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TRIBOLOGY

DHIRENDRA BIHARI
TRIBOLOGY IN MARINE APPLICATIONS
EXPLAIN TRIBOLOGY- DEALING WITH FRICTION, WEAR,
AND LUBRICATION OF INTERACTING SURFACES IN
RELATIVE MOTION (AS IN BEARINGS OR GEARS) ENGINE
OIL DEGRADATION AND CONTAMINATION
Tribology is the science and engineering of interacting surfaces in relative motion.
It includes the study and application of the principles of friction, lubrication
and wear.
The tribological interactions of a solid surface's exposed face with interfacing materials
and environment may result in loss of material from the surface. The process leading to
loss of material is known as "wear". Major types of wear include abrasion, friction
(adhesion and cohesion), erosion, and corrosion. Wear can be minimized by modifying
the surface properties of solids by one or more of "surface engineering" processes (also
called surface finishing) or by use of lubricants (for frictional or adhesive wear).
The dynamic Coefficient of friction = Tangential force/ normal force.
Oiliness:-
A property of lubricating oil called oiliness assumes a
significant proportion while considering lubrication of
bearing surfaces under thin film condition. The property of
oiliness may be defined as the ability of oil to adhere to or
wet the surfaces with which they are in contact. It is as if a
molecular layer of lubricant is absorbed at the surfaces and
the bond prevents their squeezing out of the space.
Diesel Engine Lubrication
If one examines the requirements of lubrication amongst the large number of
moving parts in diesel engine, it will be noticed that the conditions are varied
and the requirements are divergent. Considering the nature of motion that exists
between the surfaces the diesel engine bearings are divided under the following
groups:
•Journal pin, crankshaft, camshaft and other bearings where the motion is purely
rotational.
•Cross head pin, rocker arm etc. where the motion is oscillating.
•The meshing teeth in the gear train, chain rollers and sprocket wheel, ball
bearings etc. where nominal line or point of contact exists in rolling motion.
•Cross head guide, piston rings, valve stem etc. Where high sliding velocity
exists.
Though the purpose of lubrication is primarily to reduce friction between
working surfaces, there is, in addition, another important function in a diesel
engine of maintaining an effective piston ring seal and transfer of heat thus
cooling. It will be appreciated from the fore going that the lubricating oil will
have to satisfy a variety of requirements in order to be really effective in service.
The many available lubricant choices are associated with a few specific lubrication
regimes. These are in turn differentiated by the film associated film thickness as follows:
• Hydrodynamic Fluid Film. The layer completely separates and prevents direct contact
of the solid surfaces involved. The film thickness is several times larger than the
magnitude of the composite standard deviation of surface heights of the contacting
surfaces, usually of the order of 100 micrometers.
• Elastohydrodynamic. The layer is severely compressed and thinned by the applied load.
Direct contact is still prevented but contacting solids deform elastically because of the
high film pressure. The film thickness is only slightly larger than the magnitude of the
composite standard deviation of surface heights of the contacting surfaces, usually of
the order of 1 micrometer.
• Transition or Mixed Lubrication. The film thickness becomes of the order of the surface
asperities (i.e. of the order of 0.1 micrometer) and intermittent contact is obtained
• Boundary Lubrication. The film can be as small as a single adsorbed layer. Intermit-
tent solid contact may take place.
Elasto-Hydrodynamic Lubrication
At large loads lubricating films in converging gaps are capable of supporting much greater
pressures than those estimated using standard lubrication theory. Two key effects that
must be considered are
• the pressure sensitivity of the viscosity, and
• the elastic deformation of the solid surfaces.
Elastohydrodynamic (EHD) lubrication analysis accounts for the above two effects and
allows determination of fluid film thickness and pressure distribution which are in good
agreement with experimental measurements on heavily loaded lubricated contacts.
In heavily loaded bearings, high pressures develop inside the entrapped fluid film. Since
lubricant viscosity is pressure dependent the lubricating film exhibits solid-like behavior
under these conditions.
Boundary Lubrication
It is now known that lubricating layers as small as a single molecule are capable of
producing significant improvements in tribological performance (i.e. reduced friction and
wear). This is the subject of boundary lubrication.
Even single molecular layers of particular substances attached to solid surfaces can have
important effects on tribological behavior. This is the basis of boundary lubrication
technol-ogy. With the availability of the surface force apparatus (SFA) it is now possible to
measure not only the thickness of the lubricating film down to atomic dimensions but
also the friction forces involved.
The key to boundary lubrication is the formation and maintenance of a single or multi-
molecular layer of lubricating material so as to prevent as much as possible the direct dry
contact of the solid surfaces in the tribological couple. Intervening films such as oxide and
sulfide layers have demonstrated to be effective in reducing friction and wear. This is a
good example of a chemical film. The oxide material in the film is in intimate contact with
the metal surface underneath.
Many other such chemical films are possible and particularly important are those formed
when certain organic compounds react with the metal surfaces. Specifically, pure paraffin
oil and combinations with small amounts of a fatty acid such as lauric acid, can be very
effective in reducing friction. The resulting metallic soap molecules formed at the surface
perform well until the temperature becomes high enough that soap melting and film
breakdown takes place.
As a general rule, polar molecules exhibit strong affinity for bare metal surfaces and are
thus ideal candidates as boundary lubricants. Such molecules may attach to the substrate
by physical adsorption, chemical adsorption or by chemical reaction. Most appropriate are
straight chain organic molecules with one polar end such as alcohols and soaps of fatty
acids.
Often, the presence of more than one molecular layer of lubricating material leads to
improved tribological performance. Experimental data shows that some 50 layers of
stearic acid deposited onto a stainless steel surface produce a low friction surface over a
large number of repeated sliding contacts.
Another way of increasing friction performance with boundary lubrication is to use still
single layers but of longer chainmolecules. The performance is also improved by the
increased stability of the longer chain molecules on the metal surfaces.
A number of intervening solid layers are capable of reducing friction. Surface coatings
of materials with layered crystallographic structures, specifically graphite and
molybdenum disulphide have been found useful in reducing friction and wear.
Summary
In sum, the engineer and the designer have available the following spectrum of
unlubricanted and lubricated joint types:
• Solid-solid contact
• Few-atom thick molecular layer lubricants
• Fluid lubricants: Animal fat, vegetable and petroleum-based oils, mineral oils, syn-
thetic oils, and additives
• Greases
• Solid lubricants: Layer- and nonlayer-lattice solids, fullerenes and polymer plastics
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TYPES OF OILS-MINERAL AND SYNTHETIC
Lubricants can be classified by their origin—animal (e.g., sperm oil, goose
grease), vegetable (e.g., soybean oil, linseed oil), or mineral (e.g., petroleum,
molybdenum sulfide). From ancient times until the late 19th cent. lubricants were
obtained from vegetable oils or animal fats and oils. Today most are derived from
mineral oils, such as petroleum and shale oil, which can be distilled and
condensed without decomposition. Synthetic lubricants, such as silicones, are of
great value in applications involving extreme temperatures. In certain types of
high-speed machinery films of gas under pressure have been successfully used
as lubricants.
Differing widely in viscosity, specific gravity, vapour pressure, boiling point, and other
