional sketch of the retain of the retaining wall 2 Draw bs! at an angle ¢ ~ 9 with the horizontal. struction with the horizontal. In Culmans’s construction, 68 is drawn at an angle 6 with the horizontal. . . Flgme $8 Colmanns constuction for cathquke loading140 son Devasncs 3 Draw BL’ at an angle of 90 ~ a ~ 6 ~ ¥ below BS’. It should be noted that ‘bL’ remains unaltered {rom the static to the dynamie case 4 Tatereept Ba, equal to IV,, on a convenient seale W, isthe resultant of Way and W,(1 = @,) [Eq 6 14) 5 Through dj draw die}, parallel to BL’, intersecting be ine} & Measure de; to the same force scale as bdj. Then aie} pressure for tral wedge bc, ‘is the total earth ‘A number of ial are made, repeating steps | through 6, with Be, and bey as the tial wedges Then be(ele) is the modified Culmann’s line Draw @ line pavallel to 6S’ and tangential to this curve (not shown). The ‘maximum ordinate in the disection of BL’ is obtained from the point of angency This is the total Gtatic + dynamic) earth pressure according to the ‘modified Coulomb method For determining the passive eaith pressures due to earthquake action, draw ‘bs’ at — p below the horizontal Next, draw BL’ at 90 ~ a ~ 8 — below AS” ‘The rest of the steps in the above construction remain unaltered 5.5 ANALYTICAL SOLUTIONS FOR ¢ ~ ¢ SOILS ‘The modified Coulomb method has been applied to cohesionless soils only. A general solution for determination of total (stati plus dysamic) earth pressures for ac ~ # soil has been developed by Prakash ard Saran (1966) and Saran and Prakash (1968) Figure 59 shows a wall with face ab in contact with soil and veitically inclined at angle a [he soil retained is horizontal and carsies @ uniform surcharge q per unit area The assumed failore surface is vertically inclined at sped bodes bata te ‘iqwe 59 Fores ating on wl etsning oso and soc tan earthquake ye oad {AMIC FARING PRSSSURE PROBLEM AND RETAINING WAIL I angle @ through b. Ifthe depth of tension exack is H,, let Ho= nH, H) = nit Deight of retaining wall and # (17) in whieh right of retaining wall free from cracks in this analy, ony the horizontal se dit ana onthe orion fv svn ned A of ‘it tht orion and vera components Ne ea al $2 ong ‘A summation of the vera components gives SVP (ana + tan8) + y nA(ana + tand) + Sym tanee ~~ CH + gHi(tana + tang + ntana) = Psin(a + 6) + Fsin( + 6) ‘A summation ofthe horizontal components gives ~ ~ ditand + cH tana + (W+ Q)ay = Pood + $) ~ Feox(9 + 6) (519) Malipty Ea (518) by cost ba ( : €ou(¥ + $) and Eq (519) by sf + 9), and subt or Wand in the above sguatone fom Table 8? and leteg eee ee Pain( + 6) = vH[(n+})(tana + and) + n°tana] x [eos(@ + 6) + ay sin(@ + 4)] + 4gH[(n+ Itane + and} cos(d +6) + aysin(O + 6)} we get “ilcwce sp oa» atin peatery 152 pn oe ng te 8 Serial ao Designation Vertical a a 1 Weeki ot weiee fri (ane + wav) - ee Sn cy 6 SET ee an 5 adeIntioducing the following dimensiontess parameters con con + cossscel x) (Naan = sng B 8) —— [(nt Nyune + tand][oom(@ +4) teusin(@ +91 gay (Nag)gg = ees) n+ 4)(tana + tan?) +1? tancr][cos( + #) + aysin(@ + #)] (Nay )og = A ea v (B+ 8) » we Pap = THA NAY)ayn + ANA agy ~ HEN) 9 (5%) in wich (ies (Nappa ad (ag te eat presse consents nd end one sf 8 and “ Fe fe arth presrecefcents in Bas 621 22 and (52) ave te Seine by opumizing ach eesfieneEguatin (524) vs te Upper bound of ative cath pressure Pr a ic condone, 0 Bas (521), 622) and (523 are changed a follows: ; (00) = (525) [(r+ Diane + tané]cos(d +6) 629 a sin) [Co + etaner + tana) + n?tane] cos(d+ 9) nl BY (Nagas = (2) (Nav = Equation (524) now becomes P= YH (Nean + aPC NOG) ons ~ ACMA 629 Maximum values of cath pressure coflcents were also obtained forthe static Man gue ohn the sume vue the sac ay well a in the Semen ease The rato of te eotficients fom the dyaamic othe state ease say then be defined as (Neant aye - (5282) Oa (5230) Cero 4 Sabsript stands for he maximum vale ofthe cosfent LUNDA EAI RESSURE PROBLEM AND RETAINING WALL 183 05 oa a In Fig. 510, Nac has been plotted against ¢. This plot is independent of And the inclination of the wall « has been considered from 0° to 20° (Prakash and Saran, 1966; Saran and Prakash, 1968) Figures 5 11 and $ 12 show the plot Of (Nag), Versus ¢ for n=O and m = 02, respectively Figures 513 and 5.14 show (Nay) Versus ¢ for n = Oand n = 02, respectively Te-was found that the values of A, and A alter slightly