DYNAMICS

KINEMATICS
Kinematics is the study of motion without consideration of
the mass of, or the forces acting on, the system. For particle
motion, let r(t) be the position vector of the particle in an
inertial reference frame. The velocity and acceleration of the
particle are respectively defined as
Plane Circular Motion
A special case of transverse and radial components is for
constant radius rotation about the origin, or plane circular
motion.

y
v = dr/dt
a = dv / dt , where et
er
r
v = the instantaneous velocity, θ s
a = the instantaneous acceleration, and x
t = time
Cartesian Coordinates Here the vector quantities are defined as
r = xi + yj + zk r = re r
v = xi + yj + zk v = rωe t
a = xi + yj + zk , where
a = ( − rω2 )e r + rαe t , where
x = dx / dt = v x , etc.
r = the radius of the circle, and
x = d 2 x / dt 2 = a x , etc. θ = the angle between the x and e r axes

Radial and Transverse Components for Planar Motion The magnitudes of the angular velocity and acceleration,
respectively, are defined as
ω = θ, and
y
α=ω=θ

eθ Arc length, tangential velocity, and tangential acceleration,

er respectively, are
s = rθ,
r
v t = rω
θ
x at = rα
PATH

The normal acceleration is given by

Unit vectors eθ and er are, respectively, normal to and an = rω2
collinear with the position vector r. Thus:
r = rer

v = rer + rθeθ

a = (r − rθ 2 )er + (rθ + 2rθ)eθ , where

r = the radial distance
θ = the angle between the x-axis and er ,

r = dr / dt , etc.

r = d 2 r / dt 2 , etc.

29
 DYNAMICS (continued)

Normal and Tangential Components For constant angular acceleration, the equations for angular
velocity and displacement are

y α(t ) = α 0
ω(t ) = α 0 (t − t 0 ) + ω0
et
en θ(t ) = α 0 (t − t 0 ) 2 / 2 + ω0 (t − t 0 ) + θ0 , where

r
θ= angular displacement

x θ0 = angular displacement at time t 0

PATH
ω= angular velocity
ω0 = angular velocity at time t 0
Unit vectors et and en are, respectively, tangent and normal
to the path with en pointing to the center of curvature. Thus α 0 = constant angular acceleration

t = time, and
v = v(t )et
t0 = some initial time
a = a (t ) et + (vt2 / ρ) en , where
An additional equation for angular velocity as a function of
ρ = instantaneous radius of curvature angular position may be written as
ω2 = ω02 + 2α 0 (θ − θ0 )
Constant Acceleration
The equations for the velocity and displacement when
acceleration is a constant are given as Non-constant Acceleration
a( t ) = a0 When non-constant acceleration, a(t), is considered, the
v ( t ) = a0 ( t − t 0 ) + v 0 equations for the velocity and displacement may be obtained
from
s ( t ) = a0 ( t − t 0 ) 2 / 2 + v 0 ( t − t 0 ) + s0 , where
t
v ( t ) = ∫ a ( τ ) dτ + v t 0
to
s = distance along the line of travel t
s(t ) = ∫ v( τ) dτ + st0
s0 = displacement at time t 0 to

v = velocity along the direction of travel

v0 = velocity at time t 0 For variable angular acceleration
t
a0 = constant acceleration ω(t ) = ∫ α( τ) dτ + ωt0
t0
t = time, and t
θ(t ) = ∫ ω( τ) dτ + θt0
t0 = some initial time t0

For a free-falling body, a0 = g (downward). Projectile Motion

An additional equation for velocity as a function of position
may be written as y
v0
v 2 = v 02 + 2a0 ( s − s0 )

θ
x

30
 DYNAMICS (continued)

The equations for common projectile motion may be If the force is constant (i.e. independent of time,
obtained from the constant acceleration equations as displacement, and velocity) then
ax = 0 a x = Fx / m,
v x = v0 cos(θ) v x = a x ( t − t 0 ) + v x t0 ,
x = v0 cos(θ) t + x0 x = a x ( t − t 0 ) 2 / 2 + v x t0 ( t − t 0 ) + x t 0
ay = −g
v y = − gt + v0 sin( θ) Normal and Tangential Kinetics for Planar Problems
2
y = − gt / 2 + v0 sin( θ) t + y 0 When working with normal and tangential directions, the
scalar equations may be written as

