Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ATTACHMENT 2-1 LAND USE BASED FLOWS FOR SEWERAGE ............................................... 2-9
ATTACHMENT 2-2 PIPE GRADIENTS ......................................................................................... 2-11
ATTACHMENT 2-3 SEWER MANHOLE DESIGN CRITERIA........................................................ 2-12
AL Aerated Lagoon
C-D Collector-Distributor
CE Certificate European
cm Centimeter(s)
Cs Carbon steel
CT Contact Time
D Depth
DO Dissolved Oxygen
EA Extended Aeration
H Height
HI Hydraulic Institute
kW kiloWatt
LV Low Voltage
m meters
m3 cubic meters
mm millimeters
NH3 Ammonia
OD Oxidation Ditch
PF Peaking Factor
PT Point of Tangency
Q Flow
ROW Right-Of-Way
TN Total Nitrogen
TP Total Phosphorus
These design criteria are presented to support the design intent of the HIB infrastructure planning.
Designs shall be in accordance with the following guidelines and with all other applicable criteria.
These design criteria should be implemented in conjunction with the Housing and Infrastructure
Master Specifications and Standard Details and the Design Criteria for Housing Projects. The
geotechnical design criteria for treatment plants and pump stations shall be in accordance with the
Section 5.6 of the Design Criteria for Housing Projects.
The objective of the Libya Housing and Infrastructure Board (HIB) water supply system is to provide
safe, potable, adequate, reliable, efficient, and effective water supply facilities. Water service is to be
provided in an economically and environmentally sustainable manner in terms of both water treatment
and water distribution. The objective of the water treatment is to produce and maintain finished water
quality that is hygienically safe and aesthetically pleasing, in an economic manner while complying
with water quality standards provided by the World Health Organization (WHO) and/or the United
States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). The evaluation of water quality should not be
limited to the treatment facilities, but should extend the distribution system to the point of consumer
consumption. The distribution system should maintain adequate pressure and safe water quality,
while meeting fire protection needs.
Specific goals of the HIB are:
1. Land distribution delivery systems with sufficient capacity to supply current and future
water demands;
2. Provide adequate and reliable water distribution facilities (supply mains, pump
stations, service reservoirs, transmission, and distribution systems) that meet peak
hour demands and sustained periods of high demand while maintaining adequate
delivery pressures and water quality.
3. Provide a level of fire fighting capability adequate in relation to the recommendations
defined in this document;
4. Maintain a safe, potable, adequate, and reliable water supply for consumers.
The water system design must be compatible with the overall community master development plan.
The system layout shall be designed for, and take into account, water quality, pressure, flow rate, and
long-term planning. Hydraulic calculations performed by the designer shall be submitted to HIB for
review and approval in support of the design.
1.1.2 Operation and Maintenance Aspects
Water supply systems should be designed with consideration of the system’s current and future
operation and maintenance requirements. The result will be a system that can be easily and
economically operated and maintained using standard techniques and equipment essential for the
reliability of the water system.
Water systems are typically designed to serve both the current and the projected population for 20 to
25 years in the future. To limit the immediate capital costs, designs are usually prepared for phased
implementation, with system upgrades added as the demand increases over time.
The Transport Water Line Design Parameters are included as Attachment 1-2.
Fittings
The following fittings shall be included along the water transport lines for facilitating the operation,
control, and maintenance:
1. Air release, Air/Vacuum, Combination Air and Vacuum relief Valves: Air release and
vacuum relief valves are often needed along transmission mains. Air release valves
shall be provided at summits along the pipe profile and along long stretches with
uniform slope to purge out accumulated air in the pipe system. Air must be bled
slowly from high points to prevent (1) “air binding” and (2) the reduction of the cross
section of the pipe at high points. Combination air release valves are used to vent
large quantities of air from the pipeline when the pipe in being filled as well as
releasing the small quantities of accumulated air during normal operations.
Air/vacuum valves are used to prevent excessively low pressures when the pump
head drops quickly (as in power failures) to prevent column separation and at
extreme high points in pipelines to prevent potential pipeline collapse due to vacuum.
Vacuum relief valves can be as large as one-sixth of the diameter of the transmission
main, whereas air release valves may be as small as one-fiftieth of the diameter of
the pipe. The selection of the sizes of these valves shall be in accordance with
AWWA’s Manual of Water Supply Practice M51 Air-Release, Air/Vacuum &
Combination Air Valves.
2. A combination of air and vacuum valves shall be provided at appropriate locations for
quick air entry or vent to prevent cavitations and facilitate quick filling of the pipe. In
general, air-valves are to be installed at crest points, change in elevations and in case
of constant rising mains having moderate slope, at a maximum spacing of 500 m to
750 m.
3. Washout valves: These valves will be provided at low points or sags along the pipe
profile. These valves facilitate flushing, repair or maintenance of the pipe wherever
necessary. In cases where the static head on these valves exceeds 15m, proper
energy dissipation devices and erosion control shall be provided.
4. Isolating valves: The location of these valves shall consider the profile of the pipeline
and the location of washout and air valves. Isolating valves shall be provided at a
maximum distance of every 2 to 3 kilometers.
5. Isolating Valves with diameter smaller than 300 mm shall be gate valves and larger
diameter shall be butterfly valves.
All transport line valves not located in a pump station structure shall be installed inside reinforced
concrete valve chambers.
Suction Pipes
Suction pipe diameters shall be sized with due regard for the pumping net positive suction head
requirement (NPSHR), and shall generally provide for a flow velocity, v 2.5 m/s.
Pumps
Pump capacity shall be designed to meet the required water demand, Q, and total dynamic head, H.
Elevated water tanks provide a buffer for constant speed pumps. For distribution systems without an
elevated water tank, a variable running speed drive is required to allow the pumping rate to maintain a
constant discharge pressure as the system demands are provided.
The following fittings shall be provided with each pump:
1. Isolation valves (one provided upstream and downstream of each pump to protect
pumps and all associated fittings)
2. Non-return valve or a hydraulically actuated control valve designed to close more
slowly than a non-return valve. If a hydraulically actuated control valve is used, a
special hydraulic transient analysis must be performed to demonstrate that excessive
surge pressures will be controlled. These valve shall be placed directly downstream
of the pumps
3. Electromagnetic flow meter (downstream of pump)
4. Pressure gage (downstream of pump)
5. Sampling tap (downstream of pump)
6. Air valve on discharge pressure main (downstream of pump)
Reliability
For reliability, provide installed spares for all rotating equipment shall be provided to provide N+1
reliability (duplicate of largest pump). All equipment shall be supplied with the manufacturer’s
recommended spare parts.
1.3.5 Distribution Water Lines
Distribution water lines shall provide service to commercial and residential developments. Distribution
lines, sized according to calculated demand, are divided into three categories: Main Lines,
Secondary Lines, and Laterals.
Distribution Lines Network Analyses
Network analyses of the water system shall be performed to ensure that an adequate and safe water
supply is available to all consumers connected to the system for all defined modes of operation. The
system shall be in designed in accordance with the hydraulic design parameters listed in
The Distribution Line Water Parameters are included as Attachment 1-3.
Alignment
For distribution systems downstream of reservoirs, a ‘looped’ rather than ‘branched’ layout should be
used to provide more than one supply route on distribution systems wherever possible. The valve
arrangement shall be designed to limit the area needing to be shut down when isolating and repairing
any section of water line is necessary.
Groundwater is the typical water supply source for communities and settlements not served by the
Great Man-made River (GMR) water supply. For the security and reliability of water supply to these
communities and settlements, it is important that water supply wells be constructed to an acceptable
standard of reliability and performance. A series of design criteria have been established for potable
water supply wells in Libya.
The Water Well Design Criteria are included as Attachment 1-4.
1.5.1 Purpose
The purpose of the Design Criteria is to establish the common criteria for the process design of Libya
HIB water treatment plants. Following is a list of goals and objectives for water treatment plant
design.
3
Treatment plants for average daily demand less than 10,000 m /day shall be designed based on the
characteristics of the specific water supply. Types of process and general sizing criteria are
presented in this document.
Water treatment plant design is dependent on the quantity and quality of water to be treated to meet
finished water criteria suitable for potable water consumption.
1. Plant buildings shall be architecturally designed structures with adequate heating,
ventilating, and air conditioning systems. The buildings shall be constructed of
concrete or masonry with concrete roofs.
2. All treatment facilities shall be equipped with automatic changeover diesel generators
suitably sized to operate the water treatment facility at normal demand and to meet
peak electrical load.
3. All treatment processes shall be designed for N+1 redundancy, meaning that the
facility shall be able to provide the maximum daily demand with one process train out
of service.
Distillation uses heat exchangers to heat the water to be treated to a boiling point. Water is boiled off
of the exchanger and based though a condensing unit that produces finished water free of pathogens.
Only residual chlorination of the finished water is required.
Both types of desalination plants produce brine waste that is 30 to 60 percent of the water flow. Brine
should be captured in percolation or evaporation ponds. For special conditions, brine may be
discharged back to the sea. These discharge pipelines must be designed with similar considerations
as the intake line. The discharge pipe must terminate in an area where currents flow away from the
shoreline and away from the plant intake screening system.
Pipe Materials
Pipe Materials for Water Treatment Plants are included as Attachment 1-8.
Using any suitable fire fighting equation (i.e. AWWA M31 Distribution System
Requirements for Fire Fighting) with a total duration of 4 hours (assume two fires
at the same time with 2 hour duration each).
Up to 10,000 20
Fire fighting
10,000 – 25,000 25
demand Qff [l/s]
25,000 – 50,000 30
50,000 – 100,000 40
100,000 – 200,000 45
5 m (0.5 bar) above the highest point in system (provided there are no
Minimum Pressure
customers serviced by this line)
Maximum Operating
100 m (10 bar)
Pressure
> 200 mm
Line Diameter Size < 200 mm (All water lines used for firefighting shall be at
least 200 mm)
Approval of New Wells All new wells and well designs should be approved by the General Water
Authority (GWA).
Design life Normally 25 years, except if used as a temporary source. Wells deeper
than 350 m should be designed for 50 years.
Number of wells Minimum of two wells per settlement, except where there is a reliable
alternative backup source of water. The number of wells should be
sufficient to satisfy water demand even when there are interruptions due to
maintenance. The number of wells should allow for meeting the average
daily demand with the largest capacity well out of service.
Depth of wells Ideally wells should penetrate the entire aquifer, except where there are
financial constraints (e.g. deep Kiklah aquifer) or a deterioration of water
quality with depth. The final drill depth should be sufficient to prevent
possible cave in before the placement of screens and casing.
Drilling diameter Should be sufficient to allow a minimum of 5 cm gap between the borehole
and the casing/screen for placing the gravel pack and cement grout.
Casing/screen material Choice of material should be based on technical constraints (well depth,
aquifer and groundwater characteristics), and economic analysis. Corrosive
resistant materials [e.g. glass fiber reinforced plastic (GRP), polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), unplasticised polyvinyl chloride (uPVC), stainless steel (SS),
etc.] to be used in areas of aggressive groundwater.
Well head A conductor casing of minimum length 6 m grouted into position to avoid
surface contamination of the well. A concrete protection pad of minimum
1 m high around the top of the wellhead, of which 0.75 m is below ground
level. The top of the casing should extend minimum 0.8 m above ground
level. The casing should be locked shut/spot welded after completion to
avoid contamination/vandalism of the well.
Disinfection of Wells All wells should be disinfected after completion by chlorination (sodium
hypochlorite or calcium hypochlorite) at a concentration no less than 10
mg/L as free chlorine for 24 hrs. The wells should then be purged by
pumping to waste until the presence of chlorine is reduced, as verified
through testing or until the water no longer smells of chlorine. Note that the
presence of chlorine in groundwater will tend to oxidize metals such as iron
and manganese, creating dark particulates in the pump-to-waste water.
Flushing shall continue until these particulates are removed.
Well Head Protection The well should be protected by a well house that also contains the control
panel. An area of 15 m radius around the well should be fenced. In areas
of shallow aquifers, no water degradation activities such as agriculture to be
allowed in a 120 m radius. No cesspools or septic tanks within 60 day travel
time as defined by hydrogeological studies. No use of dangerous chemicals
(e.g. pesticides) within the catchment zone of the well as defined by
hydrogeological studies.
Water Analysis Water quality to be analyzed for all parameters in the Libyan Standard
No. 82 and as included herein.
Pump capacity/type Pump capacity to be chosen based on well completion report and calculated
using results of pumping tests. The capacity should not exceed 70% of the
maximum pumping test rate. Pump material should be based on technical
constraints and economic analysis. Corrosive resistant materials to be used
in areas of aggressive groundwater. Aggressive groundwaters are usually
very low alkalinity and or low TDS waters. These conditions generally do
not exist in Libya.
Pump Setting Depth The pump setting depth is calculated based on the pumping test results,
and allowing for a decline in the water table due to the pumping from the
well, and adjacent wells. A safely margin of 5 m should be added to this
depth.
Dipper tube All production wells must have a 1" (25 mm) dipper tube, to enable water
levels to be measured using an electronic water level dipper. The dipper
tube can be hanging separately from the rising main (e.g. GI pipe), or
attached to it if it is flexible (e.g. PVC/PET tube). The dipper tube should
extend to minimum 10 m below the expected water level during maximum
pumping rate. Corrosive resistant materials to be used in areas of
aggressive groundwater.
Records A record of the construction details shall be prepared for all production
wells. Recorded information must include well location; borehole diameter
and depth; well casing details (diameters, materials, schedules, and depths
of all permanent casings); well screen details (diameters, materials, opening
widths, and depths); depth of grouted and sand-packed intervals; original
yield/drawdown; original water level.
Surface Fittings Minimum controls/fittings at the surface are flow control valve, flow meter,
pressure gauge, non-return valve, sampling tap.
Monitoring All wells to be monitored on at least a monthly basis for pumping water
levels, well yield and water quality (minimum measurement = conductivity).
Record to be kept of daily pumping hours and daily total flows for each well.
Emergency power If the existing power supply is unreliable the wells in a well field should have
supply access to an emergency power source such as a standby generator with
automatic changeover.
Spare parts Full stock of spare parts to be available so that interruptions in the supply for
maintenance works are minimized.
Decommissioning of old Wells to be plugged at depth with cement/bentonite if they traverse more
wells than one aquifer. Backfilling of the well with non-contaminated materials
and protection by a surface cement or bentonite plug over the top 10 m of
the well.
(1)
Contaminant - Available Treatment Technologies
MCL
Microbials
Finished water < 0.3 NTU in In-line, direct, or conventional filtration, or low
95 % of measurements pressure membranes, UF or MF. Groundwater
Turbidity sources that meet turbidity and other standards
Not to exceed 1 NTU at any
time may require no treatment through unit processes.
(1)
Contaminant - Available Treatment Technologies
MCL
Organic Chemicals
Manganese 0.05 mg/L black to brown color; black Oxidation and filtration
staining; bitter metallic
taste
Silver 0.1 mg/L skin discoloration; graying Coagulation with ferric sulfate or
of the white part of the alum, or lime softening
eye
Total Dissolved 500 mg/L hardness; deposits; Lime softening for hardness
Solids (TDS) colored water; staining; reduction (Ca, Mg, and sulfates) or
salty taste reverse osmosis for sodium,
chloride, nitrates
Rapid Mix
Flocculation
4 hours
Detention Time
2 hours (lime-soda softening)
Freeboard 0.5 m
Application Rate < 4.8 m/hr for a total sedimentation basin surface area
Design Flow Maximum Daily Demand (with one unit out of service)
Disinfection
Backwash Pump
Inlet/Brine Outlet Pipe High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) per AWWA C901 and C906 (requires
(material dependent upon ballasting or anchors to prevent flotation)
size)
Ductile iron (per ANSI/AWWA C151/A21.5)
In-Plant Mechanical
Process Pipe Pressure class 350 ductile iron pipe with 125 psi flanges
Design peak hourly sewage flows shall be calculated by using a Peaking Factor (PF) for all sewage
flows from a known or assumed tributary population, based on the Babbitt Formula, as follows:
-1/6
PF = 4.25 × (Population ÷ 1000)
The PF shall be used to project peak hourly sewage flows from tributary areas with contributing
population equal to or greater than 500 persons, up to 90,000 persons. For tributary areas with fewer
than 500 persons, an alternative method of estimating peak flows is allowable.
For example, the peaking factor for a population of 3,000 using the Babbitt Formula is PF = 3.5
For populations 90,000 and above, or sewage flows of 18,000 m3/d or greater, the peaking factor shall
never be less than 2.0.
Land Use Based Flows for Sewage are included as Attachment 2-1.
For other commercial and industrial sewage flow projection, a detailed evaluation is required by type
on a case-by-case basis subject to occupancy regulations.
Roughness coefficients based on the pipe material as shown in Table 2- shall be used. The
roughness coefficient is a measure of the variation and magnitude of protuberances on the interior
surface of the pipe. The roughness therefore is a function of the pipe material, age, and condition.
Poor pipe conditions are to be assumed for sewage system designs.
Manning’s Coefficient, n
Pipe Material
Normal Maximum
Table 2-4 Minimum and Maximum Depth of Flow in Sewers at Peak Flows
Vertical Clearance 50 cm; if less than 50 cm, use concrete saddle and provide
concrete encasement to first joint on each side of crossing
Potable Water Lines Always place sewage lines below potable water lines
Pipes shall be aligned to cross under roads at 90 degrees or perpendicular to the road.
2.1.9 Manholes
Manholes are required to provide access to the sewer mains. They are also provided at each change
in direction (vertical or horizontal), change in diameter, and connection of two or more lines. Sewage
manholes are to be installed a maximum of 100 m apart. Sewage manholes shall be constructed of
Pumping stations are required when sewerage collection network depths exceed the practical or
economic constructability limit. Sewerage facilities will typically consist of gravity driven systems;
however, due to topography and the need to limit sewer depths to a practical maximum, pumping
stations may need to be included in the system.
All sewage pressure pipes within the site limits of the pumping station shall be GRP with minimum
2
pipe stiffness of 10,000 N/m . Foul air pipes may be either uPVC or GRP.
All metal components that are submerged or in intermittent contact with raw sewage shall be made of
316 stainless steel. Galvanized steel shall not be permitted.
2.2.1 Pumping Station Type
The design philosophy includes the minimization of the total number of sewage pumping stations in
the collection system. Where pumping is required, the number of times a given flow is pumped
should also be minimized.