properties, lubricants also offer a wide range of selection for the increasingly varied
needs of modern industry. But whatever their derivation or properties, the purpose of
lubricants is to replace dry friction with either thin-film or fluid-film friction, depending
on the load, speed, or intermittent action of the moving parts. Thin-film lubrication, in
which there is some contact between the moving parts, usually is specified where heavy
loads are a factor. In fluid, or thick-film, lubrication a pressure film is formed between
moving surfaces and keeps them completely apart. This type of lubrication cannot easily
be maintained in high-speed machinery and therefore is used where reciprocating or
oscillating conditions are moderate.
Lubricant Types and Characteristics
According to their physical characteristics lubricants are classified as follows:
• Mineral Oils. A complex mix byproduct of fractional distillation of crude oil.
• Synthetic Oils. Produced by polymerization of low molecular weight hydrocarbons.
• Greases. Mixtures of lubricating oils and thickeners obtained by adding alkali and fatty
acid to oil.
• Boundary Lubricants. Molecules with strong affinity towards the surface being lubri-
cated.
• Solid Lubricants. Layered and non-layered lattice solids; fullerenes.
In fluid film hydrodynamic lubrication both mineral and synthetic oils are commonly
used. Key properties of these lubricants which must be considered in engineering design
include
• Viscosity: dynamic and kinematic.
• Physical properties: density, conductivity, specific heat, surface tension, refractive in-
dex, additive compatibility and solubility, impurity content.
• Stability: pour, cloud, flash and fire points; volatility, oxidation rate.
TIMED CYLINDER LUBRICATION – CYLINDER OIL
PROPERTIES
This cylinder lubrication, shown in the figure is based on a lubricator which injects
a specific volume of oil into each cylinder for each (or for every second, third, etc.)
revolution. The oil fed to the injectors is pressurised by means of Alpha lubricator
on each cylinder, equipped with small multi piston pumps. The amount of oil fed
to the injectors can be finely tuned with an adjusting screw, which limits the length
of the piston stroke.
The dosage of oil can be adjusted means of an adjustment screw which limits the
stroke of the main lubricator piston. After a predetermined time interval,
the computer transmits an OFF signal to the solenoid valve, which shuts off the
system pressure and opens the return oil system.
The amount of oil injected varies as required, e.g. at load changes, start/stop,
or increased engine load. Alternatively, the dosage of oil fed to the individual
cylinders can be adjusted by injecting a calibrated amount of oil, a number of
times, at a given number of revolutions. A combination of the two systems can
also be used.
A pump station delivers lube oil to the lubricators at 45 bar pressure. The
lubricators have a small piston for each lube oil quill in the cylinder liner, and the
power for injecting the oil comes from the 45 bar system pressure, acting on a
larger common driving piston. Thus, the driving side is a conventional common
rail system, whereas the injection side is a high-pressure positive displacement
system, thus giving equal amounts of lube oil to each quill and the best possible
safety margin against clogging of single lube oil quills.
For the larger bore engines, each cylinder has two lubricators (each serving half of
the lube oil quills) and an accumulator, while the small bore engines (with fewer
lube oil quills per cylinder) are served by one lubricator per cylinder. The pump
station includes two pumps (one operating, the other on stand-by with automatic
start up), a filter and coolers.
The lubricator can be delivered for our conventional engines in which case it
is controlled by a separate computer unit comprising a main computer, controlling
the normal operation, a switchover unit and a (simple) back-up unit. A shaft encoder
supplies the necessary timing signal in that case. When used on ‘Intelligent
Engines’, these functions are integrated in the engine control computers and their
shaft encoders.
The lubrication concept is intermittent lubrication – a relatively large amount of lube
oil is injected for every four (or five or six, etc.) revolutions, the actual sequence
being determined by the desired dosage in g/bhph. The injection timing is
controlled precisely and – by virtue of the high delivery pressure – the lube oil is
injected exactly when the piston ring pack is passing the lube oil quills, thus
ensuring the best possible utilisation of the costly lube oil.
The safety features of this system are as follows:
In the event of malfunctioning solenoid valve or transducer, the oil dosage will
automatically be increased to the maximum volume. If the oil pressure falls, the
computer will start stand-by pump, close down the faulty pump and sets on the
alarm.
In this system if one lubricator malfunctions (980-700 mm bore engines), the
oil dosage from the other lubricator will be automatically doubled, and an alarm
will be given whereas for 600-260 mm bore engines, alarm and slow down ensue.
An inductive sensor in each lubricator monitors the movement of the lubricator
piston a signal is sent to the control computer system which has a backup for
safety.
In the shipping industry, two giants – MAN Diesel and Wartsila have introduced a
remarkable technology for modern electronically controlled marine engines. Known as
Alpha and Pulse lubrication systems, this new technology is one-of-its-kind.
In this article we will understand what does pulse lubrication means and how it helps to
reduce the cylinder oil feed rate and eventually the operating costs of the ship.
Wartsila- A major player in the marine engine manufacturing industry has introduced an
intelligent cylinder lubrication system in its electronically controlled engine. This system is
popularly known as the pulse lubrication system.
What is Pulse Lubrication System?
A pulse lubrication system is an electronically controlled cylinder oil lubrication system for
Wartsila engines, wherein metered quantity of cylinder oil is injected in to the liner,
depending on the engine load. This ensures that accurate amount of cylinder oil is
delivered inside the liner at the correct set-time for that particular engine load.
Construction and Working of Pulse Lubrication System
There are normally eight quills attached to the cylinder liner in a single row, which gets
the oil supply from the electronically controlled dosage pump
The oil is supplied to the dosage pump from daily tank via fine filter of 40 microns
The quills consist of a duct passage to store metered quantity of oil. The area of this duct
passage and the quantity of oil can be altered by changing the position of the central
piston
There are crank angle sensors attached to the engine which give signals to the control
unit in order to inject oil at the correct position of piston movement
200 bar high pressure servo oil reduced to 50 bars are supplied to the lubricator unit,
which pressurises the centre piston in the quills. This injects oil inside the liner at
adequate pressure for even distribution
WECS (Wartsila Engine Control System) which is the master controller of the Pulse
lubrication system controls the solenoid valve opening and the oil injection
Each unit is provided with 8 lubricating quills, 2 piping systems of Cylinder oil and servo
oil, and A 4/2 solenoid valve to servo oil flow.
After receiving signal from the crank angle sensor, at the correct position i.e. between
the pack of piston rings, WECS allows the solenoid valve to open and pass the servo oil.
This in turn presses the central piston and delivers the oil stored in the duct passage of
the quills.
CONSEQUENCES OF OVER AND UNDER LUBRICATING
Over lubrication will lead to excessive deposit build up generally in the form of carbon deposits.
This can lead to sticking of rings causing blowpast and loss of performance, build up in the
underpiston spaces leading to scavenge fires, blockage and loss of performance of Turboblowers
as well as other plant further up the flue such as waste heat recovery unit and power turbines.
Under lubrication can lead to metal to metal contact between liners causing microseizure or
scuffing. Excessive liner and piston wear as well as a form of wear not only associated with
under lubrication but also with inadequate lubrication called cloverleafing Causes
Insufficient cyl l.o
Incorrect cyl l.o.
Blocked quill
Incorrect cyl at each stroke.