CONCEPT OF WEIGHT ∑ Ft = mat = mdvt / dt and

W = mg , where 2
∑ Fn = man = m (vt / ρ)
W = weight, N (lbf),
m = mass, kg (lbf - sec 2 /ft), and Impulse And Momentum
2 2
g = local acceleration of gravity, m/sec (ft/sec ) Linear
Assuming constant mass, the equation of motion of a
particle may be written as
KINETICS
mdv / dt = F
Newton’s second law for a particle is
mdv = Fdt
∑ F = d ( mv ) / dt , where

For a system of particles, by integrating and summing over

∑ F = the sum of the applied forces acting on the particle, the number of particles, this may be expanded to
t2
m = the mass of the particle
∑ mi (vi ) t2 = ∑ mi (vi ) t1 + ∑ ∫ Fi dt
v = the velocity of the particle t1

For constant mass, The term on the left side of the equation is the linear
momentum of a system of particles at time t2. The first term
∑ F = m dv / dt = ma on the right side of the equation is the linear momentum of a
system of particles at time t1. The second term on the right
side of the equation is the impulse of the force F from time
One-Dimensional Motion of a Particle (Constant Mass) t1 to t2 . It should be noted that the above equation is a vector
When motion only exists in a single dimension then, without equation. Component scalar equations may be obtained by
loss of generality, it may be assumed to be in the x- considering the momentum and force in a set of orthogonal
direction, and directions.
a x = Fx / m, where
Angular Momentum or Moment of Momentum
Fx = the resultant of the applied forces which in general The angular momentum or the moment of momentum about
point 0 of a particle is defined as
can depend on t , x, and vx .
H 0 = r × mv, or

If Fx only depends on t, then H 0 = I 0ω

a x (t ) = Fx (t ) / m,
t Taking the time derivative of the above, the equation of
v x ( t ) = ∫ a x ( τ) d τ + v x t 0 , motion may be written as
t0
t H 0 = d ( I 0ω) / dt = M, where
x ( t ) = ∫ v x ( τ) d τ + x t 0
t0

31
 DYNAMICS (continued)

M is the moment applied to the particle. Now by integrating The potential energy stored in the spring when compressed
and summing over a system of any number of particles, this or extended by an amount x is
may be expanded to
U = k x2 / 2
t2
∑ ( H 0i ) t2 = ∑ ( H 0i ) t1 + ∑ ∫ M 0i dt
t1
In changing the deformation in the spring from position x1 to
x2, the change in the potential energy stored in the spring is
The term on the left side of the equation is the angular U 2 − U 1 = k ( x 22 − x12 ) / 2
momentum of a system of particles at time t2. The first term
on the right side of the equation is the angular momentum of
a system of particles at time t1. The second term on the right Principle of Work And Energy
side of the equation is the angular impulse of the moment M
If Ti and Ui are, respectively, the kinetic and potential
from time t1 to t2 .
energy of a particle at state i, then for conservative systems
(no energy dissipation or gain), the law of conservation of
Work And Energy energy is
Work W is defined as T2 + U 2 = T1 + U1
W = ∫ F ⋅ dr
(For particle flow, see FLUID MECHANICS section.) If non-conservative forces are present, then the work done
by these forces must be accounted for. Hence
T2 + U 2 = T1 + U1 + W1→ 2 , where
Kinetic Energy
The kinetic energy of a particle is the work done by an
external agent in accelerating the particle from rest to a W1→ 2 = the work done by the non-conservative forces in
velocity v. Thus, moving between state 1 and state 2. Care must be exercised
T = mv 2 / 2 during computations to correctly compute the algebraic sign
of the work term. If the forces serve to increase the energy
of the system, W1→2 is positive. If the forces, such as
In changing the velocity from v1 to v2, the change in kinetic friction, serve to dissipate energy, W1→2 is negative.
energy is
T2 − T1 = m(v22 − v12 ) / 2 Impact
During an impact, momentum is conserved while energy
Potential Energy may or may not be conserved. For direct central impact
with no external forces
The work done by an external agent in the presence of a
conservative field is termed the change in potential energy. m1v1 + m2 v 2 = m1v'1 + m2 v' 2 , where
Potential Energy in Gravity Field
U = mgh, where m1 , m2 = the masses of the two bodies,

h = the elevation above some specified datum. v1 , v2 = the velocities of the bodies just before impact, and

v'1 , v'2 = the velocities of the bodies just after impact.