Three types of sewage pumping stations shall be used: (1) submersible stations for small to medium
size facilities, (2) wet well-dry well stations for large facilities, and (3) screw pump stations in situations
where the required head is just to lift into a higher elevation gravity flow pipe.
Pumping stations shall be designed to handle flows greater than or equal to the projected peak
influent flow rate which is determined by applying the Peaking Factor to the average flow. Peak flows
shall be validated using hydraulic modeling software with accurate modeling of the actual sewer
collection system.
Wet well sizing is a function of the incoming flow, the control strategy for the station, the selected
pumps, whether single speed or variable speed drive, and the number of starts per hour permissible
for the pumps. Recommended cycling frequency depends on the type of pump being used, the motor
size, and pump operating efficiency. For design purposes, submersible pumping stations shall have a
minimum cycle time of 6 minutes or a maximum of 10 starts per hour. Pump controls shall be based
primarily on water elevations in the wet well of the station. Constant speed pump operation shall be
by wet well elevation with ultrasonic level control wet well alarms and shutoff. Variable speed pumps
may be provided to maintain a set water level in the wetwell.
2.2.1.1 Wet Well Volume
For constant speed pumps, wet well volume is calculated based on cycling frequency when inflow to
the station is 50 percent of the pumping rate with a single pump operating.
The wet well volume shall be calculated from the basic formula:
CT = [V/(D-Q)+(V/Q)] where
3
D = Pump rate (m /min.)
Q = Inflow rate (m3/min.)
CT = cycle time (min.)
3
V = volume (m )
Since “minimum” cycle time is of concern (Q=D/2), the formula reduces to V = CT x Q/2.
2.2.1.2 Wet Well Depth
The operating depth of wet well is a function of the following:
Structural design of water and wastewater facilities shall meet the requirements described in
Section 1.
200 0.00500
250 0.00370
315 0.00270
400 0.00200
500 0.00150
600 0.00120
700 0.00100
800 0.00085
900 0.00070
1000 0.00060
1100 0.00055
Description Standard
Benching Minimum 0.50 m width on at least one side of flow channel. Ladder
stops to be incorporated into surface.
Manhole Access Access by electric winch and tripod or portable ladder. Ladder
stops to be incorporated in benching for emergency access. No
built-in ladder rungs or permanent ladders.
Manhole Frame and Cover Circular opening 0.60 m minimum diameter. Cover and frame to be
machined and tagged to prevent rocking. All covers and frames in
roadways to be rated for maximum vehicle loads.
Safety Chains Provide on all manholes with pipe diameter 600 mm or larger
Materials of Construction:
Access Shaft Reinforced concrete
Top Slab Reinforced concrete
Barrel Reinforced concrete
Bottom Slab Reinforced concrete
Benching Granolithic concrete base
Lining GRP factory-fabricated and hand lay-up seams.
Exterior Corrosion Protection Bituminous impregnated membrane with flexible fabric
The purpose of the principal Design Criteria is to establish the common criteria for the process design
of Libya HIB sewage treatment plants. Following is a list of goals and objectives for these treatment
plant projects. Contractors shall provide evidence of compliance with each of these objectives in their
proposals.
1. Sewage treatment plant processes shall be based on the following flow criteria:
3
2. Up to 2,000 m /d: Aerated lagoons (AL), Stabilization Ponds (SP), or Extended
Aeration (EA)
3
3. 2,001 to 12,000 m /d: EA or Oxidation Ditches (OD)
4. 12,001 to 50,000 m3/d: OD
3
5. Over 50,000 m /d: Conventional Activated Sludge (CAS)
6. Conventional activated sludge sewage treatment plants shall have waste activated
sludge (WAS) thickening with gravity-belt thickeners prior to anaerobic digestion of
WAS and primary sludge. Final dewatering shall be with belt filter presses.
7. Extended Aeration and OD plants with 37 day solids retention time can be
constructed without formal sludge digestion systems. With solids retention times <37
days, EA and OD plants will require sludge digestion, such that the combined
aeration tank and aerobic digestion SRT is at least 37 days.
8. Plant buildings shall be architecturally designed structures with adequate heating,
ventilating, and air conditioning systems. Prefabricated structures will not be allowed.
All buildings shall be of concrete or masonry construction.
9. Mechanical reliability standards will be equivalent to USEPA Reliability Class II.
Biological reactors and clarification shall have a minimum of two tanks for each
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process component. For all facilities larger than 15,000 m /day, full treatment shall
be provided with any one process tank out of service. No processes shall be
bypassed under any reliability condition.
10. All plant process basins, walkways, and stairways shall be equipped with a railing
system designed with three rails and a toe plate. The design shall be based on
standards established by the US Occupational Health and Safety Administration
(OSHA) or UK National Examination Board in Occupational Safety and Health
(NEBOSH).
11. Pipe galleries and below grade pump rooms shall be force ventilated (powered in and
out) sufficiently to minimize potential for toxic gas buildup. Unless otherwise directed,
all buildings and structures shall comply with US National Fire Protection Association
820 standards.
12. Water reuse will be planned for all sewage treatment plants in Libya, unless
specifically indicated otherwise. All treatment facilities shall be equipped with effluent
filtration by disc filters, continuous backwash sand filters or membrane filters.
13. Each plant shall be equipped with a plant water system for washdown purposes, and
other uses. The system should be a non-potable water system using filtered
treatment plant effluent as a water source. The system shall include a
hydropneumatic system using either air tanks and compressors or bladder tanks.
14. All treatment channels and basins will be reinforced concrete. All concrete structures
shall have a corrosion protective coating that extends from 0.33 m below the water
surface to the top of the tank.
15. All metal components that are submerged or in intermittent contact with raw sewage,
including waste containers for grit and solids, shall be made of 316 stainless steel.
Galvanized steel shall not be permitted.
16. Minimum velocities at low flow in channels shall be 0.8 m/sec.
Parameter Value
BOD5 60 g/cap-day
TSS 80 g/cap-day
NH3 10 g/cap-day
TP 1.2 g/cap-day
pH 6.5 - 7.5
TKN 13 g/cap-day
FOG 30 g/cap-day
Parameter Value
BOD5 10 mg/l
TSS 10 mg/l
NH3 1 mg/l
TP 10 mg/l
pH 6.0-9.0
TN 20 mg/l
FOG 5 mg/l
Minimum Depth 2m
Air Blowers for aerated grit chamber Tri-lobe positive displacement air blowers
316L stainless steel and capable of producing grit with less than
Grit Washer
3-5% organics in the treated grit for all grit systems.
Configuration Circular
Spray Systems Primary clarifiers will have spray systems for scum removal
Design Hydraulic Retention Time 8 hrs (CAS) with all units in service; 30 hours (EA and
(HRT) OD)with all units in service
Design Mixed Liquor Suspended 1,000-3,000 mg/L (CAS); 2,000-5,000 mg/L (EA ); and 3,000-
Solids (MLSS) 5,000 (OD)
Design Solids Retention Time (SRT) 3-15 days (CAS); 15-30 days (OD ); and 20-40 days (EA)
Types of Aeration Systems Fixed slow speed or two-speed surface aerators mounted on
concrete bridges or bottom mounted aerator and sparge ring
mounted on concrete platforms for CAS and EA systems.
Fine bubble diffusers are not acceptable due to diffuser
interference with cleaning of basin bottoms.
Secondary Clarifiers
Configuration Circular
3 2 3 2 3 2
16-28 m /m -day (40-64 m /m -day) (CAS); 8-16 m /m -day
3 2
Surface Overflow Rate – average (24-32 m /m -day) (EA and OD)
(peak) Long SRT systems produce lower density sludge requiring
shorter settling time clarifiers for EA and OD Systems
Sludge Collector Mechanisms Suction type similar to rapid sludge return (RSR) clarifier or
spiral blade type. Direct suction type through slotted tapered
tube.
Filters
Disinfection
Channel Velocity, unaerated (minimum) Raw sewage 0.8 m/sec; settled sewage 0.3m/sec
Aerobic Digesters (EA and OD Systems) with design solids retention time less than 30 days
Type of Enclosure - Site built building with odor control systems if located near populated areas.
Raw sludge pumping Constant speed recessed impeller pumps. Timer control
Valves on Gravity Pipelines Eccentric cast iron plug valve, handwheel operated
Pipe Supports All pipe supports that are not concrete saddles shall be
T316L stainless steel
Geared operators for all plug valves, hand wheels for knife
Valve Operators gate valves, use electric actuators for 600 mm and larger
valves
Odor control systems shall be designed specifically for the constituents of the off-gases intercepted.
Anaerobic Lagoons followed by two-stage aerated lagoons (AL), and settlement ponds
Anaerobic Lagoons Flow inlet and outlet chambers shall be diagonal from each other to prevent
shall not be located short circuiting
within 2,000 meters of
populated areas. Where Three flow channels, two mechanized, one non-mechanized
this is not possible
anaerobic lagoons shall 3- coarse screens, 2- mechanical fine screens
be covered as an odor
control measure. Grit chambers: 2 rectangular traveling bridge type aerated grit chambers
with coarse bubble air diffusers and grease removal. Ancillary systems
include cyclone separator and grit classifier, conveyor and 2-500 liter grit
storage bins
Lining 150 mm concrete wearing surface panels over 60 mil thick HDPE
(high density polyethylene)
Stage 1 Aerated Lagoon – complete mix with air transfer sized for complete
oxidation of influent biochemical oxygen demand and ammonia (NH4). Five
day hydraulic residence time.
Stage 2 Aerated Lagoon – 50% complete mix. Primary role will be
nitrification and partial denitrification. Eight day hydraulic residence time.
Stage 3 Final settling of suspended solids. Two day hydraulic residence
Aerated Lagoons time. Final settlement pond - depth 4-5 meters.
Aspect ratio 2:1
Minimum number of lagoon trains 2
Excavation and embankment slopes 3:1
Minimum water depth 4.0 meters
Freeboard 0.8-1.0 meters
Anaerobic Lagoons provide primary Nominal hydraulic detention time 5 days (AL) (SP)
treatment, with an estimated 50%
Basin interior and exterior slopes 3:1 (AL) (SP)
removal efficiency for BOD5 and TSS
similar to the previously presented Minimum number 2 for all pond treatment systems
Aerated Lagoon system (minimum 2 process trains)
Tertiary Wetlands
Tertiary Wetlands shall be of the submerged flow-though Wetlands Type designed for the removal
of all nitrogen and phosphorus remaining in Lagoon treatment plant effluent. Effluent from the
wetlands can be piped to a earthen treated water reservoir equal in size to one day’s plant average
design flow that will be used for water reuse purposes.
Hydraulic flow distribution. This will be using at-grade level distribution channel with overflow
rectangular weirs placed at 4 meter intervals. Stop logs will be used to block off selected weirs to
facilitate uniform flow distribution.
Control gates shall be 316 stainless steel gates for primary channels and plastic stop logs for
regulating flow to wetland cells.
For annual precipitation data, use data from the World Weather Information Service for the area.
Wetlands plants shall be aquatic plants and grasses that are indigenous to the general location of
the treatment plant
Underlying gravel shall be 10 mm gravel, one meter deep. For horizontal subsurface flow (HSSF)
wetlands, depth shall be 0.3 m.
Alternative wetland systems such as open flow and subsurface flow wetlands can have surface flow
as well as subsurface flow.
Lining system for all wetland cells shall be 1.5 mm (60 mil) HDPE.
Intermittent Sand Filtration will be designed to filter out residual suspended solids and to reduce the
remaining nitrogen in lagoon effluents.
Hydraulic flow distribution. Duplex pump systems shall be used to pump the flow to alternating pairs
3 2
of sand filters. Filters shall be sized in accordance with published guidelines or 0.1 m /m -day,
which equates to 1 hectare filter area for 1,000 m3/d flow.
Intermittent sand filters shall be constructed with vertical concrete walls and bottom concrete slab.
0.25 – 0.35 mm Sand shall have a depth of 1.1 meters and shall be placed over 0.33 meters of 4
mm gravel. Effluent shall drain thru slotted pipes laid at the base of the gravel material.
Since rainfall events in Libya are relatively infrequent, the design engineer should evaluate the best
storm management approach based on the information provided in this document to achieve a
balance between construction cost and an acceptable level of performance.
Management of storm water is governed by Libyan Laws; two of the most pertinent articles from the
Libyan Law No. (15) of 1370 PD (2003) for Protecting and Improvement of the Environment are as
follows:
Article (34) prohibits discharge of polluted water to the sea. The Article reads:
“It is prohibited to discharge polluted water into the sea directly through drainage
pipes, whether the drainage is on the coast or therefrom or through canals or sewers,
including internal gravity flow water courses before treatment thereof as per the
effective legislations and regulation issued for implementing.”
Article (43) reads:
“The domestic and industrial drainage water is considered as a water sources and
shall not be wasted or disposed of after treatment thereof, unless it is proved that its
use is impractical. Then, it shall be disposed of under the rules and regulations issued
without causing any environmental pollution.”
In general, Libya receives little rainfall, most of the rainfall occurs in coastal areas. The average
annual total rainfall along the Mediterranean Coast ranges from 559 mm at Shahat in the eastern
0
coast line to 238 mm at Zwara close to the Tunisian boarder. South of 30 N Libya is almost all desert
with annual total rainfall ranging from 20 mm at Al Kutra to 9 mm in Sebha.
The Housing and Infrastructure Board (HIB) is building infrastructure throughout the country. The
infrastructures consist of housing, roads, and facilities for water distribution and treatment, for
wastewater collections and treatment, and for storm water collection. As development progresses the
land use of the area changes, increasing the impervious surface that do not readily absorb rainfall
runoff. Therefore, sound and practical storm water management practices must be implemented to
effectively utilize the precious resource - water.
4.1.1 Storm Water Quantity Management
As part of formulating a comprehensive Storm Water Management Policy, HIB has developed
background information and criteria and best management practices for storm water quality
enhancement. The storm water management objective is to eliminate or minimize discharge of storm
water runoff from the design storm to the Mediterranean Sea. Where this is not achievable HIB should
be consulted in advance and the project will be reviewed on case-by-case basis. As a general guide
line the options presented below should be taken into consideration. The items listed below are tools-
in-a-tool-box and should be regarded as a general guidance and applied on a case-by-case basis for
a particular site.
Where topographic conditions of the site and project conditions allow, rain water should
be collected from roof tops into underground or ground level cisterns for onsite landscape
irrigation. The storage cisterns should be adequately sized based on the rainfall
information and amount of roof top area. Basic information such as runoff coefficient for
various land use can found in the in Section 4.2.
Storm water runoff from paved surfaces such as parking lots could be directed to sheet
flow to nearby landscaping areas or collected and stored during the rainy season for
landscape irrigation in the summer months. Runoff from the parking area may be
contaminated and requires per-treatment to remove sediment, sand, trash, and other
pollutants that are washed away from the paved surfaces. The treatment envisioned
Where:
Runoff Coefficient Values and shall be used for design runoff flow calculations. Composite runoff
coefficients in each catchment can be determined by multiplying specific land use areas by their
respective coefficients and dividing the sum of these products by the total drainage area.
Where:
3
V is the runoff volume (m )
C is the runoff coefficient (dimensionless)
d is the total storm depth (m)
A is the catchment area (m2)
Design flow rates are based on clearing the runoff volume within the required clear time after the end
of the storm event without exceeding the maximum allowable depth of localized flooding. Based on
hydraulic analyses, in locations where localized ponding does not exceed the maximum allowable
depth and with the required clear time, an average design flow may be used for sizing the drainage
conveyance and pumping stations. The average flow rate is determined by the following relationship:
=
)
Where:
Where possible, sizing collection networks based on an average runoff rate can reduce the overall
size and cost of the collection system. Some facilities, such as roadway underpasses, require a zero
clear time. In such cases, the maximum peak flows should be accommodated by the drainage piping
and pumps.
Hydraulic analyses shall be carried out using the Manning’s formula or approved computer modeling
software. Acceptable models are Infoworks, SewerCAD, Mouse Model, InfoSewer, and SWWM.
Other equivalent commercially available models may be used with prior written approval by HIB.
Roughness coefficients based on the pipe material shall be used. The roughness coefficient is a
measure of the friction resistance to flow by the interior surface of the pipe. The roughness therefore
is a function of the pipe material, age, and condition. Poor pipe conditions are to be assumed for
system designs. However, pumping facilities shall be designed to operate satisfactorily for either
normal or poor conditions.
4.3.1 Flow Velocities
The minimum design velocity allowed through drainage conduits (to prevent excessive settling of
solids) and the maximum flow allowed, to avoid abrasion of the gravity conduits, are as shown in
Table 4-4.
Manning’s, n
In situations where the minimum design velocity cannot be achieved for gravity pipe, the distance
between manholes should be reduced to better accommodate more frequent cleaning.
Collector Roads 1
Local Roads 1
Parking Lots 3
The minimum pipe diameter permitted for drainage system gravity collection pipes is 300 mm. Land
subdrains under detention ponds and infiltration areas can be 200 mm in diameter. Connections to
street gutters and other inlets may also be 200 mm diameter, and shall have a slope of 2 percent or
greater.
RCP pipe shall be provided with protection from sulfide corrosion, such as PVC or GRP lining or
possibly a sacrificial lining of mortar with calcareous (limestone) aggregate.
4.4.1 Pipe Gradients
Minimum gradients are determined based on minimum scour velocity requirements. Larger pipe
diameter gradients are based on constructability as well as minimum velocity requirements.
Recommended minimum gradients are listed in Table 4-5. The minimum gradient considered
technically achievable during construction is 0.00050 m/m.
250 0.00246
300 0.00190
400 0.00132
500 0.00098
600 0.00077
700 0.00063
800 0.00053
900 0.00050
1000 0.00050
Storm water detention facilities, such as ponds, dry basins and underground chambers, can be
effective methods to attenuate peak flows by slowly releasing runoff volumes, and to improve water
quality by allowing pollutants to settle. Attenuating peak flows offer the benefit of reducing the
downstream pipe size and cost of construction of storm water management systems. Improving water
quality reduces the risk of collection systems becoming blocked or plugged with sediments and
debris, and the risk of releasing pollutants to the environment.
The ponds are typically located in areas that are at the naturally occurring lower elevations in the
catchment areas, with a minimum of one pond per catchment area. There are two types of storm
water detention basins: dry and wet. Dry detention basins are designed to be normally dry and
become temporarily inundated after a storm event. Dry detention ponds may be used for recreational
activities, such as soccer fields or the like, for all times except where there is a major rainfall event.
