UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE

FLUID MECHANICS
ENGR30002

Experiment: Fluid flow in a smooth pipe

AIMS
1. To investigate the variation of pressure drop with average velocity in a circular
pipe and to construct a plot of friction factor versus Reynolds number.
2. To observe the transition from laminar flow to turbulent flow.

THEORY

For fluid to flow in a pipe, a driving force in the form of a pressure drop, ∆P , is
required. The pressure drop required depends on the average fluid velocity (U ), the
fluid density (ρ) & dynamic viscosity (µ) and the pipe diameter (D) & length (L).

The pressure change in a fluid under steady flow is described by the Bernoulli
equation which, under steady-state conditions, is given by:
U12 P1 U 2 P2
z1 + + = z2 + 2 + + hL (1)
2g ρg 2g ρg
where
z = elevation of the fluid above an arbitrary datum,
P = pressure in the fluid,
g = acceleration due to gravity,
hL = head loss due to friction,
and the subscript 1 refers to upstream conditions, the subscript 2 to downstream
conditions.

For flow in a horizontal pipe at a constant velocity, z1 = z2 and U1 = U2 . It therefore

follows that:
P1 − P2 |∆P |
hL = = (2)
ρg ρg
That is, the drop in pressure is due to fluid friction alone and is not due to changes
in kinetic or potential energy.

The head loss, hL, may be expressed in terms of a Fanning friction factor, f :
( )( )
L U2
hL = 2f (3)
D g

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Experimentation has shown the following to be true for fluid flow in a smooth hor-
izontal pipe:
i) the head loss varies directly with the length of the pipe
ii) the head loss varies almost with the square of the velocity
iii) the head loss varies almost inversely with the diameter of the pipe
iv) the head loss depends upon the fluid properties of density and viscosity
v) the head loss is independent of the pressure.

Substituting equation (2) into (3) yields:

∆P 2D
f= (4)
L ρU 2
Thus f = f n(U, D, ρ, µ), where f n is an unknown function. The independent vari-
ables in f n can be arranged in only one way to make them dimensionless:
( )
ρU D
f = fn (5)
µ

The group ρUµD is known as the Reynolds number. Hence, the friction factor is a
function of only the Reynolds number.

When the flowrate through the pipe is low, the flow pattern is smooth and steady.
A dye solution carefully injected into the pipe will trace out a straight line. This
orderly flow is referred to as laminar flow. As the flowrate is increased the stream
of dye loses its steadiness and begins to vacillate. This vacillation increases as the
velocity of the fluid increases. At sufficiently high velocity the dye solution no longer
retains its identity and is dispersed across the pipe. It becomes completely mixed
with the surrounding liquid indicating that the flow pattern is no longer steady and
smooth. It has become chaotic. The flow is now said to be turbulent.

The transition from the laminar flow to turbulent flow occurs at different velocities
for different fluids and different pipe sizes. However, when expressed in terms of
Reynolds number, the transition occurs at a fairly well defined value for Reynolds
number. This is known as the critical Reynolds number for pipe flow. In this
experiment the critical value may be determined by observing the gradual change to
disordered state of a line of dye injected into the centre of a flowing water stream.

To measure the pressure difference between two points in a horizontal pipe using a
vertical manometer (shown in Figure 1), the following equations are applicable:

Po1 = P1 + ρg(H + ∆h)

Po2 = P2 + ρgH + ρa g∆h (6)

where
ρ = density of fluid flowing through the pipe, which is water in this experiment

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Figure 1: Vertical inverted U-tube Manometer for Measuring Pressure Difference
between Two Points in a Pipe.

ρa = density of air (above the fluid in the manometer)

H = height of fluid in the manometer in the low pressure arm, i.e. the one connected
to the downstream tapping,
and ∆h = difference in heights of fluid in the two manometer arms.

As Po1 = Po2 , equation (6) becomes:

P1 − P2 = ∆P = (ρ − ρa )g∆h (7)

Since ρa ≪ ρ, equation (7) becomes:

P1 − P2 = ∆P ≈ ρg∆h (8)

SAFETY AND STUDENT DRESS

It is a University requirement that student dress and behaviour in the lab must
conform to the following safety standards:

1. Safety glasses, long-sleeve and long-leg clothing are compulsory (otherwise lab
coats must be worn)

2. Do not take your safety glasses off while in the lab.

3. Footwear must completely cover feet.

4. No smoking, drinking, or eating in lab.

5. No sitting on table or floor.

6. Let the demonstrator know if you need to leave the lab.

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 7. Keep table/work area tidy, notes and other items away from chemicals.

