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PRINCIPLE
Outline
1. Classification of Metals
2. Importance of Heat Treatment
3. Iron-Carbon (Fe-C) Equilibrium Diagram
4. Metallography
5. Heat Treatment Processes
6. Heat Treatment Failures
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
MATERIALS
Non-Metals Metals
• Pure Metals
• Cu, Pb, Al, Mg, Mn, Ni, Cr, Mo, W
• Alloy*
• Brass – Cu & Zn
• Bronze – Cu & Sn
• Aluminum Alloys
*Alloy - a metal made by combining two or more metallic elements, especially to give
greater strength or resistance to corrosion
Ferrous Metals: Cast Iron
Carbon
2.5-4.0 1.8-3.6 2.0-2.6 3.0-4.0
Manganese
0.25-1.0 0.25-0.8 0.2-1.0 0.1-1.0
Sulfur
0.02-0.25 0.06-0.20 0.04-0.18 0.03 max
Phosphorous
0.05-1.0 0.06-0.18 0.18 max 0.10 max
Magnesium 0.04
Forms of Carbon in Cast Iron
White Iron Gray Iron
• Carbon is in combined form as • Free carbon in the form of flake
cementite (Fe3C) or carbide. and rosette graphite
• Produced by high solidification • Produced by slower solidification
rate and low silicon content rate and high silicon content
(graphitizer)
• Fracture is “white”
• Fracture is “gray”
Forms of Carbon in Cast Iron
Classification of Steel
AISI-SAE Alloy Steel
Plain Carbon Steel
High Strength Low Alloy Steel (HSLA)
Tool Steel
Stainless Steel
Plain Carbon Steel
• U.S.
– ASTM
– AISI
– SAE
• Germany
– DIN
• UK
– BS
• Japan
– JIS
AISI/SAE Alloy Steel
• Contain modest amount of alloying elements (1-4%)
• Usual alloying elements : Cr, Mo, Ni, Mn, Si
• AISI/ SAE Designation uses 4 or 5 Numerical Index
System
• First two digits – indicates alloying elements
• Last two or three digits – approximate carbon
content
AISI/SAE System
1XXX - Plain Carbon Steel
2XXX - Nickel Steel
3XXX - Nickel-Chromium Steel
4XXX - Molybdenum Steel
5XXX - Chromium Steel
6XXX - Chromium-Vanadium Steel
7XXX - Tungsten Chromium Steel
Tool Steels
• Mold Steels
– P1-P20
• Special Purpose Tool Steels
– L1-L7 Low Alloy types
– F1-F3 Carbon-Tungsten types
Chemical Composition
Grade C Cr Mo Ni V W Co
W1 0.85
S1 0.6 1.1 0.2 2
O1 0.93 0.6 0.1 0.6
A2 0.63 5.3 1.2 0.3
D2 1.6 12 0.6 0.2 0.5
D3 2 12
Chemical Composition
Grade C Cr Mo Ni V W Co
P20 0.4 2 0.20 0.1
H10 0.31 2.9 2.8 0.3
H13 0.4 5.2 1.3 1
H21 0.31 2.7 0.4 8.5
M2 0.9 4.1 5 1.9 6.4
T42 1.23 4.1 3.5 3.3 9.5 10
Stainless Steels
• Non-magnetic
• Non-hardenable
• Ni + Cr :at least 23%
• Type 304 and 316
Ferritic Stainless Steel
• Cr : 14-27%
• Lower in carbon and higher in chromium
content compared to martensitic types
• Non-hardenable
• Magnetic
• Type 405, 430, 446
Martensitic Stainless Steel
• Cr: 11.5-18%
• Magnetic
• Hardenable
• Types 410, 420, 440
HEAT TREATMENT
is the
controlled heating and
cooling of metals
in order to
deliberately alter
their mechanical properties.
Importance of heat treatment
– Heated at 850o C
• Heated at 850oC
• Slow cooled inside the furnace
• Property will be much too soft
Case 2: AISI 1050 Cold Chisel
• Heated at 850oC
• Quenched in water
• Not tempered
• Property will be glass-hard but very
brittle
Case 3: AISI 1050 Cold Chisel
• Heated at 850oC
• Quenched in water
• Reheated or tempered between 175oC
- 600oC
• Properties will range between hard-
and-brittle to soft-and-ductile
depending on tempering temperature
employed
AISI 1050 Cold Chisel
Case 1 2 3
0.008%C at room
temperature in BCC
2% at 1130o C in
FCC
Iron-Carbon (Fe-C) Equilibrium Diagram
• A map showing the ranges of composition
and temperatures at which various
microstructures are present and the
boundaries at which changes in the
microstructure occurs
MIRDC-ITSDS
Steel Section of the Iron Carbon
Equilibrium Diagram
MIRDC-ITSDS
Metallography
• Ferrite
– Basically pure
iron
– Soft and ductile
solid solution of
iron containing
0.008% C @ room
temp.