The fine adjustment operates in such away that by screwing it in the stroke of each pump may
be accurately metered. Additionally it may be pushed into give a stroke enabling each p/p to be
tested. The eccentric stroke adjuster acts as a coarse adjustment for all the pumps in the block.
Additionally it may be rotated to operate all the pumps, as is the case when the engine is pre-
lubricated before starting. Correct operation of the injection pumps whilst the engine is running
can be carried out by observing the movement of the ball
For many years there has been a prevailing perception that the more oil you use for
cylinder lubrication, the better. Nothing could be further from the truth!
Our experience has shown that the main reasons for increased cylinder wear, broken
piston rings and overall poor cylinder condition is over lubrication. It is therefore a
problem which should be taken seriously.

Over lubrication of a two stroke engine can be very harmful for the cylinder condition and
can lead to high cylinder liner and piston ring wear, and also breakage of the piston rings
or they get stuck.
Many crew members are under the impression that the larger amount of oil they use for
cylinder lubrication, the better. They often try to solve a problem by increasing feed
rate. However, this is far from true.

Excess of cylinder oil and thereby also excess of additives will, as only part of the additives
are used for neutralization of the sulfuric acid formed during the combustion, burn off
and form a layer of residues on the piston top land to an extent that the residues will
touch the cylinder liner and consequently wipe off the cylinder oil from the cylinder liner
running surface.
Correct dosage of cylinder oil is a very important part of optimizing consumption and
cylinder condition.
Always be aware of the sulphur content in the fuel oil in use, and adjust the cylinder oil
feed rate accordingly.
Especially when low sulphur fuels are taken into use, frequent port inspections are
recommended.
For recommendations about feed rate, for instance according to sulphur contents in
fuel oil, we refer to our service letter about this isssue for relevant recommendations.