8. Handle chemicals and equipment with care.

9. Follow the lab supervisor’s instruction in case of emergency evacuation.

10. Ask question if you are unsure of anything during the practical session.

The laboratory demonstrator will determine whether students meet these require-
ments. Students not meeting these requirements will be asked to leave the laboratory
and will receive zero for this part of the subject assessment.

EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND PROCEDURE

Apparatus

1. a horizontal, smooth glass pipe, 12.6 mm in diameter, with two pressure tap-
pings located 1.5 m apart

2. three pressure gauges: a capsuhelic differential pressure (0-250Pa), an inverted

water-air manometer, and a wet-wet digital differential pressure (0-100kPa),
connected via a manifold to the pressure tappings:

3. three variable area (VA) flow meters for controlling the flowrate of water: 70,
250 and 1600L/hr

4. a reservoir filled with water-soluble dye, and connected to an injection port in

the centre of the pipe

Procedure

1. Check that the meniscus on each arm of the manometer being used is level
when water is not flowing through the pipe. If this is not the case, then take
note of the difference in the level of the fluid in the two arms (and use this
value to correct for your height difference readings).

2. Check that both differential pressure gauges show reading of 0 when water is
not flowing through the pipe. If this is not the case, then take note of the
offset (and use this value to correct for the differential pressure readings).

3. Start the experiment by setting a reasonably high flowrate of water through

the pipe using the largest VA meter. Measure the pressure difference between
the two pressure tappings using the appropriate pressure gauge, starting with
the gauge with the largest range until the pressure difference recorded is too
low for accurate measurements, then switch over to use the vertical water
manometer and then the capsuhelic gauge.

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 4. Reduce the water flowrate and repeat step 3. Make sure that you obtain at
least: 12-16 sets of data using the 1600L/hr VA meter, 10 sets of data using
the 250L/hr VA meter, 7-8 sets of data using the 70L/hr VA meter.

5. Record the temperature of the water flowing through the pipe.

6. Note: Your demonstrator will carry out this step of the experiment.
A dye is injected into the flow channel and the flow pattern of the dye trace
is observed (i.e. laminar, turbulent, or transitional flow).

- Set the water flowrate so that the dye indicates laminar flow. Slowly in-
crease the water flowrate until the dye trace begins to wobble, indicating the
onset of transitional flow. Continue to increase the flowrate until the dye trace
becomes totally dispersed at the point of injection, indicating turbulent flow.
Note down the flowrates at which the various flow regimes occur.

- Now reduce the flowrate to determine the point at which the flow moves from
the turbulent to the transitional regime. Again, record the flowrate. Note that
at high flowrates, the dye is mixed with water in an extremely short period of
time, and you will not be able to see the dye trace properly.

7. Analyse the experimental data using the Excel program: FM-Exp01.xls to:

a) Calculate the pressure drop and velocity of water, and hence the friction
factor, f , and Reynolds number, Re, from the data of pressure drop at the
various water flowrates through the flow channel, together with the properties
of water at the appropriate temperature.

b) Obtain a log-log plot of friction factor versus Reynolds number of flow

through a smooth pipe.

FURTHER READINGS

The subject textbook (Cengel, Y.A. and Cimbala, J.M., Fluid mechanics: Funda-
mentals and Applications) contains further material on the flow of fluid through a
smooth pipes.

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QUESTIONS

1. Draw a schematic diagram of the apparatus used in this experiment. Show

and label all components, material flow and direction of flow.

2. From the results obtained from the experiment, construct a log-log plot of f
versus Re, showing clearly the three flow regimes. Draw a straight line of best
fit through the data points in the laminar flow region and determine the slope
of this line.

3. What is the theoretical relationship between f and Re in the laminar flow

regime for pipe flow? State the expected value of the slope of the log(f )
versus log(Re) plot in this regime. Does the plot you obtained in question 2
agree with that found in the literature? If not, explain why this is so.

4. For the data point at the maximum fluid flowrate, present a sample calculation
to show how U , Re, f and hL are calculated. (Show all steps, parameter values,
units and equations used.) Do these values agree with those in the Excel table?

5. A viscous liquid (ρ = 1460 kg/m3 , µ = 5.2 × 10−1 Ns/m2 ) is to be pumped

through a smooth pipe 0.1 m in diameter at a rate of 5 × 10−2 m3 /s. Use
your friction factor versus Reynolds number plot to estimate the driving force
needed to maintain the flow rate specified. Express the driving force in terms
of pressure drop per unit length of the pipe.