Wet detention ponds are designed to have a permanent pool at all times. In addition to runoff
calculation determining of evaporation rate should be performed to ensure there is a permanent pool
of water at the desired depth. Properly sized, designed, and maintained wet ponds also add an
Because rainfall events are infrequent, the first flush of storm water runoff from urbanized areas
typically contains a relatively high pollutant load. Oil-water separators may be required to reduce the
During construction continuous dewatering may be needed where ground water level is higher and
this section is included to provide guidance in dewatering. Possible groundwater rise due to future
irrigation and water supply system leakage must also be taken into account.
Dewatering time below the water table can be calculated using the following equation:
Where: t= dewatering time, days
A= pond area, m2
Q’ = groundwater discharge to pond per unit drawdown (to be obtained from
3
groundwater analysis or model), m /day/m
QP = pumped
flow, QP
3
m /day Z GW Z P0
A Q'
ZGW = t ln
Q' QP
gr Z GW ZP
oundwater Q'
table elevation, m
ZP0 = initial pond water surface elevation, m
ZP = pond bottom elevation, m
Groundwater levels can be lowered by using active pumping and/or passive collection from the outfall
structures. The groundwater collected shall be disposed of in the storm water collection system or
pumped to Treated Sewage Effluent (TSE) storage tanks, if available and mixed with the TSE for use
as irrigation water. The extent to which groundwater can be blended with TSE must be evaluated on
a case-by-case basis.
Since “minimum” cycle time is of concern (Q = D/2), the formula reduces to CT = 2V/Q.
4.9.3 Wet Well Depth
The depth of wet well below the required invert of the inlet pipe is a function of the following:
1. Required submergence to prevent vortexing in the pump suction piping which may
cause unbalanced loading on impellers & bearings, thereby reducing pump life.
2. The minimum Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHR) by the particular pump
impeller selection. This requirement is provided by the pump supplier.
3. High liquid level in the wet well being set at 0.8 times the inlet pipe diameter above
the invert. This allows the inlet pipe to be emptied frequently preventing buildup of
settled material in the gravity inlet pipes.
The required submergence refers to minimum liquid level above a vertical pump inlet flare or fitting
and above the centerline of the flare if positioned horizontally.
The submergence shall be calculated as per Hydraulic Institute Standards.
The minimum submergence determination and NPSHR shall be verified during the wet well sizing.
4.9.4 Pump Selection
Pump selection should be made to optimize conditions over the projected range of flows – minimum,
average, maximum. Selection is made to minimize holding times in the wet well before pumping and
maximizing efficiency. Actual pump selection can only be made after a system head capacity curve is
developed for the proposed installation. The following items are to be considered:
1. Required range of head and flows
2. Number of pumps
180
160
140
i 50= 423.5* t(-0.61)
Intensity mm/hr
120 50-Year
100 5-Year
80
60 i 5= 336.9* t(-0.66)
40
20
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
Time, Minutes
Categorized by Surface
Categorized by use
Residential
2
Small villas (<2500m ) 0.3 to 0.5
2
Large villas (>2500 m ) 0.25 to 0.4
Industrial
5.1 General
The primary source of water for landscape irrigation will be reclaimed water. For the purpose of this
document reclaimed water is defined as treated wastewater effluent that satisfies the minimum water
quality criteria for reuse as defined in Irrigation Water Quality Standards Section 5.1.4. Reclaimed
water can be augmented by other sources such as surface, groundwater and storm water runoff with
chloride and total dissolved solids concentrations and other water quality parameters consistent with
irrigation water quality criteria. Reclaimed water may also be used to supply water to fire hydrants
connected along the pipeline routes. Fire hydrants on reclaimed water shall be designed to
supplement rather than replace, or be used in lieu of, fire hydrants on potable water. Placement of
fire hydrants using reclaimed water shall supplement and not overlap or conflict with the locations of
fire hydrants on the water distribution system.
Regional irrigation water networks consist of three networks: supply, transmission, and distribution.
Irrigation water supply is pumped directly from wastewater treatment plants to large regional bulk
storage tanks equipped with irrigation transmission pumping stations. The transmission network
delivers irrigation water to local storage tanks, or lined ponds, equipped with fire and irrigation
distribution pumping stations. The distribution network delivers water to fire hydrants and local
irrigation users. To maintain the integrity of the operations and control strategy for the regional
irrigation water networks, neither the regional supply network, nor the transmission network, shall be
tapped for direct irrigation use. For smaller, non-regional irrigation networks, the supply network and
transmission network can combined into one network with HIB written approval.
5.1.1 Irrigation Supply
Reclaimed water supply system will consist of a network of pipes and pumping stations to deliver
reclaimed water from wastewater treatment plants to regional bulk storage and transmission pumping
facilities. This supply will be provided at a minimum pressure of 1.2 bars to points of delivery. End
users will be required to provide storage facilities with capacity to hold the volume equal to at least
one day of irrigation demand. A valve and meter chamber is required at the point of connection for
remote monitoring and control. End user storage facilities are required to be located adjacent to
existing road rights of way to allow maintenance access to the supply pipes. Connections to the
reclaimed water supply network for direct use in applying water for irrigation is not allowed.
The reclaimed water supply network shall be operated, maintained, and controlled by the owner of the
Sewage (wastewater) Treatment Plant or their designated authorized agency.
5.1.2 Transmission Network
Several regional bulk storage and irrigation transmission pumping facilities are planned to deliver low
pressure bulk water to end users 24 hours per day. Minimum transmission pressure will be 1.2 bar at
any point of connection. In-line booster pumping stations within the transmission network may be
necessary to achieve an economical balance between operation and capital cost of transmission
pumping. Irrigation water transmission piping system will deliver irrigation water to local storage
facilities. Valve and metering assemblies will be provided on the discharge to each local storage tank
for remote monitoring and control of delivery volumes, flows, and pressures. Metering assemblies will
consist of a flow meter, a back-pressure sustaining valve, and a solenoid-actuated flow control valve.
Connections to the reclaimed water transmission network for direct use in applying water for irrigation
is not allowed.
The reclaimed water transmission network shall be operated and controlled by the owner of the
regional reclaimed water transmission network or their designated authorized agency.
5.1.3 Distribution Network
Multiple local fire/irrigation storage and distribution pumping stations (provided by the end users) will
deliver water at sufficient pressure for irrigation service to points of application over a period of 8
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 W ATER REUSE FOR LANDSCAPE IRRIGATION 5-1
hours per day. Minimum distribution pressure will be 4.0 bar at the connection point for irrigation and
at fire hydrants in the event of fire flow. The irrigation distribution network shall be designed with
branches that can be isolated as needed for testing and cleaning. The distribution network should be
sized to supply the required peak day irrigation demand based on anticipated peak season usage
delivered over an 8-hour period plus fire flow.
The reclaimed water distribution network shall be operated and controlled by the local entity or an
authorized agency designated by HIB.
5.1.4 Irrigation Water Quality Standards
The minimum standards of treatment required for treated wastewater used in irrigation systems are
described below. The treated wastewater is divided into two classes:
1. Class A waters: Treated to secondary standard, sand filtered and chlorinated. The
maximum E. coli level in the final effluent shall be less than 10 per 100 ml. This class
can be used for unrestricted irrigation.
2. Class B waters: Treated to secondary standard and E. coli levels less than 1,000 per
ml. This class can be used for restricted irrigation.
The following table further describes the type of irrigation activities for which the two water classes
can be used.
Permissible
Irrigation Method
Water Class
Spray irrigation in parks and green spaces (closed to public, after hours
A or B
of use, or at least 2 hours before public use)
In both cases the Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) of the treated wastewater shall be less than 1,000 mg/l
(which for reference is greater than potable water standard of 500 mg/l). Irrigation will either be
drip/subsurface irrigation (in public areas) or spray irrigation (in non-public areas). Thus, effluent
treated to Class B standards will be acceptable.
In addition to reclaimed water, other sources such as groundwater and captured storm water runoff of
acceptable quality, or potable water may be used to augment irrigation water supplies.
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 W ATER REUSE FOR LANDSCAPE IRRIGATION 5-2
will be required. The contractor should source key available information, such as local weather data,
as well as undertake his own survey.
The network must be designed to meet the highest anticipated flow condition. An established practice
is to determine a reference crop evapotranspiration rate, which is basically the water used by freely
growing grasses, and then multiply by monthly crop coefficients to determine the need for other crops.
Coefficients rarely exceed 1.25 and can be much lower, e.g. for drought-tolerant species such as olive
trees, and can fall to zero, as in the case for deciduous trees with no leaves. Typical values can be
obtained from FAO publications and other sources.
For irrigation networks, the highest flow condition occurs during the season corresponding to peak
irrigation water demand. Peak demand usually occurs during the peak growing season and summer
months, with the highest evapotranspiration rates.
As an example for coastal areas only, typical peak irrigation demands (i.e. daily net depth required,
excluding losses) of different plant types are provided in Table 5-2.Error! Reference source not
found.
1
Plant type Peak daily irrigation demand
Data are still required to expand this basic data into desert and mountain regions. Average annual
irrigation water demand will be substantially less than the peak season demand. That calculation
gives the depth (mm) that a crop needs, both total over the season and for peak daily use. To gain a
volume, multiply the depth by the area planted (one mm depth on 1 square meter requires 0.001 m3
or 1 liter). For trees, it is typical to use the area from the trunk out to the drip-line, or 1 m2 at a
minimum.
Contractors must also consider and allow for application losses. Irrigation efficiencies normally range
from 40% to 90% depending on the irrigation method used.
As plant palettes are developed, irrigation demand will become more defined for individual irrigation
areas. Salt tolerant plants and drought tolerant plants will be used in areas where appropriate in
order to decrease the overall irrigation demand.
5.2.2 Distribution Network
5.2.2.1 Hydraulic Calculations
Hydraulic calculations shall be carried out in order to demonstrate that the system will:
satisfy the estimated peak-day demand delivered over an 8-hour period plus fire flow;
operate at acceptable velocities;
operate within the required pressure range
5.2.2.2 Flow Velocities
All irrigation network pipelines are pressure mains. Mains should be sized to keep friction losses
under peak conditions to a manageable level. Selection of size requires an understanding of
projected flows for the service life of the system. Maximum velocities may range up to 2.5 m/s, or as
needed to not exceed a maximum head loss gradient of 10 m per kilometer.
5.2.2.3 Head Losses
The head loss resulting from flows through a single main may be calculated using the Hazen-
Williams Equation. Because most irrigation systems are networked, flows comes from several
directions and head losses cannot be determined directly. If the system is small a manual calculation
using a Hardy-Cross method may used. For larger networks, hydraulic design of all networked
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 W ATER REUSE FOR LANDSCAPE IRRIGATION 5-3
systems shall be carried out using approved computer modeling software. Acceptable models are
KYPIPE, PIPE2000, WaterCAD, H2ONet, Cybernet, EPAnet, and other equivalent commercially
available models. Designs should be evaluated over a range of C values (100 to 140) or equivalent,
to assess how the effects of pipe degradation will impact the overall system performance.
5.2.2.4 Pipe Materials
Irrigation mains shall be capable of accommodating the pressure required for fire flows. Irrigation
distribution mains from the end users’ secondary storage tanks shall be boosted with suitable pumps
to provide working pressures of up to 10 bar as needed to meet the minimum pressure for fire
protection. Pipes materials such as GRP, HDPE, or PVC shall be used.
5.2.2.5 Minimum Cover Requirements
For pressure pipes, minimum cover is 0.8 m below final finished or future grade in unpaved areas with
no vehicular traffic and 1.0 m below final finished or future grade in paved areas with vehicular traffic.
If the available cover is less than specified, then additional protection such as full concrete
encasement or the use of concrete protection slabs may be required
The actual cover required for construction may be greater than that required solely for structural
integrity. The maximum cover depth recommended is approximately 10 m. This maximum depth is
consistent with typical pipe installation standards and manufacturer recommendations. Should the
actual cover be greater than 10 m, pipe materials should be evaluated and a higher strength class of
pipe utilized.
For pipes at less than these minimum values or installed at excessive depths, concrete encasement
may be required to protect the pipe from damage. These should be looked at on an individual basis,
and alternatives of different pipe size should be considered before designing the pipelines outside of
the specified depth ranges. In all cases, the pipe minimum and maximum depths shall be in
conformance with the pipe manufacturers’ recommendations.
5.2.2.6 Utility Crossings
Utility crossings are recommended to be consistent with local standards and practices. The
guidelines, based on internationally accepted standards, are shown in Table 5-3.
Irrigation pipes crossing under roads shall be aligned at 90 degrees or perpendicular to the road with
all bends located beyond the limits of the road pavement and curbs.
5.2.2.7 Thrust Blocks
Concrete thrust blocks shall be provided at tees, elbows, reducers, and other fittings in order to
prevent their movement due to pressure of the pipes. Design pressures for thrust restraint shall be
10 bar in all irrigation mains. Soils bearing allowances shall be according to normal allowances for
the type of soil encountered.
5.2.2.8 System Valves
The irrigation water mains and distribution system will be equipped with the following valves for
facilitating the operation, control, and maintenance of the system. The design consultant shall take
into account the proper distribution of valves along the system.
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 W ATER REUSE FOR LANDSCAPE IRRIGATION 5-4
Air Release Valves: These valves shall be provided at summits along the pipe profile and along long
stretches with uniform slope to purge out accumulated air in the pipe system. A combination of air
and vacuum valves shall be provided at appropriate locations for quick air entry or venting to prevent
cavitations and facilitate quick filling of the pipe. In general, air-valves shall be installed at crest
points, change in elevations and in case of constant rising mains having moderate slope, at a
maximum spacing of 600 m.
Washout valves: These valves shall be provided at low points or sags along the pipe profile. These
valves facilitate flushing, repair or maintenance of the pipe wherever necessary.
Isolating valves: shall be located at branching points on the network as a provision for flushing,
testing, and maintenance. The number and distribution of these valves shall be in a manner that
ensure minimum disturbance to the supply of irrigation water in case of maintenance or repair works.
The maximum allowable distance between isolating valves on the distribution lines shall not exceed
500 m. In general, isolation valves shall be provided on all branches from feeder mains and between
two washout valves. In the transmission mains where there are no intermediate branches, isolating
valves shall be provided at a maximum distance of every 2 to 3 kilometers. In the transmission mains,
profile of the pipeline and location of washout and air valves is also to be considered while locating
the isolation valves. Isolation Valves with diameter 300mm and smaller shall be gate valves and
larger diameter isolation values shall be butterfly valves.
Non-Return Valves: These check valves shall be provided in the pumping station to prevent a reverse
flow into the pumps and shall be of noiseless non-slam type.
Control valves: These valves shall be actuated butterfly or diaphragm type globe valves, operated to
control the flow and pressure at the consumer end while supplying to different tanks distribution
system with varying elevation and flow requirement.
All valves not located in a pumping station structure shall be installed inside reinforced concrete valve
chambers.
5.2.3 Flow Meters and Structures
Flow meters and structures shall be in accordance with electrical, instrumentation, and control
requirements of these criteria. .
5.2.4 Storage
There are two types of irrigation storage facilities planned. Bulk irrigation water storage will be
supplied with water directly from the supply network, with storage volume equal to a minimum of
one day of irrigation demand. Local fire/irrigation water storage will be supplied with water directly
from the irrigation water transmission network with storage volume equal to a minimum of one day of
irrigation demand plus two hours of fire flow.
Storage tanks are to be underground for aesthetic reasons. Above ground reservoirs or vertical tanks
may be used where the vertical profile of the storage facilities is consistent with the surrounding land
use and will not detract from the value of adjacent properties. Lined ponds may be used for storing
water for irrigation of large landscaped areas such as a golf course, and in some cases may even
provide an amenity feature.
Storage tanks shall be reinforced concrete structures with adequate safe access and cleanout
capabilities. If above ground storage is considered, it shall be hidden or screened from view from
outside the development. Above ground tanks may be reinforced concrete or glass-coated steel
structures. Storage tanks shall be completely covered to block exposure to sunlight to limit the
potential of algae growth. Pond storage facilities are exempted from this provision.
Storage tanks will be provided with wash-down capability. Storage tanks shall be compartmentalized
to allow one compartment to be taken out of service for cleaning while maintaining pumping
operations. Compartments will be isolated by motor-actuated sluice gates or penstocks. Tank
bottoms shall be sloped to one end to facilitate cleaning and draining. Multiple hose connections to
pressurized irrigation water shall be provided in close proximity to tank manhole access ports for
flushing and cleaning the tanks. Tank manhole access ports shall be located at spacing that will
facilitate the wash down and cleaning by a man holding a hose and nozzle from the top of the
structure without man-entry inside the tank being required.
Storage tank piping shall have mechanical float valves for protection from overflow on filling. All metal
components inside the storage tank or otherwise in contact with the treated wastewater shall be
constructed of corrosion resistant materials.
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 W ATER REUSE FOR LANDSCAPE IRRIGATION 5-5
5.2.5 Pumping Stations
Pumping stations at bulk irrigation water storage and transmission pumping stations will have a stand-
alone building with a pump room, electrical room, generator room with fuel storage for back-up
emergency power, and a monitoring and control station. The pump room will include pumps, valves,
automatic backwash strainers, hydraulic surge protection, and a traveling bridge crane. For vertical
turbine pumps, provide roof hatches directly over the top of the pumps of sufficient size to allow
complete removal of the combined drive and pump using a mobile crane.
In-line booster pumping stations may also be used at several locations in the transmission mains
system to more efficiently maintain delivery pressures throughout the transmission network.
Pumping stations at Local Fire/Irrigation Water Storage and Distribution Pumping Stations will be a
scaled-down version of the Bulk Irrigation Water Storage and Transmission Pumping Station with
special provisions for additional fire pumps. In most cases, pumping stations will take their suction
directly from the storage tank. If a wet-well is designed separate from the storage tank or pond, it
should be sized using standard guidelines for such facilities. The wet-well and connection from the
storage facility shall be such that there is no chance for draining to the shutoff level during an
irrigation or fire flow event.
For vertical turbine pumps, verification that intakes are configured and sized in accordance with
applicable Hydraulic Institute standards is required during the design process. Verification of
compliance with Hydraulic Institute standards for vertical turbine pump intakes shall not be deferred to
the construction contractor.