The building up of a dangerous layer of residues can under special circumstances


happen within 24 to 48 running hours, after which wear is accelerated.
The Hans Jensen SIP lubrication systems are, due to the injection timing, more sensitive
to over lubrication than other systems, wherefore it is of very high importance to
adjust the feed rates to the recommended limits given in the graphs for breaking in,
running in and during normal service.
At many industrial facilities, the task of equipment lubrication is often
assigned to a newly hired maintenance technician or mechanic with
little or no lubrication training who is just learning the ins and outs of
the plant. Often times these mechanics are handed a grease gun and
told to lubricate the points on a particular line or maybe the entire
plant. To the maintenance supervisor, this seems like a good way to
familiarize the new mechanic with the plant’s equipment. To the new
mechanic, he is performing an important task that is helping to
increase bearing life. Both the maintenance supervisor and mechanic
are right but they are also wrong.
Certainly, assigning a new mechanic the task of equipment lubrication
will help familiarize him with the plant’s equipment, but at what cost?
The new mechanic is correct in believing that he is performing an
important task, but is the way he performs the task actually increasing
bearing life? The answer depends upon how well the new mechanic has
been trained. More than 35% of bearing failures can be attributed to
improper lubrication. An enthusiastic but untrained lube tech with a
grease gun is more than likely to cause premature bearing failures due
to over greasing than he is due to under greasing.
Over greasing a bearing will cause the rollers or balls to slide along the
race instead of turning, and the grease will actually churn. This churning
action will eventually bleed the base oil from the grease and all that will
be left to lubricate the bearing is a thickener system with little or no
lubricating properties. The heat generated from the churning and
insufficient lubricating oil will begin to harden the grease (see Fig. 1).
This will prevent any new grease added to the bearing from reaching the
rolling elements. The end result is bearing failure and equipment
downtime. Ironically, an attempt to sufficiently lubricate a bearing by
giving it several extra pumps from a grease gun will eventually result in
its failure due to under lubrication.
Over lubricating the bearings in an electric motor causes an additional
problem that will negatively effect the efficiency of the motor resulting
in higher operating costs. The excess grease pumped into the bearing
will eventually work its way into the stator body and the rotor assembly
will distribute the grease throughout the windings (see Fig. 2). This will
not only cause the motor to operate inefficiently because the grease will
be insulating the windings, but it could also effect the operation of the
fan and cause excessive heat within the motor.
The key to preventing the over lubrication of bearings is to ensure that
all maintenance personnel are trained on proper lubrication techniques
including how to determine the correct amount of grease to pump into
a bearing. Establishing a sound overall maintenance program that
includes lubrication intervals for each asset in your facility or even
condition monitoring using ultrasonic technology will not only decrease
maintenance costs; it will decrease downtime as well.
ELECTRONIC ALPHA CYLINDER LUBRICATION SYSTEM –
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Alpha ACC (Adaptive Cylinder oil Control)
The principle of the Alpha ACC
The basic feed rate control should be adjusted in relation to the actual fuel
quality and amount being burnt at any given time. The sulphur percentage is a
good indicator in relation to wear, and an oil dosage proportional to the sulphur
level will give the best overall cylinder condition.
The following two criteria determine the control:
The cylinder oil dosage shall be proportional to the sulphur percentage in the
fuel
The cylinder oil dosage shall be proportional to the engine load (i.e. the
amount of fuel entering the cylinders).
The implementation of the above two criteria will lead to an optimal cylinder
oil dosage, proportional to the amount of sulphur entering the cylinders.
With the introduction of the electronically controlled Alpha Lubricator system,
featuring the easy-to-operate “HMI” panel, such adaptive lubrication has
become feasible.
The Alpha Lubricator system offers the possibility of saving a considerable
amount of cylinder oil per year and, at the same time, to obtain a safer and
more predictable cylinder condition.
The basic feed rate control should be adjusted in relation to the actual fuel quality
being burnt at a given time.
This new cylinder oil control principle is called the “Alpha Adaptive Cylinder oil
Control”, or abbreviated “Alpha ACC”.
the ACC factor can only be assessed when the fuel sulphur level has been high
enough to ensure that the lubrication has been in the ACC active area (the blue
area marked in Fig. 1), at lower fuel sulphur levels the engine is excessively
protected against corrosion because of the active minimum feed rate.
One of the key parameters in Alpha ACC lubrication is part-load control proportional to
engine load.
This is important in order to prevent over-lubrication at low loads, and it is one of the
main parameters to save oil, compared with conventional lubrication.
When starting to burn new bunker oil, the HMI setting of the Alpha ACC should be
adjusted according to the bunker analysis results.
INJECTOR UNIT FITTED TO MODERN CAMSHAFTLESS
SLOW SPEED ENGINES
Exact injection timing of cylinder lube oil is essential for efficiency. A move to electronics
for the control of this has been made by some large slow speed engine manufacturers.

The system is based on an injector which injects a specific volume of oil into each
cylinder on each ( though more normally alternate) revolution of the engine. Oil is
supplied to the injector via a pump or pumps. A computer, which is synchronised to the
engine at TDC each revolution, finitely controls the timing . Generally most efficient
period for lubrication is taken at the point when the top rings are adjacent to the
injection points.

The injection period is governed by the opening of a return or 'dump' solenoid which
relieves system pressure.

Quantity can be adjusted by manually limiting the stroke of the main lubricator piston,
by altering the injection period or by the use of multiple mini-injections per revolution.

The high degree of accuracy with this system allows for lower oil consumption rates.
Shown is the injector unit fitted to modern camshaftless slow speed engines. The
motive force is via a dedicated or common hydraulic system. The hydraulic piston acts
on multiple plungers one for each quill. At the dedicated time the electric solenoid
valve energises an allows hydraulic oil to act on the piston commencing oil injection.
One or two pumps per unit may be fitted dependent on cylinder diameter and oil flow
requirements.