Elastic Potential Energy
For impacts, the relative velocity expression is
For a linear elastic spring with modulus, stiffness, or spring
constant, the force in the spring is ( v' 2 ) n − ( v'1 ) n
e= , where
( v1 ) n − ( v2 ) n
Fs = k x, where
e = coefficient of restitution,
x = the change in length of the spring from the
( vi ) n = the velocity normal to the plane of impact
undeformed length of the spring.
just before impact, and
( v ' i ) n = the velocity normal to the plane of impact
just after impact

32
 DYNAMICS (continued)

The value of e is such that A table listing moment of inertia formulas for some standard
0 ≤ e ≤ 1, with limiting values shapes is at the end of this section.

e = 1, perfectly elastic (energy conserved), and Parallel Axis Theorem

e = 0, perfectly plastic (no rebound)
Knowing the value of e, the velocities after the impact are
given as
m2 ( v 2 ) n (1 + e) + ( m1 − em2 )( v1 ) n
( v '1 ) n =
m1 + m2
m1 ( v1 ) n (1 + e) − (em1 − m2 )( v 2 ) n
(v' 2 ) n =
m1 + m2
Friction
The Laws of Friction are
1. The total friction force F that can be developed is
independent of the magnitude of the area of contact.
2. The total friction force F that can be developed is
proportional to the normal force N.
3. For low velocities of sliding, the total frictional
force that can be developed is practically
independent of the velocity, although experiments
show that the force F necessary to initiate slip is
greater than that necessary to maintain the motion.
The formula expressing the Laws of Friction is
F ≤ µN , where
µ = the coefficient of friction.
The mass moments of inertia may be calculated about any
axis through the application of the above definitions.
However, once the moments of inertia have been
determined about an axis passing through a body’s mass
center, it may be transformed to another parallel axis. The
transformation equation is
I new = I c + md 2 , where
I new = the mass moment of inertia about any specified axis
I c = the mass moment of inertia about an axis that is
parallel to the above specified axis but passes
through the body's mass center
m = the mass of the body
d = the normal distance from the body's mass center
to the above-specified axis
Radius of Gyration
The radius of gyration is defined as
r = I /m

In general PLANE MOTION OF A RIGID BODY

F < µ s N , no slip occuring, Kinematics
Instantaneous Center of Rotation (Instant Centers)
F = µ s N , at the point of impending slip, and
An instantaneous center of rotation (instant center) is a
F = µ k N , when slip is occuring. point, common to two bodies, at which each has the same
velocity (magnitude and direction) at a given instant.
Here,
It is also a point on one body about which another body
µ s = the coefficient of static friction, and
rotates, instantaneously.
µ k = the coefficient of kinetic friction.
A
2 3 B
The coefficient of kinetic friction is often approximated as θ2
O2
75% of the coefficient of static friction. 4
1 GROUND
Mass Moment of Inertia I14 ∞
The definitions for the mass moments of inertia are I23
2
I x = ∫ y dm,
I34
I y = ∫ x 2 dm, and I12