The minimum required fuel storage capacity will be a function of the reliability of local power and fuel
delivery. Where local power and fuel delivery is consistently and reliably available, then a minimum of
one-day's fuel storage should be sufficient. Where power and fuel delivery is not consistent and
reliably available, then the capacity of fuel storage will need to be increased to fit the local conditions.
5.2.5.1 Pump Selection
Pumps shall be selected to optimize conditions. Selection shall be made to maximize pumping
efficiency under variable flows and pressures. Where possible, variable speed drives should be used.
Acceptable pumps are horizontal split case pumps and vertical turbine pumps, either wet well or can
type. In very small systems, rotary lobe pumps may be considered.
Actual pump selection for the proposed networks will be made based on system head-capacity curves
under various flow conditions. The following are to be considered in the design of an irrigation
pumping system:
1. Required range of head and flows – band of operating pressures expected
2. Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA)
3. Number of pumps
4. Operating and control strategy
5. Efficiency
6. Power required for pump drive
7. Potential for upgrading capacity
Adaptability is important because initial flows may be significantly lower than design-year flows.
When this is the case, the selected pump(s) should be in the mid-range of available impeller sizes so
that simple changes in impellers can be made to improve pumping station capacity. Use of variable
speed drives will greatly simplify such considerations.
5.2.5.2 Booster Pumping Stations
The large area of coverage and variable topography of the irrigation system makes it inefficient to
provide all areas adequate pressure under all conditions in a single pressure zone. Therefore,
booster pumping stations may be used at several points in the transmission network to maintain
minimum delivery pressures at higher elevations or at remote locations from the storage sites. The
location of the booster pumping stations will be based on the modeling developed for the TSE
irrigation system.
5.2.5.3 Surge Pressure Limiting Equipment
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 W ATER REUSE FOR LANDSCAPE IRRIGATION 5-6
Pressure transients or surges can be generated in the pumped supply system following power
failures, pump starting or stopping, and sudden valve closure. If not controlled, these may cause pipe
damage or pipe failure in extreme instances. Consideration shall be given to the need for surge
limiting equipment to protect the supply system due to possible transient pressure variation. The
calculation of surge shall be carried out by appropriate methods and using the relevant general
equations and surge calculation software according to the conditions specified by the designer and
based on the most unfavorable operating conditions. Where surge protection is found to be
necessary, the designer shall size and specify the appropriate surge protection equipment.
5.2.5.4 Pumping Station Facility Building
Aboveground pumping station structures will be located immediately adjacent to storage facilities.
The architectural detail of pumping stations shall blend with the architectural scheme of the
surrounding area. Pumping station structures shall be designed to ensure a safe working
environment for operation and maintenance staff as well as maximizing performance and minimizing
costs.
The pumping station shall be located adjacent to paved public roads for maintenance vehicle access.
For sites that are not located adjacent to a paved public road, a reservation of a 10 meter wide access
way from landlocked lots and to paved public roads shall be provided.
Provisions shall be made to facilitate removal and replacement of major equipment including pumps,
motors, switchgear, and other mechanical and electrical equipment. Lift equipment and adequate
access openings shall be provided for equipment removal and replacement.
5.2.6 Fire Hydrants
The requirement for water for fire-fighting purposes shall be determined in accordance with local
regulations. Where the irrigation distribution network is combined with fire flows, the irrigation network
shall be adequately designed to meet the minimum requirement of fire flows and pressure in
accordance with established standards. Criteria for hydrant assembly spacing shall be as indicated in
Section 1 – Water Design Standard.
Fire hydrant assemblies shall be connected to irrigation distribution mains at various intervals
depending on the type of road. Placement of fire hydrants shall supplement and not overlap or
conflict with the locations of fire hydrants on the water distribution system.
All connections to irrigation systems shall be at hydrant leads located just upstream of the hydrant
isolation valve in the hydrant assembly.
All fire hydrants on irrigation distribution mains shall be clearly identified as “Recycled Water – Do Not
Drink” in Arabic language and with an international symbol.
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 W ATER REUSE FOR LANDSCAPE IRRIGATION 5-7
6 Standards for Barrier-Free Design
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Purpose
These Standards are intended to inform designers and contractors providing services to the
Government of The Great Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya of the minimum requirements for
barrier-free design.
6.1.2 Application
The Government of The Great Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya shall insure that the design
of buildings, structures and premises, or parts of buildings, structures and premises, that it purchases,
constructs or significantly renovates after these standards come into force complies with the
guidelines before occupation or regular use by its Residents. These Standards will be applied and
implemented on a “go-forward” basis.
‘Significant Renovation’, The Housing and Infrastructure Board are encouraged to apply these
Standards to renovations or changes of smaller spaces and other projects where possible.
The following definitions further clarify application of these Standards:
6.1.3 Definition of Significant Renovation
These Standards will apply to renovations or changes to government owned or occupied spaces of at
least 1000 square meters or where 50% of the floor space is affected.
Significant renovations do not include projects limited only to repairs or restoration to wall finishes.
6.1.4 Maintenance
It is essential that barrier-free paths of travel and facilities be properly maintained in accordance with
other applicable legislation or standard maintenance practices in order to reduce the creation of new
barriers. Some examples of maintenance items include:
1. Timely repair of uneven surfaces;
2. Removal of furniture, fixtures and stored items that impede clearance spaces or
corridor widths;
3. Proper leveling of elevators;
4. Adjustment of door closers and elevator doors to prescribed limits;
5. Maintenance of prescribed lighting levels; and
6. Proper maintenance of non-glare surfaces.
6.1.5 Emergency Evacuation Planning
Facility Emergency Evacuation Planning should address accessibility procedures for persons with
disabilities. Persons with disabilities who regularly occupy a facility should have access to Emergency
Evacuation Plans in a range of formats, including large text and electronic formats. This will help to
improve the understanding of evacuation methods and promote adequate training of persons with
disabilities of the emergency measures.
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-1
Table 6-1 Barrier Free Parking Spaces
1 -20 1
21 -100 2
101 -150 3
151 -200 4
6.2.1.2 Barrier-free car parking spaces shall have a minimum width of 2400mm plus a 1500mm
wide access aisle. The access aisle must be level. Length of the space shall be
5500mm. Two adjacent spaces may share the same access aisle.
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-2
Figure 6-2 Symbols
6.2.1.3 In addition to the barrier-free car spaces described in 6.2.1.1, provide a minimum
number of van parking spaces in each parking area as follows:
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-3
Table 6-2 Barrier Free Parking Spaces (Vans)
1 – 50 1
51 – 3002 2
301 – 700 3
Over 700 4
6.2.1.4 Barrier-free van parking spaces shall have a minimum width of 3500mm plus a 1500mm
wide access aisle to accommodate vans with built-in wheelchair lifts. The access aisle
must be level. Length of the space shall be as required but at least 6000mm. Two
adjacent spaces may share the same access aisle Figure 6-3.
6.2.1.5 Barrier-free car and van parking spaces shall be located as close as possible to the
main accessible entrance of the building and shall lead directly to the building entrance
without crossing any drive aisles. Provide a curb ramp (that will not be blocked by a
parked vehicle) directly adjacent to the designated spaces. The accessible route shall
be clearly marked.
6.2.1.6 The surface of all barrier-free parking spaces must be level (maximum slope in any
direction 2%), firm (no gravel) and slip-resistant. Pavement markings must use non-slip
paint. Do not paint the entire surface of the parking space.
6.2.1.7 Provide signage to designate the barrier-free spaces as reserved for permit holders:
1. A vertical post-mounted sign in front of the space, with the center of the sign between
1500mm and 2000mm above the ground (Figure 6-4); and
2. A painted pavement marking in the center of the space, in contrasting color to the
pavement, 1000mm in length, with the International Symbol of Access – see Figure 6-
2.
6.2.1.8 Provide an additional sign at van spaces labeled “Van Accessible.”
6.2.1.9 Provide a passenger pick-up area at or near the main accessible entrance. The access
aisle on passenger side shall be minimum 1500mm wide by 6000mm long.
6.2.1.10 Barrier-free parking spaces and passenger pick-up areas shall have a minimum clear
height 2850mm, including along the vehicular access/egress route.
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-4
6.2.1.11 Provide a call button or two-way communication system at all underground parking
areas that have accessible parking spaces.
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-5
7. Edge protections in the form of curb or rail.
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-6
Figure 6-7 Edge Ramp Protection
6.2.2.7 Ramps shall have a color contrasting, textured, detectable warning surface in
accordance with section 6.4.7.2 at the top and bottom a minimum of 920mm from the
start of the slope, extending the entire width of the stair or ramp.
6.2.2.8 Where the location of the ramp is not readily evident from the main access route,
provide a sign incorporating the International Symbol of Accessibility and a directional
arrow indicating the location.
6.2.2.9 Provide curb ramps at all level changes along barrier-free paths of travel. Curb ramps
shall have:
1. Maximum gradient of 13% (1:7.5);
2. Minimum width of 1200mm (exclusive of flared sides);
3. A surface (including flared sides) that is slip-resistant, color and texture contrasted
with adjacent surfaces;
4. A smooth transition from the curb ramp to the adjacent surfaces; and
5. Flared sides with a slope of not more than 10% (1:10).
6.2.2.10 Provide a detectable hazard surface wherever a walkway adjoins a hazardous area
such as an unprotected drop-off, edge of a pool or to separate a walkway from a drive
aisle that is at the same level.
6.2.2.11 Provide a level area adjacent to all accessible entrance doors.
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-7
Figure 6-8 Curb Ramps
All required exits from the ground level must be barrier-free. Signage incorporating the International
Symbol of Accessibility shall indicate the location of the barrier-free exits.
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-8
6.2.3.1 Clear glass doors and sidelights at the entrances shall have a 100mm wide contrasting
color strip mounted continuously 1350 mm above the floor.
6.2.3.2 Two doors in series (such as in vestibules) shall have minimum 1200mm clear between
the open doors (Figure 6-).
6.2.3.3 Loose floor mats that can cause a tripping hazard or impede wheelchair use are not
permitted in the barrier-free path of travel.
Barrier-free entrance and exit doors shall be a minimum of 915mm wide, such that frame stops, the
door thickness and horizontal hardware such as panic bars shall not reduce the clear width of the
doorway to less than 865mm.
6.2.3.4 Provide a minimum clear level space on both sides of doors as follows:
1. 1500mm x 1500mm on the pull side;
2. 1200mm x 1200mm on the push side.
6.2.3.5 At least one door in every barrier-free entrance and exit (including doors leading from
parking areas to the building) shall be equipped with an automatic operator. If there are
two doors in series (vestibules), both doors shall have an automatic operator. Doors
shall remain open a minimum of 5 seconds and shall take a minimum of 3 seconds to
close from a 70 degree position. Pushbuttons, key switches, and card readers shall be
located in conformance with 6.4.5. If the automatic door is a swinging door, provide a
cane-detectable guard rail with a horizontal member no more than 680mm above the
ground (Figure 6-11).
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-9
Figure 6-11 Cane Detectable Railing
6.2.3.6 Doors shall have lever hardware, push/pull plates, or exit devices (panic hardware).
Round knobs and thumb-latches are not acceptable.
6.2.3.7 Any exterior door not equipped with an automatic operator shall require a maximum
force of 38N to open. Door closers shall take a minimum of 3 seconds to close from a
70 degree position.
6.2.3.8 Where a revolving door is used, an adjacent barrier-free swinging door shall be
provided.
6.2.4 Exterior Amenities
6.2.4.1 Where exterior amenities such as outdoor seating, terraces, playgrounds etc. are
provided, ensure that they include accessible components. Tables and seating areas
shall have proper clearances.
6.2.4.2 Where picnic tables or outdoor seating are provided, ensure at least some are placed
on a hard surface, and are accessible from the barrier-free walkways. If only some are
barrier-free, provide signage incorporating the International Symbol of Accessibility
indicating the locations.
6.2.4.3 Where kiosks or pay booths are intended to be used by pedestrians, ensure that at least
one window is located at a maximum of 860mm above grade and has an even, level
(maximum 2%) access clearance area of not less than 750mm x 1200mm.
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-10
7. Detectable warning surfaces as per 6.4.7 at top of the stairway.
6.3.1.2 The underside of all open stairs, escalators and other overhead features must be
protected by cane-detectable railings, planters or benches anywhere the overhead
clearance is less than 2030mm. (Figure 6-5)
6.3.1.3 Handrails shall:
1. Be provided on both sides of all stairs and ramps;
2. Be continuous, except where other paths of travel intercept;
3. Be mounted at a uniform height between 865mm and 920mm above the stair nosing
or ramp level;
4. Have an extension of 300mm beyond the top riser and 300mm plus the tread depth at
the bottom riser;
5. Have returns (to a post, wall or floor) at all terminations;
6. Have a continuous (without interruption by newel posts) graspable profile of 30 -
43mm, with a minimum clearance of 50mm to the adjacent wall;
7. Have a minimum of two rails;
8. Be free of sharp or abrasive elements; and
9. Be color-contrasted from the adjacent wall surface.
6.3.1.4 Sloped floors shall be designed as a ramp where the gradient exceeds 5% (1:20).
Interior ramps shall have:
1. Minimum width of 900mm clear between handrails;
2. Maximum gradient of 8% (1:12);
3. Level area of at least 1670mm by 1670mm at the top and bottom of the ramp;
6.3.1.5 Except where the location of the ramp is clearly evident, provide signs incorporating the
International Symbol of Accessibility indicating the location of the ramp.
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-11
Figure 6-12 Handrails
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-12
6.3.3.5 Platform lifts shall be permitted only if the persons using them can independently
operate them. Lifts that require a key or assistance from another person are not
acceptable.
6.3.3.6 Provide an LED-messaging system in each elevator to enable communication in the
event of an emergency with persons who are deaf or hard of hearing.
6.3.3.7 Provide voice-activated speakers in all elevators.
6.3.4 Interior Doors and Doorways
6.3.4.1 Doors shall be a minimum of 915mm wide, such that frame stops, the door thickness
and horizontal hardware such as panic bars shall not reduce the clear width of the
doorway to less than 850mm.
6.3.4.2 All doors shall have lever hardware, push/pull plates, exit devices (panic hardware) or
automatic operators. Knobs and thumb-latches are not acceptable.
6.3.4.3 Unless the door is equipped with an automatic operator, provide clearance beside doors
as follows:
1. 300mm clear beside latch at push side of door
2. 600mm clear beside latch at pull side of door
6.3.4.4 Any interior door not equipped with an automatic operator shall be single hand
operation and require a maximum force of 22N to open. Door closers shall take a
minimum of 3 seconds to close from a 70 degree position.
6.3.4.5 Thresholds shall be maximum 13mm high. Where over 6mm high, shall be beveled at a
slope of not more than 1:2.
6.3.4.6 Doors shall have vision panels, either in the door or in a directly adjacent sidelight,
except where privacy concerns make them unfeasible. Vision panels shall have the
bottom edge no more than 900mm above the floor and no more than 250mm from the
latch side of the door.
6.3.4.7 Clear glass doors and sidelights at the entrances shall have a 100mm wide contrasting
color strip mounted continuously 1350mm above the floor.
6.3.4.8 Two doors in series (such as in vestibules) shall have a minimum 1200mm clear
between the open doors.
6.3.4.9 Provide a minimum clear level space on both sides of doors as follows:
1. 1500mm x 1500mm on the pull side.
2. 1200mm x 1200mm on the push side
6.3.4.10 Where a revolving door is used, an adjacent barrier-free swinging door shall be
provided.
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-13
Figure 6-13 Door Clearances
6.4 Facilities
6.4.1 Washrooms/Bathrooms/Toilets
6.4.1.1 Every floor that is served by washrooms shall have either:
a) A barrier-free individual washroom as described in Figure 6-17; or
b) A barrier-free water closet stall, lavatory and accessories
6.4.1.2 For new buildings, or where the extent of renovation includes reconfiguration of
washrooms (i.e., new fixture locations), only section 6.4.1.1a is permissible. For
renovations where this option is unfeasible, section 6.4.1.1b is acceptable.
6.4.1.3 Barrier-free individual washrooms shall have:
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-14
1. A door that complies with section 6.3.4;
2. An automatic operator with the ability to be locked from the inside;
3. A minimum area of 3.5 square meters, with minimum dimension between opposite
walls of 1.7m;
4. A clear turning radius of 1500mm (does not include space under lavatory)
5. A water closet that complies with section 6.4.1.5;
6. A lavatory that complies with section 6.4.1.7;
7. A shelf or counter at least 200mm x 400mm, mounted not more than 1000mm above
the floor;
8. A coat hook mounted not more than 1200mm above the floor and projecting not more
than 40mm;
9. An automatic hand dryer or paper towel dispenser mounted in accordance with 6.4.5;
10. Washroom accessories (such as soap dispensers, vending machines, waste
receptacles, etc.) that comply with section 6.4.5; and
11. An emergency call button.
6.4.1.4 Barrier-free facilities within a multi-fixture washroom shall have:
1. A door that complies with section 6.3.4, with an automatic operator, or be designed
so that no door is necessary;
2. If there are two doors in series, there shall be at least 1200mm clear between them
when open;
3. At least 1500mm x 1500mm clear space in front of the barrier-free water closet stall;
4. At least 750mm x 750mm clear space in front of each barrier-free lavatory;
5. At least one barrier-free water closet stall;
6. At least one lavatory that complies with section 6.4.1.7 (in new buildings, all lavatories
shall comply);
7. If urinals are provided, at least one urinal shall comply with 6.4.1.6;
8. A shelf or counter at least 200mm x 400mm, mounted not more than 1000mm above
the floor;
9. Washroom accessories (such as soap dispensers, paper towel dispensers, hand
dryers, vending machines, waste receptacles, etc.) shall comply with section 6.4.5;
and
10. An emergency call button.
6.4.1.5 Barrier-free water closets shall:
1. Be located between 460mm and 480mm from the adjacent side wall;
2. Have a transfer space at least 900mm wide clear on the open side;
3. Have a back support where there is no seat lid or tank;
4. Have a seat height of 430mm to 460mm above floor;
5. Have flush controls that are automatic, or are located on the transfer side of the water
closet;
6. Have two grab bars:
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-15
b. One L-shaped, 760mm x 760mm, mounted with the horizontal portion at a
height of 750mm to 900mm above the floor, and the vertical component
mounted 150mm in front of the water closet OR one 760mm long, mounted
diagonally, sloping upwards at an angle of 30º to 50º, with the lower end
750mm – 900mm above the floor and 50mm in front of the toilet bowl; and
7. Have a non-regulating toilet tissue dispenser mounted in line with the front of the
water closet, between 600mm to 700mm above the floor.