Precise control of the timing of injection allows oil to be delivered into the ring pack,
something which has proved impossible with mechanical means. This has reduced oil
consumption by as much as 50%.

Pre- lubrication for starting may be built into the bridge remote control system or
carried out manually
STERNTUBE LUBRICATION- DEVELOPMENTS,
HYDROX 21 LUBRICANTS
HYDROX 21 – AT A GLANCE

Mineral oil based sterntube lubricant for use in the event of outboard
Description
leakage and with some stabiliser fin shafts.

Typical Viscosity (cst @40°C) 275

Viscosity Index 100

Density (kg/ltr@15°C) 0.9

Pour Point IP15 (°C) < –5

Anti corrosion SKF Water Emcor Test Passes

Emulsifiable
These mineral based lubricants provide an excellent level of lubrication in both
neat and emulsion forms. They are developed primarily for use in sterntubes. The
products provide:
•Superior level of lubrication even when water ingress occurs
•Excellent wear protection
•Excellent corrosion protection
•Compatibility with metals commonly used
HYDROX 21 is compatible with the elastomers used for lip seal systems and are
approved by the major lip and face stern seal manufacturers.
HYDROX 21 will absorb any sea or fresh water entering the sterntube to form a
fluid emulsion. This reduces the risk of free water being present and continues to
provide the required lubrication and corrosion protection. (Conventional oils do
not emulsify in the same way and tend to separate, exposing components to free
water and potential wear damage).
The emulsions, once formed, have excellent stability, therefore free water is not
released. This ensures corrosion protection is maintained even during prolonged
standing and during the critical time of start-up.
HYDROX 21 (both neat oil and emulsion including 20% water contamination) has
been successfully tested by Class and their stability, lubricating and corrosion
protection performance have been verified by Lloyds Register.
HYDROX 21 is recommended for use particularly where problems of oil leakage
past the aft seals is experienced.
HYDROX 21 is compatible with most engine oils and system oils commonly used
in the sterntube and can therefore be introduced by top-up procedure to the
existing sterntube oil. A minimum of 50% is recommended as the initial charge,
however, the lubricant offers the greatest benefit when used to completely fill the
sterntube system.

Stern Tube Lubricant Absorbs Costs

In many industries and businesses, equipment failure or unexpected maintenance does