I z = ∫ ( x 2 + y 2 ) dm

33
 DYNAMICS (continued)

The figure shows a fourbar slider-crank. Link 2 (the crank) rA = rB + rrel

rotates about the fixed center, O2. Link 3 couples the crank
to the slider (link 4), which slides against ground (link 1). v A = v B + ω × rrel
Using the definition of an instant center (IC), we see that the
pins at O2, A, and B are ICs that are designated I12, I23, and a A = a B + α × rrel + ω × (ω × rrel )
I34. The easily observable IC is I14, which is located at
infinity with its direction perpendicular to the interface
between links 1 and 4 (the direction of sliding). To locate where, ω and α are, respectively, the angular velocity and
the remaining two ICs (for a fourbar) we must make use of angular acceleration of the relative position vector rrel.
Kennedy’s rule.
Kennedy’s Rule: When three bodies move relative to one Rotating Axis
another they have three instantaneous centers, all of which A
lie on the same straight line. Y y rrel x
To apply this rule to the slider-crank mechanism, consider
links 1, 2, and 3 whose ICs are I12, I23, and I13, all of which
lie on a straight line. Consider also links 1, 3, and 4 whose B
ICs are I13, I34, and I14, all of which lie on a straight line. rB
Extending the line through I12 and I23 and the line through
I34 and I14 to their intersection locates I13, which is common
to the two groups of links that were considered. X

I14 ∞ rA = rB + rrel

I13 v A = v B + ω × rrel + vrel

I14 ∞
a A = a B + α × rrel + ω × (ω × rrel ) + 2ω × vrel + arel

I24
I23 where, ω and α are, respectively, the total angular velocity
2 3 I34 and acceleration of the relative position vector rrel.
I12
4
1 GROUND Rigid Body Rotation
For rigid body rotation θ

Similarly, if body groups 1, 2, 4 and 2, 3, 4, are considered, ω = dθ / dt ,

a line drawn through known ICs I12 and I14 to the α = dω / dt , and
intersection of a line drawn through known ICs I23 and I34, α dθ = ω dω
locates I24.
The number of ICs, c, for a given mechanism is related to
the number of links, n, by Kinetics
n (n − 1) In general, Newton’s second laws for a rigid body, with
c= constant mass and mass moment of inertia, in plane motion
2
may be written in vector form as
Relative Motion
∑ F = mac
The equations for the relative position, velocity, and
acceleration may be written as ∑ M c = Icα
Translating Axis
∑ M p = I c α + ρ pc × mac , where
y A
Y
F are forces and ac is the acceleration of the body’s mass
rrel center both in the plane of motion, Mc are moments and α is
the angular acceleration both about an axis normal to the
B x plane of motion, Ic is the mass moment of inertia about the
rB
normal axis through the mass center, and ρpc is a vector
from point p to point c.
X

34
 DYNAMICS (continued)

Without loss of generality, the body may be assumed to be Free Vibration

in the x-y plane. The scalar equations of motion may then be The figure illustrates a single degree-of-freedom system.
written as
∑ Fx = ma xc Position of Undeformed
Length of Spring
∑ Fy = ma yc δst
∑ M zc = I zc α, where m Position of Static
Equilibrium

zc indicates the z axis passing through the body’s mass x

center, axc and ayc are the acceleration of the body’s mass k
center in the x and y directions, respectively, and α is the
angular acceleration of the body about the z axis.

Rotation about an Arbitrary Fixed Axis

For rotation about some arbitrary fixed axis q
∑ M q = Iq α The equation of motion may be expressed as
mx = mg − k ( x + δ st )
If the applied moment acting about the fixed axis is constant
then integrating with respect to time, from t = 0 yields
where m is mass of the system, k is the spring constant of
α = M q / Iq the system, δst is the static deflection of the system, and x is
the displacement of the system from static equilibrium.
ω = ω0 + α t

θ = θ0 + ω 0 t + α t 2 / 2 From statics it may be shown that

mg = k δ st
where ω 0 , and θ0 are the values of angular velocity and
angular displacement at time t = 0 , respectively. thus the equation of motion may be written as
mx + kx = 0, or
The change in kinetic energy is the work done in x + ( k / m) x = 0
accelerating the rigid body from ω 0 to ω
θ
I q ω 2 / 2 = I q ω02 / 2 + ∫ M q d θ The solution of this differential equation is
θ0
x(t ) = C1 cos(ω n t ) + C2 sin(ω n t )

Kinetic Energy
In general the kinetic energy for a rigid body may be written where ω n = k / m is the undamped natural circular
as frequency and C1 and C2 are constants of integration whose
T = mv 2 / 2 + I c ω2 / 2 values are determined from the initial conditions.