6.4.1.6 Barrier-free urinals shall:
1. Have a clear space of at least 750mm wide by 1200mm deep (including under the
urinal);
2. The urinal rim no higher than 430mm above the floor;
3. Flush controls no higher than 1200mm above the floor; and
4. Vertical grab bars on both sides, minimum 600mm long, mounted with the bottom
between 600mm – 650mm above the floor, maximum 380mm from the centerline of
the urinal.
6.4.1.7 Barrier-free lavatories shall:
1. Have a centerline located at least 460mm from the adjacent side wall;
2. Have the top of the counter or lavatory located no more than 840mm above the floor;
3. Have a clear space of 750mm x 750mm in front of the lavatory;
4. Have clearance beneath the lavatory of at least:
a. 760mm wide;
d. 230mm high over a distance from a point 280mm back from the front edge to
430mm back from the front edge;
5. Be equipped with automatic faucets, or faucets with lever handle(s) at least 75mm
long, that are located not more than 485mm from the front of the counter or front
edge of lavatory, that are not spring-loaded;
6. A mirror mounted with the bottom edge as low as possible, but not more than
1000mm above the floor;
7. Temperature controlled water to not exceed 55 degrees Celsius; and
8. A soap dispenser mounted within 500mm of the lavatory, no higher than 1100mm,
operable with one hand.
6.4.1.8 Grab Bars shall be:
1. Slip-resistant;
2. Diameter of 30mm-40mm;
3. Have a clear space of 30mm – 40mm from the wall; and
4. Be firmly mounted to resist a force of 1.3kN in any direction.
6.4.1.9 Barrier-free water closet stalls shall have:
1. A clear space inside of at least 1500mm x 1500mm, clear of the door swing;
2. A door which provides at least 860mm clear width which is capable of being locked
from the inside using one hand, with a large thumb turn, with spring hinges to close
automatically;
3. A water closet that complies with 6.4.1.5; and
4. A hook mounted not more than 1200mm above the floor and projecting not more than
40mm.
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-16
6.4.1.10 Unless the barrier-free washrooms are directly adjacent to the other washrooms,
provide directional signage incorporating the International Symbol of Accessibility
indicating the location.
6.4.1.11 Provide a motion detector control for lights in all barrier-free washrooms. In a multi-unit
washroom, ensure that the sensor will detect motion within the barrier-free stall.
6.4.1.12 Where toilet partitions are provided a minimum of 230mm toe clearance shall be
provided (Figure 6-17).
6.4.2 Shower and Bath Facilities
6.4.2.1 Wherever shower facilities are provided, provide at least one roll-in shower that has:
1. An interior clear area of at least 900mm x 900mm;
2. A clear floor area in front of at least 900mm deep and the same width as the shower;
3. A roll-in threshold not exceeding 13mm high with a maximum bevel slope of 1:2;
4. A floor drain located outside the shower stall;
5. A horizontal grab bar on the side wall at least 600mm long, mounted between 700mm
and 800mm above the floor;
6. A vertical grab bar on the opposite side wall at least 800mm long, mounted with the
lower end between 600mm and 650mm above the floor and between 35mm and
65mm from the outside edge;
7. A horizontal grab bar on the back wall at least 900mm long, mounted 850mm above
the floor;
8. A vertical grab bar on the back wall at least 600mm long, mounted with the lower end
between 750mm and 850mm above the floor and between 400mm and 500mm from
the side wall with the other vertical bar;
9. A flip-up seat mounted on the side wall with the vertical bar;
10. A hand-held shower head on an adjustable pole;
11. Controls mounted no more than 1200mm above the floor; and
12. A slip-resistant floor.
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-17
Clear Floor Space Requirement
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-18
Figure 6-15 Barrier-Free Bathtubs
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-19
Figure 6-16 Water Closet Details
Plan
Elevation
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-20
6.4.3.3 Drinking fountains shall have a clear floor area of 750mm wide by 1200mm deep. All
drinking fountains must be cane-detectable, recessed or otherwise located out of the
route of travel.
6.4.3.4 Cantilevered fountains shall have:
1. Knee clearance at least 750mm wide x 200 mm deep x 680 mm high; and
2. Toe space at least 750mm wide x 230mm deep x 230mm (Figure 6-).
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-21
Figure 6-19 Control Locations
6.4.6 Signage
6.4.6.1 Signage indicating room uses, names, or numbers shall:
1. Be consistently located, to the latch side of a door, 150mm from the frame;
2. Be mounted at a consistent height, such that all characters and symbols are not less
than 1200mm above the floor and not more than 1500mm above the floor;
3. Have glare-free surface;
4. Have color contrasted to background;
5. Be lit to at least 200 lux; and
6. Include appropriate pictograms wherever possible (i.e., washrooms, stairs, etc.)
6.4.6.2 Characters on signs shall:
1. Be sans serif with Arabic numerals;
2. Have a width to height ratio between 3:5 and 1:1 (using an upper case X for character
measurement);
3. Have a stroke width to height ratio between 1:5 and 1:10;
4. Be at least 25mm high (for viewing distance of up to 750mm, higher for signs that are
to read further away); and
5. Have color contrasted from the background, light colored characters/symbols on a
dark background, or dark colored characters/symbols on a light background.
6.4.6.3 Signs that include tactile raised characters (0.8 – 1.5 mm thickness) and Grade 1 Brail,
or auditory information shall be provided at identification signs (including building
directories, floor designations and room designations), regulatory signs (including
identification of building exits) and warning signs (Figure 6-).
6.4.6.4 Signs incorporating the appropriate symbols for access shall be provided at all barrier-
free facilities such as parking spaces, building entrances, washrooms, showers,
elevators, telephones, meeting rooms etc.
6.4.6.5 Provide an audible sign at the main entrance to all buildings to provide information that
will assist in way-finding through the building.
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-22
Figure 6-20 Signs
b. Be slip-resistant; and
6.4.7.2
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-23
Figure 6-22 Tactile Warnings Indicator Location
6.4.7.3 Detectable warning indicators shall be composed of truncated domes and have a
contrasting color to the surrounding surface (Figure 6-).
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-24
Table 6-3 Seating Requirements
Up to 100 2
101 - 200 3
201 -300 4
301 -400 5
401 - 600 6
6.4.9.2 Designated spaces shall be on a level surface level (maximum slope in any direction
1%), and at least 840mm wide by 1220 mm deep (front or rear access) or 1525mm
deep (side access). Where the seating is fixed, at least one fixed seat directly adjacent
to each barrier-free seating space shall be signed as reserved for companion seating.
6.4.9.3 Lines of sight must be comparable to other seating and must not be compromised by
standing members of the audience.
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-25
6.4.9.4 Ensure that tables in areas such as meeting rooms, cafeterias, and libraries are a
maximum of 860mm high, and have a clear knee space of at least 750mm wide,
480mm deep, and 680mm high.
6.4.9.5 Aisles such as cafeteria lines, spaces between tables and aisles between Library stacks
shall be minimum 915mm wide.
6.4.9.6 Anywhere that coat racks are provided, ensure that at least one section has a rod height
not more than 1370mm above the floor.
6.4.10 Assisted Listening Devices
6.4.10.1 Provide an assisted listening device in any auditorium, assembly room, meeting room or
theatre with an area greater than 100 s.m. and an occupant load more than 75 people.
Such rooms shall be signed with the symbol for persons who are hard of hearing.
6.4.10.2 Any television set displaying information for the public shall include closed captioning.
6.4.11 Visual and Audible Alarms
6.4.11.1 All building alert and alarm signals, including fire alarms, building entrance release
hardware and other signals intended for the public to indicate operation of a building
access control system shall provide both an audible and a visual signal.
6.4.11.2 Visual alarms shall:
1. Have a light intensity of at least 75 Candelas;
2. Be located so that at least one is visible from any portion of a floor area;
3. Have a flash rate within the frequency range of 1-3 Hz; and
4. Be synchronized to flash in unison wherever multiple alarms may be visible at one
time.
6.4.11.3 Where the emergency evacuation planning of a facility necessitates that persons with
disabilities await assistance in order to be evacuated (example: floor level above grade
served by stairs), provide a safe Area of Refuge in a fire-separated room, equipped with
two-way communication, emergency lighting, and separate ventilation. This
requirement is waived for fully sprinkled buildings.
6.4.12 Life Safety
6.4.12.1 Where a building has an emergency power supply, all automatic doors operators will be
provided with emergency power.
6.4.12.2 All facilities shall have an Emergency Policy and Emergency Evacuation Plan that
addresses the needs of people with disabilities.
6.4.12.3 All sleeping and living rooms to be provide with audio and visual smoke/carbon dioxide
detectors which are hardwired and on a separate circuit.
6.4.13 Cooking & Laundry Facilities
6.4.13.1 Where a building has cooking or laundry facilities, all such facilities will be provided with
fixtures and appliances to allow for access for people with disabilities.
6.4.13.2 All laundry facilities shall have a washer and dryer that address the needs of people
with disabilities (Figure 6-25).
6.4.13.3 All separate laundry rooms shall have a clear turning area 1500 mm to allow for the
turning of a wheel chair.
6.4.13.4 All cooking facilities shall have a layout that addresses the needs of people with
disabilities.
6.4.13.5 All kitchens to have a handicap working area which is at least 760 mm wide.
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-26
Figure 6-25 Washers & Dryers
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-27
Figure 6-27 Elevator Clearances
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-28
References
ADA Accessibility Guidelines September 2002
Bill 125 - Ontarians with Disabilities Act. December 14, 2001
CAN/CSA B651-04 Accessible Design for the Built Environment. 2004
CNIB, Clearing Our Path. August 1998
GPC Research. Report on Findings: Quantitative Results from On-Line Barrier-Free
Kailes, June Isaacson. Emergency Evacuation Preparedness – A Guide for People with
Disabilities and Other Activity Limitations. 2002
Making Ontario Open for People with Disabilities – A Blueprint for a Strong and Effective
Ontarians with Disabilities Act. April 22, 1998
Management Board Secretariat. Architectural Design Standards for Court Houses. April
1999
Management Board Secretariat. Barrier-Free Design Guide for Ontario Government
Buildings. 1992
Ministry of Community and Social Services website,
http://www.mcss.gov.on.ca/mcss/english/how/howto_buildings.htm, July 14, 2006.
Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Housing Provincial Planning and Environmental Services
Branch. Handbook on Planning for Barrier-Free Municipalities (draft).
Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Housing Technical Advisory Committee. Barrier Free
Requirements in the Ontario Building Code: Recommendations for Change. December 2002
Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Housing, Ontario Building Code 2006, O. Reg. 350/06.
Ministry of Citizenship, Culture and Recreation. Preventing and Removing Barriers for
Ontarians with Disabilities. July 1998
Holten, Shane. Planning a Barrier-Free City of Toronto. July 2001.
Universal Design Institute. Access – A Guide to Accessible Design. 2000.
AUGUST 2010 REVISION NO. 03 STANDARDS FOR BARRIER-F REE DESIGN 6-29
7 Surveying Standards
7.1 Purpose
To provide general reference for surveying procedures performed by and for Libya Housing and
Infrastructure Board (HIB). This publication establishes minimum standards, policies, and procedures
of surveying for HIB. It provides information on the use of surveying technology to perform surveys
for large scale and small scale projects. Accuracy is a prime consideration in surveying and is
stressed in this publication.
7.2.1 Definition
A horizontal control survey is performed for the purpose of placing geographic coordinates of latitude
and longitude (X and Y coordinates) on permanent monuments for referencing lower levels of
surveys. A projection is used to place the coordinates on a plane of northing and easting values for
simplified measurements. Scale and elevation factors are applied to make the distance
measurements applicable to the exact project location on the working surface. If possible, project
control should be planned so that project control monuments serve for both horizontal and vertical
control. It is important that project control plans consider the need for supplemental control.
7.2.2 Field Methods
Particularly for horizontal control surveys, Global Positioning System (GPS) is quickly replacing the
use of the total station for long distance traversing. The inherent error of each GPS derived baseline
(about 5 mm plus 1 part per 1,000,000) will make accuracy at short distances less attractive but using
baselines of many kilometers suddenly becomes phenomenally accurate and cost effective.
When feasible, horizontal project control shall be established using GPS surveys complying with
second-order accuracy standards (see Attachment 7-3 for tolerances). When GPS survey methods
cannot be used for all or part of a Horizontal Project Control Survey, a Total Station Survey System
(TSSS) traverse network shall be used. The TSSS traverse will comply with second-order accuracy
standards.
Planning the control network so that it will meet the needs of all subsequent project surveys is critical.
Key steps in the control planning process are to:
Ascertain the need for additional corridor control
Develop a survey work schedule that meets the needs of the Project Development
schedule.
Research the existing horizontal and vertical control networks.
Recover and evaluate existing control.
Plan the project control network and select the methods for establishing control.
Plan supplemental control.
New control stations shall be permanently marked in a manner suitable for the terrain, the design of
which shall be agreed with HIB or its representative.
These control stations shall typically be by means of a two centimeter diameter and one meter long
iron rod set into at least a half a cubic meter of concrete.
A station control sheet (survey card) at a scale of 1:100 will be prepared and include a
photograph of the station with a small sign indicating the station number in the
photograph. An overall control map will be prepared at a scale commensurate with the
project size that will indicate the location of all control points for the project.
Significant nearby topographic features shall be recorded and shown on the station
control sheet.
A minimum of three witness/reference points shall be surveyed from the control station
with a bearing and distance to a semi-permanent object such as a building corner, light
standard, sign or other such items.
7.3.1 Definition
A vertical control survey is performed for accurately determining the orthometric height (elevation) of
permanent monuments to be used as bench marks for lower quality leveling.
Differential leveling is the preferred method of carrying elevations, referring to the use of
compensator-type engineer’s levels and electronic digital/bar code leveling systems. However, GPS
can be used indirectly but with less accuracy. Height measurements from the ellipsoid can be
determined very accurately with GPS. Trigonometric leveling, with a total station, is not acceptable for
vertical control work.
The use of first order leveling is cost prohibitive and unnecessary in most surveying cases.
Discrepancies between originally run level lines in some cases negate the advantages of the
precision of the first order and sometimes second order level runs. In most cases third order leveling
is acceptable for providing control and design surveys if good surveying procedures are adhered to.
At a minimum, the following specifications below are based on using a compensator or electronic level
and the use of wooden or metal rods employed for third order work.
Compensatory-Level Compensator-Level
Electronic/Digital Bar
Operations/Specification Three-Wire Single-Wire
Code Level
Observation Observation
Collimation (two-peg) test Daily (see note 2) Daily (see note 2) Daily (see note 2)
Notes:
1. vD = Square root of the length of section or loop in kilometers (section is defined as a series of setups between
two permanent control points; loop is defined as a series of setups closing on the starting point).
2. Control level run: readjust level if 2 mm in 60 m is exceeded.
3. If the standard error of the mean exceeds 1 mm, continue repeat measurements until the standard error of the
mean is less than 1 mm.
The instrument should be treated with care and a peg test should be performed on a regular basis.
Level rods are equally critical and should be checked periodically. All back-sight and fore-sight shots
should be balanced.
Most digital levels have on-board adjustment programs and/or a memory card that will allow the data
to be transferred to a computer for adjustment. Manual readings can also be hand entered into the
data collector to record the data, warn of out-of-tolerance readings, adjust the point elevations, and
compile reports.
A carefully planned GPS network survey can be used to obtain orthometric heights. Since GPS
measures heights from the imaginary ellipsoid surface, the data must be converted to useable
orthometric heights through a model of interpolated geoid separation measurements. In order to get
the accuracy needed for a vertical control survey, there must be at least 3 or 4 high quality bench
marks surrounding the project area (and in 3 or 4 separate quadrants) to better model the area. In
other words, at least one bench mark should be fixed in each of the four (4) quadrants of the survey
area, such that nearly all of the newly surveyed stations will fall inside a boundary drawn around the
outside benchmarks. Additional benchmarks inside the perimeter will aid in strengthening the
adjustment. This sometimes makes the use of GPS impractical –differential leveling may be just as
cost effective, if the distances are not too great.
7.3.2 GPS Network Design Example:
Roughly locate both new points and existing control on a map showing roads to use in
moving the observers around the project.
From reconnaissance and mission planning software, determine the best times to
observe.
For each session, draw the independent baselines chosen to be observed on map. Move
through the project until all points have been observed.
Observing the rules for time differences, plan the repeated occupations and observations.
Consider redundancy requirements.
Measure and record antenna height in two different units at the beginning and before the
end of each session.
Fill out observation sheet each session. (See Attachment “A”)
Every one moves every session (where practical).
In the scope of these specifications, GPS data processing includes the review and cataloging of
collected data files, processing phase measurements to determine baseline vectors and/or unknown
positions, and performing adjustments and transformations to the processed vectors and positions.
Each step requires quality control analysis, using statistical measures and professional judgment, to
achieve the desired level of confidence. Each of these steps is also very dependent upon the
measurement technique, the GPS receiver, and antenna types; the observables recorded, and the
processing software.
Typically, the elevation basis is either with an existing project (datum specified by project) or by using
Mean Sea Level datum as defined by SDL. A statement of the basis of elevations shall be made in
computer files and placed on all map prints similar to one of the following examples:
7.4.1 Definition
A topographic survey is a survey which has for its major purpose the determination of the
configuration and relief of the surface of the earth (ground), presenting them as contour lines on a
plot, and the location of natural and/or man made features thereon.
A topographic survey is prepared for the purpose of gathering relevant information that will be
represented on either a topographic map or in a Digital Terrain Model (DTM). Topographic surveys
are also referred to as Engineering Surveys, which are associated with engineering design; highway
planning, engineering design, and ROW design are the primary purposes.
Topographic surveys are necessary in order to prepare an accurate topographic map and require the
expert skill of a surveyor well versed in maintaining accuracy and precision in detail mapping. A
planimetric map is a two dimensional (2D) map that represents the horizontal and vertical positions of
the features represented; distinguished from a topographic map by the addition of relief in a
measurable form. A topographic map can also be three dimensional (3D) that represents the same
features as a planimetric map but uses contours or comparable symbols to show mountains, valleys,
and plains. A planimetric map is a map that presents the horizontal positions only for the features
represented; distinguished from a topographic map by the omission of relief in a measurable form.