with the increase in n I is therefore recommended that the effect of r on Ay and A, not be considered Secondly, itis found that A, and A, are nearly equal (Prakash and Saran, 1966) Hence, only one value of A= A; = Az) has been plotted in Fig. $15 The value A tepresents the ratio of earth pressure coefficients in the dynamic to the state case and both the coefficients decrease with ¢; the shape of the curves for different 4, values indicate the rate of decrease of one in relation to the other. Also, inereases with increasing ay4 4 P ~ i Foc tS } foal Hos i i Bee " °° > 0 os 0 Ea EF s 1 6 Figure $13 (Ne7)qu 18 9,0" 0 [Aller Praksh nd Saran (1960 a Saran an Pata (1968) a | z i i joe i i i i i i i 2 é do — oe » Si utr tah nso (soos ran) | PE S16 (eg 403 (fer aah an Se ol Sra Ph 6] Figae $12 (Ne)Fre 518 Dv ang of itr ton ¢ (iher Prknh et San, 198) 56 POINT OF APPLICATION The ean te accomplished oumely by computing he tou earth res ‘two depths, z and (z + Sz), along the wall and assuming th et Usuibuon ove hc For the state case and simple boundary conditions, oh an mt Pr 07 Ser itualy that the stb well as dynamic active ear etc a ae ihe destabusion in two cases Their solutions, however Si fehcautapesenoemres pa Sher Nosh nay salar eae pie ah re oes indicate that the increase in pressure due much pny mts te ue The gud tn 3 twee (Sandeumaren, 1973 rata a Nendkuraan, 199) Teen ta ‘NARI PRESSURE PROBLEM AND RETATMING Watt 147 date from three diferent small-scale studies give @ better insight into the steibution of static and dynamic earth pressure. The details of this investiga, tion are described in the following section 57 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON SMALL-SCALE WALLS Many experimental studies have been conducted on small walls to understand the Physical behavior of retaining walls daring vibrations and to obteintentnave ats on the increases in earth pressures and thei: points of spplication The basic principle of earth pressure experiments has been to simlate the atreg conditions in backfil, and thus treat the setup asa small prototype In the tet setup of Mononobe and Matsuo (1950), a box was mounted on a forizontal shake table filed with diy sand, and subjected to different acceler, tion levels by exciting the table. The maximum pressures exerted on the wall of the box were measured by means of hydraulic gauges. I was concluded thar the azumium pressure incietses with base acceleration and the values eseeatially agreed with those computed by the Mononobe-Okabe formule Matsuo (1941) also obtained similar results by conducting tests on a shake fable. using sand: However, in these experiments Matsuo found thatthe dye "amic component of pressure acts at twocthirds times the height of the wall sg, same conclusions were derived from tests on diy sand conducted by Jacobsen (1951) In this test setup, a box was mounted on a shake table stalin, Frans testaining the 3491 Scmphigh model wall were measured using dynamometets. The measuted earth pressures agreed reasonably with the wel computed by the Monconobe-Okabe formula, and the dynamic eomponeat ef Pressures was found fo act at the upper third point of the wall. The seseain: Provided by the dymamometers could affect the results, howeres fn the test setup of Matsuo and O'Hara (1960), 40-cm-high walls were GRelted with vibration for a period of 03 s, On fixed walls, t was found thee tbe amplitude of pressure change is large at midbeight In Smhigh comorec Ralls hich were excited by a T-hp oscillator mounted in a trough sunk te the ound 45 m aay from the wall, pressures were measuted on presse vee ARIE Presures were observed with increasing ground accelerations with soak Prestuies at about one-thtd of the way from the top of the wall phi Arai, and Tsuchida (1960) conducted tests using a shake table on which three boxes of different lengths were mounted The table was excited fo: Palos of about 03s It was found thatthe maximum pressure was equal to or lower than the Mononobe-Okabe pressures Also, the dymamic presure ditage, tion was parabolic Murphy (1960) conducted tests on a solid rubber model ofa gravity wall to. IM the qualitative behavior of backtill during vibrations, and found thet the ‘tp surface that developed was flatter than the sip surface under static conte seeae ite iP surface at Shinieu Harbor, developed in 1930, probably, had almost the same inclination