For motion in the xy plane this reduces to If the initial conditions are denoted as x(0) = x0 and
2 2 x(0) = v0 , then
T = m(vcx + vcy ) / 2 + I c ω 2z / 2
x(t ) = x0 cos(ω n t ) + (v0 / ω n )sin(ω n t )
For motion about an instant center,
T = I IC ω 2 / 2

35
 DYNAMICS (continued)

It may also be shown that the undamped natural frequency The solution may now be written in terms of the initial
may be conditions
expressed in terms of the static deflection of the system as θ(0) = θ0 and θ(0) = θ0 as
ω n = g / δ st θ(t ) = θ0 cos(ω n t ) + (θ0 / ω n )sin(ω n t )

The undamped natural period of vibration may now be

written as where the undamped natural circular frequency is given by
τ n = 2π / ω n = 2π m / k = 2π δ st / g ω n = kt / I

Torsional Vibration The torsional stiffness of a solid round rod with associated
polar
moment-of-inertia J, length L , and shear modulus of
elasticity G is given by
kt = G J / L
kt
Thus the undamped circular natural frequency for a system
with a solid
I round supporting rod may be written as
ω n = GJ / I L
θ

Similar to the linear vibration problem, the undamped

For torsional free vibrations it may be shown that the natural period may be written as
differential
equation of motion is τ n = 2π / ωn = 2π I / k t = 2π I L / GJ
θ + (kt / I )θ = 0 , where
θ = the angular displacement of the system
kt = the torsional stiffness of the massless rod

I = the mass moment of inertia of the end mass

36
 Figure Mass & Centroid Mass Moment of Inertia (Radius of Gyration)2 Product of Inertia
y M = ρLA
xc= L/2
I x = I xc = 0 rx2 = rx2c = 0
yc=0 I xc yc , etc. = 0
z c I yc = I zc = ML2 12 ry2c = rz2c = L2 12
zc=0 I xy , etc. = 0
A = cross-sectional area of I y = I z = ML2 3 ry2 = rz2 = L2 3
L x rod
ρ = mass/vol.
y M =
2πRρA
xc =
R = mean radius I xc = I yc = MR 2 2 rx2c = ry2c = R 2 2
I xc yc , etc. = 0
yc =
R = mean radius I zc = MR 2 r22c = R 2
cR zc 0= 2
I zc zc = MR 2
I x = I y = 3MR 2 rx2 = ry2 = 3R 2 2
A =
cross-sectional area of I xz = I yz = 0
z ring I z = 3MR 2
rz2 = 3R 2
x ρ = mass/vol.
y
R M = πR2ρh
xc = 0 (
I xc = I zc = M 3R 2 + h 2 12 ) (
rx2c = rz2c = 3R 2 + h 2 12 ) I xc yc , etc. = 0
37

c yc = h/2 I yc = I y = MR 2 2
ry2c = ry2 = R 2 2
I xy , etc. = 0
h zc = 0 (
I x = I z = M 3R 2 + 4h 2 12 ) rx2 = rz2 = (3R 2
)
+ 4h 2 12
ρ = mass/vol.
z x
y
R2
(
M = π R12 − R22 ρh ) I xc = I z c
(
rx2c = rz2c = 3R12 + 3R22 + h 2 12 )
xc = 0 (
= M 3R12 + 3R22 + h 2 12 ) = (R )2 I xc yc , etc. = 0
( ) ry2c ry2 2
R1 c = 1 + R22
yc = h 2 I y c = I y = M R12 + R22 2
rx2 = rz2 I xy ,etc. = 0
h zc = 0 Ix = Iz
z x
ρ = mass vol. (
= M 3R12 + 3R22 + 4h 2 12 ) (
= 3R12 + 3R22 + 4h 2 12 )
y 4 3 I xc yc , etc. = 0
M = πR ρ
3 I xc = I x = 2MR 2 5 rx2c = rx2 = 2 R 2 5
R xc = 0
c I yc = I y = 2MR 2 5 ry2c = ry2 = 2 R 2 5
yc = 0
I zc = I z = 2MR 2 5 rz2c =r 2z = 2 R 2 5

DYNAMICS (continued)
z x zc = 0
ρ = mass/vol.
Housner, George W. & Donald E. Hudson, Applied Mechanics Dynamics, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., Princeton, NJ, 1959. Table reprinted by permission of G.W. Housner & D.E. Hudson.