not present a major problem. Standby systems can be brought online quickly, service
engineers can repair machinery within a few hours, with spare parts that are readily
available, or temporary equipment can be hired at a moment's notice.
For some industries, however, failure or serious malfunction of machinery can be very
damaging, whether financially or commercially. Such industries include steel making, oil
and gas processing, underground mining, and shipping.
Some systems aboard ships do not have standby backups, spare parts may be difficult or
impossible to replace while at sea, even if they are carried on the vessel, and delays to
voyages (whether through stoppage or slowdown) are likely to be costly. One item of
equipment on ships that is not possible to replace or repair while at sea is a stern-tube
bearing.
Benjn. R. Vickers & Sons Ltd., based in Leeds, England, offers the Hydrox range of
specialized stern-tube oils. Hydrox stern-tube oils absorb water, which may enter the
stern-tube bearing, and the resulting emulsions continue to provide a high standard of
lubrication and corrosion protection to the shaft and bearings. All of the oils in the Hydrox
range are approved under the Lloyds Product Verification scheme. They are the first
lubricants to have been approved in this way, with benefits of the Hydrox oils
acknowledged by other leading Classification Societies.
Oil lubricated bearings are more than likely white metal, but can be manufactured from
specialized resin material. In either case the stern-tube is filled with oil, which is retained
by means of a seal system designed not only to keep the oil in. but also to prevent
seawater from entering. A header tank for the oil maintains a static head of pressure,
which supports the sealing system in discouraging water entry.
Stern-tube bearings can operate satisfactorily — with few or no problems. Sometimes,
however, the stern tube seals can become worn or damaged. Equally, conditions can arise
whereby seawater bypasses the seal.
For example, the oil/sea-water pressure relationship can be radically affected if extreme
pitching is experienced, or stern tube vibration can result in seawater being drawn in
and/or oil being forced out. It is not at all uncommon for oil to leak out of the stern-tube,
creating a pollution problem, or more often for seawater to leak in or indeed both —
water can do enormous damage to plain bearings. Where a conventional oil is being used,
the presence of water can cause rusting and corrosion, and it can seriously compromise
the quality of lubrication offered to the bearings. Any of these factors is likely to lead
eventually to bearing damage and failure. Obviously, a stern-tube should be fitted with
high performance seals, but a specialist stern-tube lubricant, which is able to lubricate
bearings even in the presence of significant quantities of seawater, can provide very real
cost savings. The Hydrox range of stern-tube oils manufactured by Vickers are specifical- ly
formulated to do just that.
Conventional engine oils that are often used to lubricate stern-tubes do not form stable
emulsions with water, particularly seawater. Some "emulsifiable oils" may form emulsions,
which are unstable, thereby allowing free water, leading to a breakdown in lubrication.
Water ingress into a stern-tube lubricated with a conventional oil or unsuitable
"emulsifiable oil" may therefore lead to serious bearing failure and damage to the
propeller shaft should there be any significant degree of contamination with seawater.
Hydrox 550 has been developed especially for use in sterntubes.
It forms stable emulsions with water and these continue to provide a high standard of
lubrication and corrosion protection. Consequently, unscheduled repairs are unnecessary.
Vickers calculates, for example, that an offshore supply vessel could achieve net savings of
more than $21,538 where Hydrox 550 is in use and there is significant water entry into the
system. These savings arise largely from the avoidance of unscheduled docking. Similarly, a
large crude oil tanker could save more than $215,385 on a similar basis. The significance of
the unit price premium is further diminished when the modest volumes of oil used in the
stern-tube are taken into account.
For example, Hydrox 550 is currently being used on the Queen Elizabeth 2 (QE2), the
Oriana and the Ocean Princess. It is also being used on Stolt- Nielsen ships and on Andros
Maritime ships. Chris Zukowski, Atlantic Fleet Manager at Stolt-Nielsen Transportation
Group, says, "Stolt-Nielsen vessels use Hydrox 550 as a stern-tube lubricant because
experience has shown that seawater entry into the stern-tube can occur on occasions.
Using Hydrox 550 greatly reduces the likelihood of interrupted sailing schedules due to
emergency repairs."G. Foustanos, superintendent engineer at Andros Maritime adds,
"Andros Maritime, the tanker fleet agent, is typical of the growing number of Hydrox 550
users who value the longterm benefits provided by the product." Hydrox 550 has been
formulated so that it will form stable emulsions with up to 20 percent of seawater, which
may enter the stern-tube.
The oil is suitable for use in stern-tube systems fitted with circulatory oil-feed systems and
is approved by leading seal manufacturers having been tested for compatibility with their
seal materials. It may well be the case that a conventional oil is not compatible with the
seal in which case excessive swelling or embrittlement of the seal can occur with
consequent seal failure. Hydrox 550 is also used in cruise liner stabilisers, again to combat
water ingress into the lubrication system.
The oil is approved by a number of stabiliser manufacturers, including Sperry Marine and
Brown Brothers.
BEARINGS
DESIGN CHANGES OF MAIN, BOTTOM END AND CROSSHEAD
BEARINGS – BEARING METAL - TIN ALUMINIUM THIN SHELL
BEARINGS, JOURNALS/PINS -SURFACE ROUGHNESS,
BEARING DEFECTS-CAVITATION EROSION,
ELECTRICAL EROSION DAMAGE, ELECTROSTATIC
EROSION DAMAGE, FRETTING DAMAGE, WHITE
METAL BEARING CORROSION.
The textbook cases of distress modes are especially useful in diagnosing problems prior
to the damage that occurs when a bearing can no longer support an oil film. Through the
prudent use of temperature and vibration monitoring equipment, routine oil analysis,
lubrication system evaluations and machine operational performance reviews, bearing
distress may be identified and evaluated before catastrophic failure occurs.
Bearing health is commonly monitored through the use of temperature measurements.
Temperature sensors may be mounted in a wide variety of locations, with a
corresponding variation in temperature. The specific location and type of sensor must be
known for the measured temperature data to have any real value.
Being able to properly identify the damage resulting from pitting (from arcing), fatigue,
erosion and corrosion is key to diagnosing bearing problems.
Voids
Electrical Pitting
Electrical pitting appears as rounded pits in the bearing lining. The pits may appear frosted
(Figure 1), or they may be blackened due to oil deposits. It is not unusual for them to be
small and difficult to observe with the unaided eye. A clearly defined boundary exists
between the pitted and unpitted regions, with the pitting usually occurring where the oil
film is thinnest.
As pitting progresses, the individual pits lose their characteristic appearance as they begin
to overlap. Pits located near the boundary should still be intact. The debris that enters the
oil begins abrasion damage. Once the bearing surface becomes incapable of supporting an
oil film, the bearing will wipe. The bearing may recover an oil film and continue to operate,
and pitting will begin again. This process may occur several times before the inevitable
catastrophic bearing failure.
Electrical pitting damage is caused by intermittent arcing between the stationary and
rotating machine components. Because of the small film thicknesses relative to other
machine clearances, the arcing commonly occurs through the bearings. Although the
rotating and other stationary members can also be affected, the most severe pitting occurs
in the soft babbitt.
Electrical pitting can be electrostatic or electromagnetic in origin. Although both sources
result in pitting damage, they differ in origin and destructive capabilities.
Electrostatic shaft current (direct current) is the milder of the two. Damage progresses
slowly, and it always occurs at the location with the lowest resistance to ground. It can be
attributed to charged lubricant, charged drive belts or impinging particles.
Figure 1. Shaft Currents / Electrical Pitting
(Frosting)
This type of shaft current can be eliminated with grounding brushes or straps. Bearing
isolation is also recommended.
Electromagnetic shaft current (alternating current) is stronger and more severe than
electrostatic current. It is produced by the magnetization of rotating and/or stationary
components.
This type of current will not always occur at the location of lowest resistance. Because the
current is stronger, bearing damage is often accompanied by journal, collar or runner
damage.
Electromagnetic currents are best eliminated by demagnetizing the affected component.
Grounding brushes or straps may or may not be helpful. The bearings should also be
isolated.
The lubricating oil must be filtered or replaced. Pitting damage often blackens the oil and
fills it with debris. In addition to filtering or replacing the oil, the entire bearing assembly,
oil reservoir and piping should be flushed and cleaned. The original bearing finish should
also be restored. Journal shoes typically must be replaced, but if the correction leaves the
bearing within design tolerance, the bearing may be reused. The condition of the rotating
journal, collar or runner surfaces must also be evaluated. It must be restored to original
condition, either by lapping, hand stoning or replacement.
Fatigue
Fatigue damage may represent itself as intergranular or hairline cracks in the babbitt. The
cracks may appear to open in the direction of rotation. Pieces of babbitt may spall out or
appear to be pulled away in the direction of rotation. The cracks extend toward the babbitt
bond line, and may reveal the shoe backing (Figures 2, 3, 4).