– BCC iron
Microstructures
• Cementite
– The hard, brittle,
interstitial
compound
formed between
iron and carbon
– Contains 6.67% C
– Represented by
the formula Fe3C.
Microstructures
• Pearlite
– Formed by
simultaneous
precipitation of
ferrite and cementite
from austenite
– Has lamellar
structure and
contains 0.8% C
Microstructures
• Austenite
– The important high
temperature
microstructure the
decomposition of which
on cooling forms the
room temperature
microstructure.
– Can dissolve up to 2%
C at 1130oC
– FCC iron
Transformation Temperature
A1
Lower Critical Temperature (LCT)
Completion of austenite to pearlite
transformation during slow cooling
A3
Upper Critical Temperature (UCT)
for hypoeutectoid steel
Austenite begins to transform to
ferrite during slow cooling
Acm
Upper Critical Temperature (UCT)
for hypereutectoid steel
Austenite begins to transform to
cementite during slow cooling
Microstructures
• Martensite
– Saturated solution of
carbon in Body
Centered Tetragonal
(BCT) iron formed by
quenching austenite
from the austenitizing
temperature
– Very hard and very
brittle microstructure
Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT)
Diagram
Critical Cooling Rate (Rapid Quenching)
Annealing
Normalizing
Spheroidizing
Stress Relieving
Tempering
Hardening Heat Treatment
1. Direct/Through Hardening
Conventional
Vacuum Furnace
2. Surface Hardening
Carburizing
Flame Hardening
Induction Hardening
3 main steps
T Annealing Temperature
e
m 2 hrs
p
Furnace
e
Cooling
r
a
t
u
r
e
Time
Annealing Cycle
for Austenitic Steels
T Annealing Temperature
e
m 2 hrs
p
e Water
r Quenching
a
t
u
r
e
Time
NORMALIZING
T Austenitizing Temperature
e
m
2 hrs
p
e Cooling in
r Still Air
a
t
u
r
e
Time
SPHEROIDIZING
1 hr
T LCT
e
m
p Alternate heating and cooling Furnace
e Cooling
r
a
t
u
r
e
Time
Spheroidizing Method 3
2 hrs
T LCT
e
m
p 4 hrs
e Furnace
r Cooling
a
t
u
r
e
Time
Spheroidizing Process
T
e 600 - 650 o C
m
p 2 hrs
e Furnace
r Cooling
a
t
u
r
e
Time
HARDENING
Preheating
Austenitizing
Quenching
Tempering
Heat treatment data guide
• Mineral Oil
– Used for quenching low alloy steel and high alloy steel
– Has high flash point and fire point (177oC minimum)
– Efficient quenching temperature range: 32oC – 60oC
– Amount required without agitation:
T Austenitizing Temperature
e
m
p 1 hr/in.
650 oC
e thickness
r
a 1 hr/in.
t thickness
Quenching
u
r
e
Time
Hardening Cycle:
Austenitizing Temp > 900 o C
Austenitizing Temperature
T
1 hr/in.
e
850 o C thickness
m
p
650 oC 0.5 hr/in Quenching
e
r thickness
a 1 hr/in.
t thickness
u
r
e
Time
Tempering
• Purpose:
– Reduce stresses
– Increase toughness
– Reduce hardness
• Temper at the required tempering temperature
for 1 hour and then cool the material in still air.
• Use tempering diagram or table to determine
the appropriate temperature
Tempering Table (Temp. vs. HRC)
1050 52 47 41 35 22
4140 57 51 46 40 33
O1 62 57 50 43 36
D2 61 58 58 58 60 56 50
H13 52 52 54 56 54 50
Rules in Tempering
T
e
m
p
e Tempering Temperature
r
a 1 hr.
t Cooling in
u still air
r
e
Time
Tempering Cycle:
Tool Steel & Martensitic Stainless Steel
T
e
m
p
e Tempering Temperature Tempering Temperature
r
a 1 hr Cooling in still 1 hr Cooling in
t air
still air
u
r
e
Time
Vacuum Heat Treatment
Case Hardening
• Carburizing
• Carbonitriding
• Nitriding
• Induction Hardening
• Flame Hardening
Pack Carburizing
T 900 – 950 o C
e
m
p 2 hrs
650 oC
e
r
a 1 hr
t
Quenching
u
r
e
Time
Induction Hardening
• Low frequencies are effective for thicker materials requiring deep heat
penetration
• High frequencies are effective for smaller parts or shallow penetration
• Shallower depths requires higher frequencies which increases the
original equipment and operating cost
Flame Hardening
• Low Hardness