Contours, being an integral part of a topographic survey in 3D, will have sufficient spot elevations
(ground elevation points) to generate 0.5-m contour intervals for the project. In regions where there is
little variation in surface height (relief), the points may be more widely spaced, whereas in areas of
more variation in height, the point density is increased.
7.4.2 Utility Surveys
Utility surveys are undertaken to locate existing utilities above and below ground for (a) consideration
in engineering design, (b) purposes of utility relocation, and (c) right-of-way acquisition and
negotiation. It is important to locate all significant utility facilities.
As a minimum a Topographic Survey shall include the following facilities and critical points:
7.6.1 Definition
As-built Surveys (or post construction surveys), show the conditions of the construction project after
the construction is completed.
Features shown on the as-built survey must be surveyed after construction.
7.6.2 Deliverable
As-Built drawings shall include, as a minimum, revisions to alignments and right-of-way, grade
revisions, drainage changes, changes to roadway features and revisions on the location of utility
crossings and irrigation crossovers. All information on the As-Built drawings will be to the Libyan
Transverse Mercator two-degree (LTM2°) grid, Libyan Geodetic Datum (LGD) of 2006.
After construction is complete, the as-built corrections will be placed on a copy of the Cadd files.
Each as-built sheet will be clearly marked as an AS-BUILT SURVEY.
The following Check List is a minimum amount of information to be placed on a standard map or
maps. It is imperative to have quality maps with pertinent information on them.
Company name, address, telephone number, e-mail address and fax number
Client name, address, telephone number, e-mail address and fax number
Scale and Bar Scale
Date
North arrow
Title Block
Description of survey
Legend
Limits of Survey
Existing and new control
Coordinate basis (datum)
Signature of surveyor (if required)
Notes
Sheet numbers
Control monuments with coordinates and elevations
Border
Vicinity Map
The SCOPE OF WORK should be detailed enough so that someone unfamiliar with the project would
be able to tell what tasks needed to be done, state the name or names of party performing the survey
and be detailed enough to determine if the contractor has fulfilled their contract obligation. A
discussion of results should be either in the project introduction or in a conclusion section.
There are three map projections approved by the Survey Department of Libya (SDL).
Loop or between
Error of Closure 1:20,000 1:10,000
monuments
Allowable Angular N = number of angles
Closure ± 8” ± 15” in traverse
Adjusted Mathematical of
1:200,000 1:200,000 Closure No
Survey Less Than
The above table shows tolerances for conventional horizontal surveys and for GPS horizontal control
surveys. Note that with the use of GPS, there are fewer physical checks and more attention paid to
the number, location and quality of reference monuments due to the nature of GPS static surveying.
No matter which method is used, any printed list, file or map must indicate the appropriate datum,
projection and zone.
Freeway Provides the highest level of service at the highest speed for the longest
uninterrupted distance
Full access control using only grade-separated interchanges
Arterial Provides moderate distances for traffic and with lower design standards
than expressways
Access generally by means of at-grade intersections (signalized or
roundabout), but may also use grade-separated interchanges
Collector Collects traffic from locals and channels it into the arterial systems
Provides both land access and traffic circulation with residential
neighborhoods, commercial, and industrial areas
Intended for low speeds and minimal access control
Although used for through traffic, access to adjacent land is very
important
8.2 Traffic
Freeway B B C C
Expressway B B C C
Arterial B B C C
Collector C C D D
Local D D D D
The at-grade intersection should operate at no more than one level of service below the values in
Table 8-2. Capacity of signalized intersections depends on many factors, including:
1. Intersection geometry including the number and width of lanes, grades, and land use.
2. Percentage of heavy vehicles
3. Location of and use of bus stops
4. Distribution of vehicles by movement (left, thru, right)
Semi-Trailer Combination
WB-15 4.1 2.6 16.7 13.7 5.2
Large
Passenger Car with Trailer P/T 3.1 2.4 14.9 10.1 5.3
8.3 Speed
The highway should be designed to accommodate the speed desires of most highway users, within
the limits of safety.
Collector 60 80 50 80 50
Local 40 60 30 60 30
30 – 40 30 – 40
50 40
60 50
70 60
80 70
90 80
100 90
120 100
140 120
Local Roads and Streets should have a Posted Speed of 50 km/h or lower as local conditions dictate
such as near school zones.
50 30 20
60 40 30
70 50 40
80 60 40
90 60 50
100 70 50
120 80 60
140 90 70
Sight distance values affect the design of horizontal and vertical alignment, at-grade intersections,
interchanges, and highway crossings. Types of sight distance (stopping, decision, or passing)
depend on the type of highway and potential hazard. On horizontal curves, sight distance is most
critical on the inside of a curve. Roadside objects on the inside of a curve are required to be set back
from the edge of the traveled way by a greater distance than that of a straight line. On vertical
curves, sight distance is typically controlled by the eye and object heights.
8.4.1 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances: the distance traveled during driver
perception/reaction time, and the distance traveled during brake application. The perception/reaction
time is usually 2.5 sec.
Perception/Reaction Distance is calculated by:
PRD = 0.278tV
BD = V²/254(f ± G)
When determining stopping sight distances, the following should be applied for eye and object
heights:
Table 8-8 summarizes the rounded stopping sight distance values for design.
30 0.40 35 32 35 35 31 30 29
40 0.38 50 50 50 53 45 44 43
50 0.35 65 66 70 74 61 59 58
60 0.33 85 87 92 97 80 77 75
Minimum Passing
Design Speed (km/h)
Sight Distance (m)
30 200
40 270
50 345
60 410
70 485
80 540
90 615
100 670
8.5.1 General
Horizontal alignment should be designed to provide a continuous, uniform, and safe driving condition
and speed for vehicles. It should meet the following general considerations:
Horizontal alignment should be as smooth as possible and in harmony with the
topography. Flatter curvature with shorter tangents is generally preferable to sharp
curves connected by long tangents. Angle points should be avoided.
The minimum length of horizontal curves should be:
Lmin = 6V (high speed freeways)
Lmin = 3V (other arterials)
Where V = design speed (km/h)
Broken-back curves (short tangent between two curves in same direction) should be
avoided.
Compound curves should be avoided where possible. Where they are used, the radius of
the flatter curve should not be more than 50% greater than the radius of the sharper
curve. However, this consideration does not necessarily apply at intersections and
roundabouts, where lower speeds pertain.
Reverse circular curves on high-speed roads should include a transition section of
sufficient length to accommodate the reversal of superelevation between the circular
curves.
The horizontal alignment should be in balance with the vertical alignment and consistent
with other design features.
Horizontal curves should be avoided on bridges whenever possible. They cause design,
construction, and operational problems. Where a curve is necessary on a bridge, a
simple curve should be used on the bridge and any curvature or superelevation
transitions placed on the approaching roadway.
Factors that influence the degree of horizontal curvature of a road include:
Safety
Design speed
Topography, adjacent land use and obstructions
30 50 40 35 30 30
40 90 70 60 55 50
Superelevation is limited to 2%
The length of the transition curve (TS to SC in Figure 8-5) depends on the radius of the circular curve
into which it leads. It is defined by the following formula:
The value of q = 0.3 m/s³ is desirable. Table 8-12 gives rounded values of the computed spiral
lengths of the radii for e = 6% in Table 8-11.
60 135 115 60
70 195 130 65
80 250 145 75
90 335 155 80
Where: M = middle ordinate, or distance from the center of the inside lane to the obstruction (m).
R = radius of curve (m)
S = stopping sight distance (m)
The height of eye is 1080 millimeters and the height of object is 600 millimeters. The line-of-sight
intercept with the view obstruction is at the midpoint of the sight line and 840 millimeters above the
center of the inside lane. See Figure 8-6.
8.5.6 Superelevation
Superelevation counterbalances the centrifugal force, or outward pull, of a vehicle traversing a
horizontal curve. This outward pull can be counterbalanced by the roadway being superelevated, the
side friction developed between tires and surface, or some combination of the two. This allows a
vehicle to travel at higher speeds around the horizontal curves.
8.5.6.1 Superelevation Rates
The maximum useable rate for superelevation (emax) is controlled by several factors: Climate
conditions, terrain conditions, type of area, and the frequency of slow moving vehicles. The maximum
rates of superelevation based on roadway classifications are shown in Table 8-13.
Max. Superelevation
Roadway Classification
(emax)
Local 4%
4% (urban)
Collector
6% (rural)
4% (urban)
Arterial
8% (rural)
30 0.75 1:133
40 0.70 1:143
50 0.65 1:154
60 0.60 1:167
70 0.55 1:182
80 0.50 1:200
90 0.47 1:213
The pavement may be rotated about the centerline or either edge of the travel lanes. Figure 8-7
shows typical methods of developing superelevation by rotating about the edges and about the center
of the road.
a. Three-lane traveled ways; 1.2 times the corresponding length for two-lane
traveled ways.
b. Four-lane undivided traveled ways; 1.5 times the corresponding length for two-
lane highways.
c. Six-lane undivided traveled ways; 2.0 times the corresponding length for two-
lane traveled ways.
8.5.6.4 Shoulder Superelevation
All outside shoulders and median shoulders of 1.25 meter or greater should slope away from the
travel lanes on superelevated curves. The maximum algebraic difference between the travel lanes
slope and shoulder slope is 0.09 m/m. Shoulders less than 1.25 meters should slope in the same
direction as the travel lane; see Figure 8-8.
Notes: 1. FOR GRADES OF LENGTH LESS THAN 150 m AND FOR 1-WAY DOWN GRADES, THE MAXIMUM
GRADE MAY BE 1% STEEPER THAN TABLE VALUES. FOR LOW -VOLUME RURAL HIGHWAYS,
GRADES MAY BE 2% STEEPER.
2. IN URBAN AREAS, GRADES 1% STEEPER MAY BE USED FOR EXTREME CASES WHERE (A) EXISTING DEVELOPMENT
PRECLUDES USING FLATTER GRADES, OR (B) 1-WAY DOWN GRADES IN LEVEL OR ROLLING TERRAIN.
3. GRADES SHOWN FOR RURAL AND URBAN CONDITIONS OF SHORT LENGTH, (LESS THAN 150 m), ON 1-WAY
DOWN GRADES AND ON LOW-VOLUME RURAL COLLECTORS MAY BE 2% STEEPER.
4. GRADES SHOULD BE AS FLAT AS IS CONSISTENT WITH THE SORROUNDING TERRAIN AND LAND USE IN THE AREA.
IN RESIDENTIAL AREAS,THE MAXIMUM GRADE SHOULD BE 15% IN COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL AREAS
WHERE TRUCK USE IS EXPECTED, THE MAXIMUM GRADE SHOULD BE 8% AND DESIRABLY 5%.
At grade-separated interchanges, the maximum grade for the on and off ramps may be up to 2%
greater than the corresponding maximum grade permitted on the mainline.
In addition to the maximum grade, the designer must consider the length of the grade. The gradient
in combination with its length will determine the truck speed reduction on upgrades. The guidelines
given in Table 8-17 for the maximum length of sustained grade are based on a speed reduction for
trucks of 15 km/h.
2 650
3 400
4 280
5 210
6 175
7 150
Minimum Grade
The curvature and length of vertical curves shall be such that the required sight distances are met.
Design controls for the vertical curves are generally based on the following formula, where K implies
the rate of curvature and it is a good indication for proper drainage:
K = L/A
Where L = length of curve (m)
A = algebraic difference in grades (%)
Computations for vertical curves are shown in Figures 8-9(a),(b), and (c).
The primary control for crest vertical curves is providing adequate stopping sight distance. The
primary control for sag vertical curves is the headlight sight distance, where the height of the
headlights is assumed to be 600 millimeters.
Table 8-19 shows the minimum K values for design as required for the range of values of stopping
sight distances for each design speed.
30 35 2 6
40 50 4 9
50 65 7 13
60 85 11 18
70 105 17 23
80 130 26 30
90 160 39 38
100 185 52 45
120 250 95 63
Additional
Sag K Value
Headroom (m)
4 and 5 0.12
6 and 7 0.08
8 and 9 0.06
10 to 12 0.05
13 to 17 0.04
18 to 25 0.03
26 to 50 0.02
51 to 100 0.01
8.7.1 General
The limits of the road cross section are governed by the width of the right-of-way available, which is
typically determined at the planning stage. Many factors affect and determine the roadway typical
section such as: design speed, roadway classification, right-of-way, traffic volume, environmental
issues, existing or proposed utilities, bikers, and so many others.
The basic elements of a roadway cross section are:
8.7.3 Shoulders
The outer usable shoulders (normally 1.2 to 2.44m on arterial and low-class roads, and 3.0m on
expressways and freeways) serve several functions. They include:
1. An area for emergency stopping without disruption to traffic flow
2. An area for evasive action and recovery
3. Improvements to highway capacity, safety and driver comfort
4. Lateral support and drainage for the pavement to keep ponding away from travel
lanes
5. Improvement of horizontal sight distances and increased lateral clearances to
roadside appurtenances and other obstructions.
6. Providing additional lanes for diversions and space for road maintenance operations
The usable width of shoulder is the actual width that can be used when a driver makes an emergency
stop. A side slope of 1v:6h or flatter can be used as a usable shoulder. The required width of usable
shoulder is provided in Table 8-20(b) and 8-21.
Outer shoulders may not be required on urban undivided or divided roads (other than freeways and
expressways), because structural support is provided by the curbs and channels, and disabled
vehicles can generally find a safe place to stop in driveways and side streets. Nevertheless their
adoption on collectors in industrial areas can be beneficial. At intersections, usable shoulders may be
eliminated in order to better provide turning movements.
8.7.4 Curbing
Curbs are used extensively on urban streets and highways. Generally, they are not used in rural
areas, except with sidewalks where vertical barrier curb is required. Curbs serve to:
Control drainage
Restrict vehicles to the pavement area
Define points of access to abutting properties
Vertical curbs should not be used on highways with design speeds of more than 70 km/h. If a curb is
necessary in this case, a curb clearance of 0.6m should be added to the outside lane adjacent to
curbed edges. Where there is a shoulder, there is no need to provide a curb clearance.
8.7.5 Borders, Buffer Strips and Sidewalks
The border is the area acting as a buffer zone between the edge of pavement and the right-of-way
line. Border areas separate the traffic from properties abutting the road or highway. On some roads,
sidewalks are included within the border limits. In those cases, a minimum 600 mm buffer strip
separating the sidewalk from the curb is desirable, provided sufficient right-of-way is available.
Borders are capable of accommodating road signs and structures, traffic control devices, traffic
signals, utilities, lighting and landscaping features. The preferred location for these appurtenances
(utility poles, fire hydrants, lighting, and traffic control boxes) is beyond the back of the sidewalk,
especially when a travel lane is immediately adjacent to the curb.
Sidewalks are provided where they are justified by pedestrian activity. Sidewalk width varies
according to projected use and available right-of-way, with 2.0 m preferred. In commercially
developed areas, the entire area between the curb and buildings is often used as a paved sidewalk.
8.7.6 Medians
Medians are used to separate opposing traffic lanes on multi-lane roads. A median will provide many
or all of the following benefits:
Separation from opposing traffic reducing the likelihood of accidents and improving the
traffic flow characteristics.
Refuge for emergency stops
Area for control of errant vehicles
At Signalized
Requirements Elsewhere
Intersections
Table 8-22 provides the typical median widths based on roadway classifications.
Urban Rural
Roadway Classification
Min. Desirable Min. Desirable
Notes:
1. The bottom of the ditch should be below the bottom of the subbase.
2. Width can be wider to meet hydraulic requirements.
Fill Cut
3. * Where a site specific investigation indicates a high probability of continuing crashes, or such occurrences are
indicated by crash history, the designer may provide clear-zone distances greater than the clear-zone shown in
Table 8-23. Clear zones may be limited to 9 m for practicality and to provide a consistent roadway template if
previous experience with similar projects or designs indicates satisfactory performance.
4. ** Since recovery is less likely on the unshielded, traversable 1V:3H slopes, fixed objects should not be present
in the vicinity of the toe of these slopes. Recovery of high-speed vehicles that encroach beyond the edge of the
shoulder may be expected to occur beyond the toe of slope. Determination of the width of the recovery area at
the toe of slope should take into consideration right-of-way availability, environm ental concerns, economic
factors, safety needs, and crash histories. Also, the distance between the edge of the through traveled lane and
the beginning of the 1V:3H slope should influence the recovery area provided at the toe of slope. While the
application may be limited by several factors, the foreslope parameters which may enter into determining a
maximum desirable recovery area are illustrated in Figure 8-12(a).
These distances are measured from the nearest edge of the traveled way to the structure. Where this
clear zone cannot be kept completely free from obstructions, safety barriers should be provided to
protect the driver from a collision with a structure or an errant vehicle.
Safety barriers themselves need to be set back from the edge of the traveled way.
8.7.12 Others
8.7.12.1 Service Roads
Service (Frontage) Roads run parallel, and are connected, to the main highway in both rural and
urban areas. They control access to abutting properties, and in urban areas, they remove the
roadside friction and parking from the main arterial. Service roads can be continuous or intermittent;
can be on one or both sides, and can be one-way or two-way. They segregate the higher speed
through traffic from the lower speed local traffic.
Service roads may also provide an alternative route if maintenance is required on the mainline, or in
case of an emergency.
The width of service road is dependent on the type and turning requirements of the traffic expected to
use it. Service road connections to arterials should be designed as at-grade intersections, while
those for higher class roads should be designed as off-ramps and on-ramps.
Interchanges and grade separations physically separate the through traffic movements of two
intersecting highways. They eliminate dangerous crossings and may be used to bypass busy urban
areas. Interchanges, unlike grade separations, provide access between the two highways by ramps.
8.8.1 Warrants
The general warrants for interchange and grade separations include:
1. Design Designation – if a fully access-controlled facility is provided, each intersecting
highway must be terminated, rerouted, provided a grade separation, or provided an
interchange. An interchange should be provided on the basis of the anticipated
demand for access to the minor road. Interchange spacing is also a factor. In urban
areas, a general rule is a 1.5 km minimum spacing between interchanges to allow the
entrance and exit maneuvers. Closer spacing may require collector-distributor roads
to remove the merging and existing traffic from the mainline. In rural undeveloped
areas, interchanges should be spaced no closer than 5.0 km apart.