Figure 2. Edge Load Pivoted Shoe Showing


Babbitt Mechanical Fatigue
Figure 3. Edge Load Journal Shell with
Babbitt Mechanical Fatigue
Figure 4. Babbitt Fatigue in a Thin Thrust Plate
A combination of causes contributes to fatigue damage, but concentrated cyclic loading is
usually involved. The fatigue mechanism involves repeated bending or flexing of the
bearing, and damage occurs more rapidly with poor bonding.
It is important to note that fatigue damage will occur without poor bonding. Fatigue can
occur when conditions produce concentrated cyclic loads, such as:
Misalignment
Journal eccentricity
Imbalance
Bent shaft
Thermal cycling
Vibration
Performance data should be reviewed to determine if a vibration increase occurred. The
leveling plate wings should be examined for signs of excessive wear, indicating the rotating
collar or runner is not perpendicular to the shaft axis.
High bearing temperature may also be considered as a contributing factor to fatigue
damage. As temperatures increase, the fatigue strength of bearing materials decreases.
The lubricating oil must be filtered or replaced. In addition to filtering or replacing the oil,
the entire bearing assembly, oil reservoir and piping should be flushed and cleaned.
Depending on the damage, voids in the babbitt can be puddle-repaired. The original
bearing finish must be restored. Journal shoes may also be puddle-repaired and
refinished. If this cannot be done, the shoes must be replaced.
Although the babbitted surface is usually damaged more severely, the rotating collar or
journal surface must also be evaluated. This surface must be restored to original condition,
either by tapping or hand stoning.
Cavitation
Cavitation damage appears as discreet irregularly shaped babbitt voids which may or may
not extend to the bond line. It may also appear as localized babbitt erosion. The location
of the damage is important in determining the trouble source (Figures 5, 6, 7).
Often called cavitation erosion, cavitation damage is caused by the formation and
implosion of vapor bubbles in areas of rapid pressure change. Damage often occurs at the
outside diameter of thrust bearings due to the existence of higher velocities. This type of
damage can also affect stationary machine components in close proximity to the rotor.
Based on its source, cavitation can be eliminated in a number of ways. These include the
following:
Radius/chamfer sharp steps
Modify bearing grooves
Reduce bearing clearance
Reduce bearing arc
Eliminate flow restrictions (downstream)
Increase lubricant flow
Increase oil viscosity
Lower the bearing temperature
Change oil feed pressure
Use harder bearing materials
The lubricating oil must be filtered or replaced. In addition to filtering or replacing the oil,
the entire bearing assembly, oil reservoir and piping should be flushed and cleaned.
Depending on the extent of damage, voids in the babbitt can be puddle-repaired. The
original bearing finish must be restored. Journal shoes may also be puddle-repaired and
refinished. If this cannot be done, the shoes must be replaced.
Although the babbitted surface is usually damaged more severely, the rotating collar,
runner or journal surface must also be evaluated. This surface must also be restored to
original condition, either by lapping or hand stoning.