2. Congestion – An interchange may be warranted where the level of service of an at-
grade intersection is unacceptable, and the intersection cannot be redesigned to
operate at an acceptable level.
3. Safety – The accident reduction benefits of an interchange may warrant its selection
at a particularly dangerous at-grade intersection.
4. Site Topography – At some sites the topography may allow an interchange that would
cost less than that of an at-grade intersection.
5. Road-User Benefits – Interchanges significantly reduce the travel time and costs
when compared to at-grade intersections. Therefore, if an analysis reveals that road-
user benefits over the service life of the interchange will exceed the costs, then the
interchange will be warranted.
6. Traffic Volume – Interchanges are desirable at cross streets with heavy traffic
volumes. The elimination of conflicts due to high crossing volume greatly improves
the movement of traffic.
8.8.2 Interchange Types
8.8.2.1 Three-Leg
Three-leg interchanges, also known as T or Y interchanges are provided where major highways begin
or end. Figure 8-12(b) illustrates examples of three-leg interchanges with several methods of
providing turning movements.
8.8.2.2 Diamond
Diamond interchanges use one-way diagonal ramps in each quadrant with two at-grade intersections
provided on the minor road. The diamond is usually the best choice of interchange where the
intersection road is not access controlled. The advantages of diamond interchanges include:
1. All traffic can enter and exit the mainline at relatively high speeds. Adequate sight
distance can usually be provided and operational maneuvers are normally simple.
2. Relatively little right-of-way is required
3. All exits from the mainline are made before reaching the structure
4. Left-turning maneuvers require little extra travel distance
5. The diamond interchange allows modifications to provide greater ramp capacity, if
needed in the future.
Figure 8-13 illustrates a schematic of a typical diamond interchange.
8.8.2.3 Cloverleafs
Cloverleaf interchanges are used at four-leg intersections with loop ramps to accommodate left-turn
movements. Full cloverleaf interchanges are those with loops in all four quadrants; all other are
partial cloverleafs.
Where two access-controlled highways intersect, a full cloverleaf is the minimum type design
interchange that will suffice. However, these interchanges introduce several undesirable operational
features such as:
The double exits and entrances from the mainline
The weaving between entering and exiting vehicles with the mainline traffic
The lengthy travel time and distance for left-turning vehicles
Figure 8-14 provides typical examples of full cloverleafs with and without C-D roads.
Figure 8-14 Full Cloverleafs
Partial cloverleafs are appropriate where right-of-way restrictions preclude ramps in one or more
quadrants. Figure 8-15 illustrates six examples of partial cloverleafs. In these examples, the
desirable feature is that no left-turn movements are made onto the major road.
Figure 8-15 Partial Cloverleaf Arrangements
Arrangement (A) is the Simple form of intersection, using two bridges and a large rotary pavement.
When traffic volumes increase, there is adequate space to permit the introduction of signals to the
roundabout entries, and to further increase capacity by modest widening on the approaches.
At higher volumes still, arrangement (B) can be adopted. This layout, known as a three-level
roundabout, takes the cross-traffic on a direct ramp, leaving the roundabout to handle only turning
traffic. Such a layout can be introduced incrementally if the median of the cross route is constructed
at the outset with a width sufficient to accommodate the future flyover.
8.8.3 Interchange Analysis
Interchanges are expensive, and it is necessary to develop and study several alternatives in depth.
Each alternative should be evaluated on the basis of its cost, safety, capacity, operation, and
compatibility with the surrounding highway system.
8.8.3.1 Capacity and Level of Service
An interchange must accommodate the anticipated traffic volumes. They are designed using the
Design Hour Volumes (DHV). The capacity and level of service for an interchange will depend upon
the operation of its individual elements along with the interaction and coordination of each of these
elements in the overall design.
1. Basic freeway section where interchanges are not present.
2. Freeway-ramp junctions or terminals
3. Weaving areas
4. Ramp proper
5. Ramp/Minor road intersection
It should be noted that the practical capacity of a single-lane loop lies in the range 800 passenger
cars per hour (pc/h) to 1200 pc/h. Loops rarely operate as two-lane pavements, regardless of their
width, and in general, they should not be designed to do so because of the difficulties in designing
proper ramp terminals and for driver discomfort reasons. In general, therefore, then a DHV of around
1000 pc/h applies to the one-way turning movement in one quadrant of an interchange, serious
consideration should be given to the adoption of a form of connection other than a loop.
8.8.3.2 Selection of Interchange Type
Freeway interchanges are of two general types. A “systems” interchange will connect freeway to
freeway; a “service” interchange will connect a freeway to a lesser facility. Once several alternative
interchange designs have been developed, they can be evaluated considering:
1. Compatibility with the surrounding highway system
2. Uniformity of exit and entrance patterns
3. Capacity and level of service
4. Operational characteristics (single versus double exits, weaving, signing)
5. Road user impacts (travel distance and time, safety, convenience and comfort)
6. Construction and maintenance costs
7. Right-of-way impacts and availability, and
8. Environmental Impacts
8.8.4 Traffic Lane Principles
8.8.4.1 Basic Number of Lanes and Freeway Lane Drops
The basic number of lanes is the minimum number of lanes needed over a significant length of a
highway based on the overall capacity needs of that section. The number of lanes should remain
constant over short distances.
Freeway lane drops, where the basic number of lanes is decreased, must be fully designed. They
should occur on the freeway mainline away from any other activity, such as interchange exits and
entrances. The following recommendations are important when designing a freeway lane drop:
1. Location – The lane drop should occur approximately 600-1000 m beyond the
previous interchange. This distance allows adequate signing and adjustments from
the interchange, but yet is not so far downstream that drivers become accustomed to
the number of lanes and are surprised by the lane drop. In addition, a lane should
not be dropped on a horizontal curve or where other signing is required, such as for
an upcoming exit.
2. Sight Distance – The lane drop should be located so that the surface of the roadway
within the transition remains visible for its entire distance. This favors placing a lane
drop within a sag vertical curve rather than just beyond a crest. Decision sight
distance to the roadway surface is desirable.
3. Transition – The desirable taper rate is 100:1 for the transition at the lane drop. The
minimum is 70:1.
4. Right-Side Versus Left-Side Drop – All freeway lane drops must be on the right side,
unless specific site conditions greatly favor a left-side lane reduction.
5. Signing – Motorists must be warned and guided into the lane reduction. Advance
signing and pavement markings should be implemented.
8.8.5 Lane Balance
To realize efficient traffic operation through and beyond an interchange, there should be a balance in
the number of traffic lanes on the freeway and ramps. Design traffic volumes and a capacity analysis
determine the basic number of lanes to be used on the highway and the minimum number of lanes on
the ramps. Variations in traffic demand should be accommodated by means of auxiliary lanes where
needed.
After the basic number of lanes is determined for each roadway, the balance in the number of lanes
should be checked on the basis of the following principles:
1. At entrances, the number of lanes beyond the merging of two traffic streams should
not be less than the sum of all traffic lanes on the merging roadways, minus one.
2. At exits, the number of approach lanes on the highway must be equal to the number
of lanes on the highway beyond the exit plus the number of lanes on the exit, less
one. There is one exception – the short length of auxiliary lane that exists on a
cloverleaf interchange between the on-loop entrance and the off-loop exit. In this
case, the number of upstream lanes may be the same as the sum of the downstream
lanes.
3. The traveled way of the highway should be reduced by not more than one traffic lane
at a time.
Figure 8-17 illustrates the typical treatment of the four-lane freeway with a two-lane exit followed by a
two-lane entrance.
Figure 8-23 provides the deceleration distance for various combinations of highway design speeds
and exit curve design speeds. Deceleration lanes are measured from the point where the lane
reaches 3.75 m wide to the painted nose for parallel types and the first controlling curve for taper
types. Greater distances should be provided if practical. If the deceleration lane is on a grade of 3%
or more, the length of the lane should be adjusted according to the criteria in Table 8-25.
Figure 8-23 Minimum Deceleration Lengths for Exit Terminals with Grades of 2% or Less
Figure 8-28 provides the data for minimum lengths of acceleration lanes. These lengths are for the
full width of the acceleration lane, and are measured from the end of the painted nose for parallel
types, and from the end of the last controlling curve on taper types, to a point where the full 3.75
meter lane width is achieved. Taper lengths, typically 100 meters, are in addition to the table lengths.
Where grades of 3% or more occur on the acceleration lane, adjustments should be made in its
length according to Table 8-26.
3 to 4% Upgrade 3 to 4% Downgrade
All Speeds
0.9 1.2
5 to 6% Upgrade 5 to 6% Upgrade
All Speeds
0.8 1.35
Acceleration Lanes
Design
Speed of Ratio of Length on Grade to Length for
Highway Design Speed of Turning Curve (km/h)
(km/h)
40 50 60 70 80 All Speeds
3 to 4% Upgrade 3 to 4% Downgrade
5 to 6% Upgrade 5 to 6% Downgrade
Superelevation
The ramp superelevation should be gradually transitioned to meet the normal cross slope of the
mainline. The principles of superelevation for open highways, as discussed in Section 8.5, should be
applied to the entrance design. The following criteria should be used:
1. The maximum superelevation rate is 0.06.
If the weave area is on a freeway, including weaving at cloverleaf interchanges, or if the site
conditions will not allow the necessary distance, a collector-distributor road should be provided.
8.8.6.4 Collector-Distributor Roads
Collector-Distributor (C-D) Roads are provided as a means of eliminating weaving on the mainline.
They are normally found within an interchange, but may be considered for use between interchanges
if weaving difficulties are anticipated. C-D roads are at least two lanes in width, and generally adopt a
design speed 10 km/h to 20 km/h less than that of the mainline.
C-D roads should be considered for all cloverleaf interchanges, which inherently generate significant
weaving movements. When design weaving volumes exceed 1000 pc/h, C-D roads should always be
provided.
8.8.7 Capacity and Level of Service
Factors that will affect the traffic operation conditions at freeway/ramp junctions are:
1. Acceleration and deceleration distances
2. Sight distance
3. Horizontal and vertical curvature at the junction
4. Merge and diverge volumes
5. Freeway volumes
Figure 8-30 illustrates several ramp configurations with a table showing the volumes which can be
accommodated at a ramp junction for a given level of service.
50 n/a 50 30
60 n/a 50 40
70 n/a 50 40
80 70 60 50
90 70 60 50
100 80 70 50*
140 120 90 **
5. * Higher Design Speeds may be appropriate in rural areas.
6. **Loops on a 140 km/h design speed road should always be accessed via a C-D road with a lower design
speed.
1. Ramp Width – Ramps with a design speed of more than 60 km/h should have a right
shoulder of 2.4 to 3.0 m and 3.0 to 1.8m left shoulder. For the other ramps, the sum
of the right and left shoulder widths should not exceed 3.6 m, with a shoulder width of
0.6 to 1.2m on the left and the remainder as the right shoulder. The minimum width is
7 m for one lane ramps and 9 m for two lane ramps.
2. Cross Slope – Tangent sections of ramps should be uniformly sloped at
0.02 meter/meter from the median edge to the opposite edge. The maximum
superelevation is 0.06 m/m.
3. Side Slopes – Fill and cut slopes should be as flat as possible. If feasible, they
should be 1:6 or flatter thus eliminating the need for guardrail.
4. Bridges and Underpasses – The full width of the ramp or loop should be carried over
a bridge or beneath an underpass.
Note: For design speeds of more than 60 km/h, use values for open highway conditions.
8.8.8.5 Capacity
Table 8-29 provides the volumes for a given ramp design speed and level of service. 1500 pc/h
should be used as a threshold to warrant a two-lane ramp. The minimum radius of a two-lane ramp
should be 100 m. The capacity of a loop ramp is about 1250 pc/h; however, two-lane ramps are
undesirable because of their restrictive geometry. Therefore, if a left-turn movement will exceed
1250, a directional or semi-directional connection may be needed. Ramps must be designed with
sufficient capacity to avoid backups on the mainline.
Arterials/
Freeways/
Collectors/
Expressways
C-D Roads
On a ramp or In a free-flow
250
connecting roadway interchange
in other
180
interchange
8.8.9.3 Entry/Entry
When two traffic streams join, this generally produces an area of "turbulence" for a distance
downstream. A subsequent entry therefore needs to be located far enough downstream to avoid this
unstable area. Table 8-31 shows the recommended spacing.
Arterials/
Freeways/
Collectors/
Expressways
C-D Roads
On a ramp or In a free-flow
250
connecting roadway interchange
in other
180
interchange
8.8.9.4 Exit/Entry
This is the safest of the four layouts, and this is reflected in the shorter distances shown in Table 8-32.
Arterials/Collectors/
Freeway Expressway
C-D Roads
150 120
8.8.9.5 Entry/Exit
This is the most complex of the four layouts, as weaving of traffic streams generally occurs. Three
considerations apply:
1. There is a minimum distance between noses to ensure safe operation even under
very light flow conditions - this is the minimum spacing.
2. There is a minimum distance between noses to permit the traffic streams in the
design year to cross each other safety - this is the weaving length.
3. There is a spacing beyond which weaving is considered not to be a relevant factor -
this is the upper bound for weaving.
Considerations 1 and 3 are purely geometric and the relevant values are given in Table 8-33.
Consideration 2 is determined by the volumes of weaving traffic, and is dealt with in Section 8.8.6.
Arterials/
Freeways/ For Clover
Collectors/ All Types
Expressways Leaf Loops
C-D Roads
8.8.10 Appendices
Standard Designs for Freeway/Minor Road Interchanges (Cloverleaf and Diamond), Figure 8-33
through Figure 8-41.
Table 8-34 Summary of Geometric Parameters for Local Roads and Streets
Urban
Rural
Geometric Parameter Traffic
Local Road Major Local Minor Local
Calmed
Street Street
Layout
8.9.2 Collectors
Urban
Geometric Parameter Rural
Generally In CBD*
8.9.4 Freeways/Expressways
8.10.1 General
This section discusses the following facilities and roadway features, and provides guidance on their
design and provision:
Pedestrian Facilities
Public Transport Facilities
Parking Facilities
Safety Barriers
Impact Attenuator Systems
Traffic calming
Pedestrian Facilities
8.10.1.1 Safety
Most pedestrian accidents occur in urban areas and most of these occur at at-grade intersections, but
pedestrian safety is a concern in every highway design. The designer can then develop safety
countermeasures. School locations and areas of high pedestrian volumes deserve particular
attention. Following are examples of pedestrian safety measures:
1. Crosswalks should be provided at every intersection where pedestrians cross.
2. Sidewalks and other walkways which are designed to accommodate projected
pedestrian volumes limit the use of streets and shoulders as walkways.
3. Signal phases which favor the pedestrian are desirable. These include pedestrian-
actuated signals and an exclusive pedestrian signal phase.
4. Where severe pedestrian safety problems exist or where there is a need to cross a
free-flow high-speed highway, a pedestrian overpass would be required.
5. Other pedestrian safety measures include lighting, barriers and parking restrictions.
8.10.1.2 Sidewalks
Sidewalks are provided where they are justified by pedestrian activity. Sidewalk width varies
according to projected use and available right-of-way. In commercially-developed and downtown
areas, the entire area between the curb and buildings is often used as a paved sidewalk.
All urban roads should allow space for sidewalks, unless they are being specifically designed to
prohibit walking. In areas with high volumes of pedestrian traffic, sidewalks should be provided on
both sides of the road. Most service roads, however, require a sidewalk on one side only. Sidewalks
should be continuous over the full pedestrian route.
It is desirable to have a sidewalk that is 3.0 m in width which would accommodate high pedestrian
volumes or to accommodate both pedestrians and bicyclists in busy commercial areas. However, the
recommended minimum sidewalk width is 1.8 m. It is also desirable to provide a 1.2m or more buffer
strip between the curb and sidewalk for pedestrian safety from walking close to traffic.
8.10.1.3 Pedestrian Crossings
Crossings are designated safety paths for pedestrians crossing at intersections or across a roadway
for the continuity of pedestrian walkways/sidewalks. The choice of crossing facilities is as follow:
Uncontrolled Marked Crossing. This type of crossing is marked with stripes on the
pavement. It should only be provided on roads with a posted speed of 60 km/h or less, or
on unsignalized right-turning roadways within a signalized intersection where adequate
Safe Crossing Sight Distance is available.
Controlled Marked Crossing. Signals are used to bring traffic to a halt and to indicate
to pedestrians that they may cross with care. This type of crossing exists most frequently
within a signalized intersection, but can be provided on a free-standing basis on roads
with a posted speed of 80km/h or lower.
Grade Separated Crossing. This is the form of crossing which is invariably required on
freeways and expressways, and which may also be justified on arterials, depending on
traffic volume and speed, and the number and nature of pedestrians crossing the road. It
On secondary arterials and collectors (and on local roads and streets if they are used by buses), it
may be acceptable to permit buses to stop by the curb, provided that:
The bus stop area is kept free from parked vehicles
The bus stop is not located close to a major/minor intersection, and
The presence of a stationary bus would not obstruct any relevant sight lines, and
On an undivided road, the available forward visibility is at least half of the Safe Passing
Sight Distance.
In addition, parking should be prohibited over a distance of 12m before and 8m beyond the bus stop
area. Bus stops on undivided roads should be staggered, beyond each other, so that the view of
crossing pedestrians from one bus is not obstructed by the presence of the bus traveling in the
opposite direction. This arrangement also ensures that where two buses are dropping off passengers
simultaneously, they do not have to set off through the crossing pedestrians dropped off by the other
bus. When providing bus stopping points in the vicinity of intersections, the following points should be
considered:
In general, it is preferable to locate bus stops on the exit side of the intersection. A
distance of at least 10m beyond the limit of the intersection would generally be required.
If a bus stop is to be provided on the approach side, then it must be positioned sufficiently
far in advance that the bus can move off safely and join the relevant traffic lane without
undue interference to other vehicles. A minimum distance of 20m from the end of the bay
to the start of any right-turning maneuver or auxiliary lane should generally be adequate,
but the bay should be located such that a stationary bus is clear of the intersection sight
triangles.
Where a bus route turns right at an intersection, it may be possible to locate the stop on
the approach side of the intersection, with the bus bay being located at the start of an
extended right-turning auxiliary lane.
If a bus stop is located on the approach to a roundabout or signalized intersection, it
should normally be located clear of any queuing vehicles, so that there is no loss of
capacity at the intersection.