Figure 5. Cavitation Damage on Outside Diameter of Collar


Figure 6. Thrust Shoe Cavitation
Toward Outside Diameter
Figure 7. Thrust Shoe Cavitation
Damage in Babbitt Face
Erosion
Erosion damage may appear as localized babbitt voids with smooth edges, particularly in
the direction of rotation. Damage is more likely to occur in stationary members.
As a rule of thumb, if the babbitt has been affected, the cause was cavitation damage,
not erosion. Because erosion is caused by sudden obstructions in oil flow, it is more likely
to occur in other areas, because the babbitt is under high pressure. Once damaged,
however, babbitt erosion may occur.
Corrective action is similar to that employed in eliminating cavitation damage, with the
emphasis on streamlining oil flow through the bearing.
Corrosion
Corrosion damage is characterized by the widespread removal of the bearing lining by
chemical attack. This attack produces a latticework appearance. The damage may be
uniform with the affected elements being washed away, leaving the corrosion-resistant
elements behind. Corrosion may also affect the rotating collar, runner or journal,
appearing as random, widespread rust or pitting. The pits are easily distinguished from
electrical pitting, because they are not as uniform or smooth-bottomed.
Corrosive materials may appear in the lubricating oil through:
Decomposition of oil additives
Acidic oxidation products formed in service
Water or coolant in lube oil
Direct corrosive contamination
Bearing housing seals, oil additive packages, and oil reservoir operating temperatures
should be evaluated as an initial step in eliminating corrosion. The integrity of cooling coils
should also be examined.
The cause of corrosion is best detected by knowledge of the babbitt composition and an
oil analysis. Corrosion can be eliminated by replacing the lubricating oil. In addition, the
entire bearing assembly, oil reservoir and piping should be flushed and cleaned. If the
original bearing finish cannot be restored, the bearing must be replaced.
The rotating collar, runner or journal surface must also be evaluated and restored to
original condition, either by lapping or hand stoning.
Collar/ Runner/ Journal Surface
The most commonly overlooked bearing component is the collar. It is the single most
important part of the bearing. Collar rotation draws oil into the region between the collar
and shoe surfaces. Oil adheres to the collar and is pulled into pressurized oil wedges. This
occurs due to the collar surface finish. If the collar finish is too smooth (better than 12 root
mean square (RMS)), it will not move an adequate supply of oil; too rough, and the
bearing shoes will be damaged. Ideally the finish should be between 12 to 16 RMS.
Each time a bearing is inspected, the collar should be inspected and worked as necessary.
Glossy areas on the collar can easily be removed by hand-scrubbing with a soft 600-grit
oilstone. Collars with significant operating time may have lost their original surface
flatness. This flatness, as well as the surface finish, should be restored.
If a split runner is used, it should be separated into halves and evaluated. Relative motion
between the halves will result in fretting damage to the runner, as well as potential
cavitation-like damage to the bearing surfaces.
It is important that the collar faces be parallel, and perpendicular to the centerline of the
shaft. If the collar is not within tolerance, the resultant wobble will force the shoes and
leveling plates to constantly equalize, causing rapid leveling plate wear (Figure 8).
Figure 8. Leveling Plate Wear due to Collar Wobble
Oil Analysis
A quick visual examination of the oil or oil filter may be all that is required to determine
that a problem exists and that further investigation is necessary. Cloudy or discolored oil
indicates a problem.
A thorough oil analysis can provide useful data to assist in diagnosing bearing or machine
distress. The usefulness of the analysis is directly related to the information requested.
As a minimum, the following should be supplied:
Particulate density
Particulate breakdown
Viscosity
Water contamination
Chemical breakdown
The amount of particulate, as well as its content, can identify potential trouble spots. Oil
viscosity will decrease in time, and whether or not distress is suspected, it should be
periodically evaluated. Water contamination is extremely unwanted, because it can
cause rust and oil foaming, and if it is drawn into the oil film, bearing failure. A chemical
breakdown of the oil will help to determine the integrity of the additive packages and
the presence of unwanted contaminants.
Operational Data
Another important source of diagnostic information is unit operational data. Identifying
periods of load or speed changes, recent maintenance, or the performance of related
machinery may help determine the root cause of distress.
Vibration data or an analysis may help uncover existing problems, as well as examine the
remaining bearings in a troubled unit.
In a perfect world, hydrodynamic bearings theoretically have an infinite life. Equipment
operators know that their world is far from perfect. By taking a forensic approach to plain
bearing failures, the operator can uncover and correct system-related problems and
ultimately increase machine availability and output.
ALTERNATE DESIGN OF STAY BOLT
FOR MAIN BEARING OF MAN B & W.
To understand the importance of the role played by the tie bolts or tie rods, it is
necessary to appreciate what is happening inside the cylinder of the engine.
When the piston is just after top dead centre the pressure inside the cylinder can rise as
high as 140 bar (14000kN/m2). This acts downwards through the piston rod and con-rod,
pushing the crankshaft down into the bearing pockets. At the same time, the pressure
acts upwards, trying to lift the cylinder cover. The cylinder head studs screwed into the
entablature prevent this happening and so this upward acting force tries to lift the
entablature from the frames and the frames from the bedplate, putting the fitted location
bolts into tension.
As the piston moves down the cylinder the pressure in the cylinder falls, and then rises
again as the piston changes direction and moves upwards on the compression stroke. This
means that the fitted bolts are under are cyclic stress. Because they are not designed to
withstand such stresses they would soon fail with disastrous consequences.
To hold the bedplate , frames and entablature firmly together in compression, and to
transmit the firing forces back to the bedplate, long tie bolts are fitted through these
three components and then tightened hydraulically. To prevent excessive bending
moments in the transverse girders, the tie bolts are positioned as close to the centre of
the crankshaft as possible. Because the tie bolts are so close to the crankshaft, some
engines employ jack bolts to hold the crankshaft main bearing cap in position instead of
conventional studs and nuts.
Operating the engine with loose tiebolts will cause the fitted bolts holding the bedplate,
frame and entablature in alignment to stretch and break. The machined mating surfaces
will rub together, corrode and wear away (this is known as fretting). Once this has
happened the alignment of the engine running gear will be destroyed. Loose tie bolts
will also cause the transverse girders to bend which could lead to cracking, and main
bearing misalignment.
Once fretting between the mating surfaces has occurred, then tightening of the tie
bolts will pull the engine out of alignment. The crosshead guides, the cylinder liner,
and the stuffing box will no longer be in line and excessive wear will occur. Because
the tie bolts will no longer be pulled down squarely they will be subject to forces
which may lead to them breaking. If fretting has occurred, then the only solution is to
remove the entablature or/and frame and machine the fretted mating surfaces (a very
costly exercise).

Tie bolts can break in service. To reduce the risk of this happening they must be
checked for tightness; not overtightened; and the engine not overloaded. If a
breakage does occur, this is not disastrous, as the engine can be operated with care for
a limited period (the load on the engine may have to be reduced). The position of the
fracture will dictate how the broken pieces are removed. However in the worst
possible scenario where the bolt is broken at mid length, then one solution is to lift
out the top half, remove the bottom nut, and then feed a loop of braided wire cable
(about 7mm diameter) down the tie bolt tube, down the side of the broken tie bolt
and once it emerges at the bottom a supporting piece can be fitted to the wire
enabling the broken tie bolt to be withdrawn. Another method is shown here
On the MAN B&W MC-C engine the tie bolts do not pass through the bedplate transverse
girder in the traditional way. Instead there are two pairs of tie bolts fitted either side of the
single plate A frame and screwed into the bedplate transverse girder. This, it is claimed,
reduces the distortion of the bedplate during engine operation
When checking the tightness of tie bolts, refer to manufacturers instructions for tightening
pressures for the jacks and the order in which to carry out the check. The normal order is to
start at the centre and work outwards checking the bolts in pairs. The MC -C engine with its
twin tie bolts is an exception, starting at the fwd end and working aft. If the engine is fitted
with bearing jacking bolts, then these must be slackened before tightening the tie bolts.
Any pinch bolts fitted must also be slackened off

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