Figure 8-44 Bus Stops at Intersections
45° 4.70
60° 4.90
75° 4.75
90° 4.25
There is a need for adequate space to maneuver into an angled bay, and this usually requires the
adjacent through lane to be wider than normal. If space permits, it is also good practice to provide a
buffer lane between the edge of the traveled way and the nearest part of the parking bay. This is
particularly beneficial on Service Roads, Collectors, and Secondary Arterials. Table 8-39 shows
these values.
Dimensions Angle
(for a bay size of DIM
2.5m x 5.0m) 30° 45° 60° 75° 90°
Aisle width between bay lines D 3.50 3.75 4.50 6.00 7.00
Roadside Obstacles
Roadside obstacles include both non-traversable terrain and fixed objects, and may be either man-
made (such as culvert inlets) or natural (such as trees). Together, these highway conditions account
for over thirty percent of all highway fatalities each year. Barrier warrants for roadside obstacles are a
function of the obstacle itself and the likelihood that it will be hit. However, a barrier should be
installed only if it is clear that the result of a vehicle striking the barrier will be less severe than the
crash resulting from hitting the unshielded object. Non-traversable terrain and roadside obstacles that
normally warrant shielding are listed in Table 8-42. While roadside obstacles immediately adjacent to
the traveled way are usually removed, relocated, modified, or shielded, the optimal solution becomes
less evident as the distance between the obstruction and the traveled way increases. Table 8-23,
Clear-Zone Distances, is intended as a guide to aid the designer in determining whether the
obstruction constitutes a threat to an errant motorist that is significant enough to warrant action. Most
man-made objects incorporated into a highway project can be designed to minimize or eliminate the
danger they present to a motorist and thus make shielding unnecessary. This is particularly true of
drainage features such as small culverts and ditches.
Protection of bystanders
Although roadside barriers are not particularly installed to protect bystanders or pedestrians but to
protect vehicles from hitting roadside hazards, they provide protection and safety for pedestrians and
bystanders from out-of-control vehicles.
Once it has been decided that a roadside barrier is warranted, the engineer must chose the
appropriate type of barrier. This choice is based on a number of factors including performance
criteria, cost (construction and maintenance), and aesthetics. Table 8-41 summarizes the factors that
should be considered.
Criteria Comments
Slope approaching the barrier, and distance from traveled way, may
3. Site Conditions
preclude use of some barrier types.
6. Maintenance
Table 8-42 Barrier Warrants for Non-Traversable Terrain and Roadside Obstacles
Obstacle Warrants
Setback from
Design Speed Edge of Traveled
Way (m)
50 1
60 1.5
70 1.7
80 2
90 2.2
100 2.5
120 3
140 3.7
Rigid 0
Length of Need:
The barrier must be long enough to sufficiently shield the hazard from errant vehicles. Figure 8-48
illustrates the typical guardrail layout for protection of a hazard. The minimum length of need for full
height guardrail for 60 km/h, 100 km/h, and 110 km/h is 60 m, 90 m, and 100 m respectively. Barrier
end treatment is in addition to the length of need. See Construction Standards for typical installation
details of guardrail and concrete barrier.
On an undivided highway, the minimum guardrail length on the downstream end of the run to protect
the opposing traffic from the hazard for 60 km/h, 80 km/h, 100 km/h and 110 km/h is 50 m, 60 m,
70 m and 70 m respectively.
End Treatments:
The untreated end of any safety barrier is extremely hazardous if hit, as the beam element can
penetrate the passenger compartment and will generally stop rather than redirect the vehicle. A
crashworthy end treatment is therefore considered essential if the safety barrier terminates within 10m
of the traveled way or in an area where it is likely to be hit end-on by an errant vehicle.
The termination of the safety barrier should not spear, vault or roll a vehicle for end-on or angled
impacts. For impacts anywhere within the length of need, the performance of the barrier depends on
that of the lengths adjacent to the point of impact. For potential impacts close to the end treatment
zone it is therefore essential that the end treatment should have the same redirectional characteristics
as the standard section. This means that the end must be properly anchored.
A number of different end treatments are available, working on a range of principles. Some of these
are listed below.
Breakaway Terminals
Turned Down Terminals
Energy Absorption Systems
Special Anchorage for Cable Fence
Anchorage into Embankment
Further reference is essential to select the most appropriate system for each particular situation.
Placement on Slopes and Behind Curbs
If guardrail is improperly located on slopes or behind curbs, an errant vehicle could impact the barrier
too high or too low, with undesirable results. Therefore, these criteria apply:
1. Guardrail height is measured from the ground or pavement surface at the guardrail
face. For W-beam and Thrie beam this dimension is typically 550 mm from the
surface to the center post bolt.
2. Berm and curb must be located to minimize vaulting potential. See the Construction
Standards for details.
3. Where guardrail is required to be offset from the edge of pavement, it should not be
placed on a slope steeper than 1V:12H.
Transitions
Transition sections of safety barrier act as a link between lengths of different strength or rigidity, and
are necessary:
to provide continuity of protection when two different barriers join; or
where a barrier joins another barrier system such as a bridge rail; or
where a roadside barrier is attached to a rigid object such as a bridge pier
The transition section should be at least as strong as the stronger of the two sections which it links.
It should be long enough so that significant changes in deflection characteristics do not occur within a
short distance. Generally the transition length should be 10 to 12 times the difference in the lateral
deflection of the two systems in question, for example in a transition between a beam with a design
deflection of 1.5m and a rigid barrier or abutment, the transition length should be around 15 to 18 m.
Drainage features such as ditches should be avoided at transition positions as they may initiate
vehicle instability.
The stiffness of the transition should increase smoothly and continuously from the less rigid to the
more rigid system. This can be achieved by decreasing the post spacing, increasing post size or
strengthening the rail element.
8.10.5 Impact Attenuator Systems
Energy absorbing barriers, also known as crash cushions or impact attenuator systems, are protective
devices to prevent errant vehicles from impacting fixed object hazards. This is achieved by rapidly
slowing down a vehicle, if possible, bringing it to a safe stop before the point of impact with the
hazard. If stopping is not achievable, slowing it down would be to such an extent that the severity of
the impact with the object is kept within sustainable limits. Some designs of impact attenuators also
have the capability to deflect and redirect a shallow-angle impact.
Impact attenuator systems are therefore designed specifically for use at locations where fixed objects
cannot be removed, relocated or made to break away, and cannot be adequately protected by a
normal safety barrier. They primarily serve to lessen the severity of an impact with a fixed object,
unlike safety barriers which attempt to redirect the vehicle away from the object.
Impact attenuators work on one of two principles, namely absorption of kinetic energy or transfer of
momentum.
In the first case, the kinetic energy of a moving vehicle is absorbed by hydraulic energy absorbers or
crushable materials. This can be achieved by the use of water filled containers from which the water
will be expelled in a collision, or by a progressively crushable mechanical array of elements. Crash
cushions of this type require a rigid back stop to resist the impact force of the vehicle.
The second concept involves the transfer of momentum of a moving vehicle to an expendable mass
of material or weights. This mass is often provided by a series of free-standing sand filled containers.
Devices of this type require no rigid back stop.
Energy absorbing barriers are generally appropriate for cars traveling at speeds of up to 100 km/h,
but the system could be designed for trucks and buses too with various configurations.
The most common application of energy absorbing barriers is at an off-ramp in a depressed or
elevated structure, where a bridge pier or gore parapet requires protection and there is insufficient
space for a conventional safety barrier lead-in. Figure 8-49 shows an energy absorbing barrier
protecting an obstruction located in the gore area of an off-ramp terminal.
Delineation:
Crash cushions and barrier end treatments are not intended to reduce the frequency of crashes but to
lessen their severity. Nevertheless, if a particular installation is struck frequently, it is important to
determine why the crashes are occurring. Frequently, improved signing, pavement markings, or
delineation may result in fewer crashes. In this regard, conspicuous, well-delineated crash cushions
and end terminals are significantly less likely to be hit night or during inclement weather. If a system is
Figure 8-49 Impact Attenuator Protection to Obstruction Located in the Gore Area
For optimum performance, the barrier should ideally be on a relatively level surface. Curbs should not
be provided as they may cause the vehicle to become airborne, thus coming into contact only partially
with the crash cushion.
There are many different designs of impact attenuator systems, each of which has its own particular
merits and applications. In the selection process, the road designer must consider the site
characteristics, cost, maintenance requirements, and structural and safety characteristics of the
different systems.
Further general reference on this subject is given in the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials’ publication, Roadside Design Guide. For details of any specific impact
attenuator systems, the manufacturer’s technical literature should be referred to.
8.10.6 Traffic Calming
8.10.6.1 General
Excessive vehicle speed is a significant factor in the majority of accidents in urban areas. Although
the vehicles concerned may not have exceeded the posted speed, they have traveled faster than the
prevailing conditions required. This is frequently due to the driver being "given the wrong signals"
from the road infrastructure - being unaware that he is driving at a speed much greater for the
circumstances in which he finds himself (either associated with the road layout or related to other road
users and those living in the area).
Traffic calming is a generic name for techniques of speed reduction through road design. The
objective is to alter the driver’s perception of the road so that he drives at a speed which is
appropriate. On roads of arterial standard and above, traffic calming is never appropriate because
they require higher design speeds. On urban collector roads, some elements of traffic calming may
be appropriate, but the place where calming techniques are particularly relevant is in the design of
local streets.
8.10.6.2 Objectives of Traffic Calming
The main objectives are:
to improve road safety
to improve the quality of life for residents of the area
Secondary objectives are:
to smooth the flow of traffic;
to reduce the volume of traffic;
to improve the environmental quality of roads;
to discourage the use of unsuitable routes by heavy vehicles or streams of unnecessary
through traffic;
to limit vehicular atmospheric pollution; and
to reduce traffic noise levels
The introduction of an area speed limit can assist in achieving these objectives, but unless the road is
designed properly, the posted speeds are likely to be disregarded by many drivers.
There are four generic types of calming techniques: traffic engineering measures, visual features,
horizontal alignment features and vertical alignment features.
8.10.6.3 Traffic Engineering Measures
Intersection priority change
This can be introduced to break up a length of road which has priority through a series of
intersections. Care needs to be taken in the signing of such a measure.
One-way streets
The introduction of short lengths of one-way operation can create a "maze"-like road system, thus
discouraging through traffic. The technique can also be used to limit traffic speeds by breaking up
straight lengths of road into short sections, and can also permit the transfer of space from pavement
to sidewalk or landscape use.
Shared surfaces
In appropriate circumstances it may be possible to provide an area to be used by both pedestrians
and motorized traffic. It is essential in such areas to ensure that only very low vehicle speeds are
achievable.
8.10.6.4 Visual Features
Bar markings
These are colored road markings which can be laid across the road, particularly to draw attention to a
change in speed limits. They may also be perceived by changes in tire noise.
Entry treatment
Where drivers enter a calmed road or area, it is usually helpful to draw this to their attention by use of
different visual signals - paving color, texture, or material being the usual method. Alignment features
are often provided in association with entry treatments.
Gate ways
Gateways are a form of entry treatment, but with added vertical features such as walls or fences at
right angles to the road, relatively close to the edge of the traveled way, to give a visual effect of
narrowness.
Planting
The presence of tong sight lines can be a contributory factor to high speeds. Planting serves two
purposes; first, to provide an enhanced environmental appearance, and second, to assist in keeping
sight lines as short as possible, compatible with the very low design speeds which traffic calming
adopts.
Rumble devices
These are textured areas of pavement which cause tire noise to be distinct, thus raising driver’s
awareness.
8.10.6.5 Horizontal Alignment Features
Pinch points
These are locations where the road is deliberately made too narrow to permit two-way operation, and
vehicles have to operate in "shuttle" fashion, one direction at a time. On busier roads it may be
necessary to give priority by signing to one direction of travel. Figure 8-50(b) shows such an
arrangement.
8.11 Intersections
For problems involving signal progression or coordination, the use of one of the following programs is
encouraged:
The latest versions of PASSER, Transyt, or Synchro are useful for designing or
evaluating signal systems along an arterial or in a network.
For simulation of signal operations on an arterial or in a network, the latest version
CORSIM (Traf-NETSIM) is recommended.
8.11.1.8 Other Considerations
1. Expectancy. Intersections are points of conflict between vehicles, pedestrians,
bicycles, and other users. Intersection design should permit users to discern and
perform readily the maneuvers necessary to pass through the intersection safely and
with a minimum of interference.
2. Pedestrians. Intersections are the most significant point where vehicles and
pedestrians share roadways. When pedestrians approach an intersection, there is a
major interruption. The sidewalk should provide sufficient storage area for those
wanting to cross plus area for cross traffic to pass. The storage area (SA) necessary
for pedestrians at a signalized intersection can be computed by the following formula:
SA = R(C – Gw) Ap
The designer should provide for the critical design period such as that containing the
peak pedestrian flow, a period of heavy pedestrian cross-traffic, or frequent interference
from turning motor vehicles.
Once pedestrians are given the walk indication, the crosswalk width becomes important.
The crosswalk must be wide enough to accommodate the pedestrian flow in both
directions within the duration of pedestrian signal phase. The necessary crosswalk
width Xw can be estimated by the following equation:
Xw = (RC/P) (C/Gw)
From a pedestrian perspective, short crosswalks are desirable. If the intersection is not
signalized or if stop signs do not prohibit conflict with vehicular traffic, pedestrians must
wait for sufficient gaps in the traffic to cross. It is desirable for the pedestrian to cross the
entire roadway in a single cycle and not be caught in the median. The clear area on the
sidewalk free of obstructions should have a minimum 1.5 meter clearance between
objects (poles, control boxes etc.).
3. The Handicapped. Design considerations for the handicapped should be included at
intersections. The intersection plan should be evaluated for the convenient and safe
locations of the ramps for the handicapped. Drainage inlets should be located on the
upstream side of all crosswalks and sidewalk ramps. This design operation will
govern the pedestrian crosswalk patterns, stop bar locations, regulatory signs, and in
the case of new construction, establish the most desirable location of signal supports.
4. Bus Stops and Turnouts. The location of bus stops and turnouts can have a
considerable impact on traffic flow, turning movements, sight distance, and
pedestrian safety.
5. Bicycles. Intersections frequently present hazards for bicyclists. Pedestrian
crosswalks at intersections can be utilized by bicyclists to cross over.
6. Access to Abutting Property. Intersection design elements, such as channelization,
can eliminate access to abutting property. While such access control contributes to
safety, it may upset the desired balance between access and mobility. Each
intersection must be evaluated independently to assure that design features are
consistent with safety and the functional class of the roadways.
8.11.2 Intersection Sight Distance
Two sight distance criteria must be met at intersections. First, the driver must be able to see the
intersection itself. At a minimum, stopping sight distance must be provided to the intersection.
However, decision sight distance is often the desirable treatment at inter-sections because:
1. Many at-grade intersections present roadway conditions that are too complex for the
2.5 second perception/reaction time factored into the stopping sight distances.
2. Decision sight distance allows time to conduct an evasive maneuver, which is
desirable at intersections where slower moving, stopped, or crossing vehicles may be
in the through lane.
The Case I distances are considerably less than the lower stopping sight distances. Therefore, the
use of the Case I criteria should be limited to low-volume, low-speed intersections where attaining
greater sight distance would be too costly. They typically apply to intersections in residential areas
and between minor rural roads.
8.11.2.3 Case II – No Control: Enabling Either Vehicle to Stop
At intersections without traffic controls, it is desirable to provide enough sight distance along the
intersecting legs to allow either vehicle to stop. The Case II sight distances are provided in Figure 8-
51, which are the greater stopping sight distances. At restricted sites, the lower stopping sight
distances may be used.
Where it is too costly to remove an obstruction which blocks the needed sight triangle, the Case II
criteria can be used to determine the safe speed through the intersection. Advance warning signs
should then be used to notify approaching drivers of the hazard
8.11.2.4 Case IIIA - Stop Control: Enabling Vehicles to Cross a Major Highway
At an intersection with stop control on the minor road, the driver of a stopped vehicle must have
sufficient sight distance in both directions to cross a major road without interfering with oncoming
vehicles. Figure 8-52 provides an illustration of the Case IIIA layout and the necessary equations for
computation of "d,” the sight distance needed in either direction. The following steps are necessary in
the calculation:
1. Select the design vehicle. This should be the vehicle which will be making the
crossing maneuver with considerable frequency to justify the sight distance provided.
2. Calculate the distance “S” the crossing vehicle must traverse. As shown in Figure 8-
52, this will depend upon the length of the vehicle, the width of the major highway,
and the typical setback distance (usually 3 m).
3. Find ta the time needed to travel distance "S,” from Figure 8-53. This will depend
upon the selected design vehicle. The values from the figure are valid for relatively
flat conditions.
4. Select a value "J,” the perception/reaction time for a driver to begin moving the
vehicle. Normally, J is assumed to be 2.0 seconds. However, a somewhat lower
value may be justified in urban areas where drivers use many intersections with stop
control.
5. Calculate "d", the minimum sight distance along the major highway, from the equation
in Figure 8-52.
d = 0.28 V (J+ ta)
When testing for adequate sight distance, use a height of eye of 1070 mm and height of object of
1300 mm.
Problem: Determine required distance "d" for a passenger vehicle to cross the highway safely.
8.11.2.5 Case IIIB (Left Turn) and IIIC (Right Turn) - Stop Control
If a vehicle operator intends to turn left or right onto a highway from a stopped position, additional
sight distance is needed. Figure 8-54 illustrates Case IIIB and Case IIIC. Figure 8-55 provides the
design criteria for the sight distance needed along the major highway. Preferably, the criteria for
design speed should be used; the criteria for average running speed are acceptable as a minimum.
Normally, sight distances for Case IIIB and IIIC should be satisfied. (Note: Criteria for buses and
trucks have not been established. The corner sight distances for these vehicles would obviously be
much greater.)
Cases IIIB and IIIC should be used at an intersection where the frequency of left-turning and/or right-
turning vehicles justifies the additional costs of providing the sight distance. A review of the
intersection accident history may indicate the extent of any sight distance problems.
Speed Distance ta
(km/h) (m) (s)
30 25 5.7
40 40 7.3
50 70 9.8
60 110 12.3
70 160 15.2
80 235 18.8
90 325 22.4
-4 -2 0 +2 +4
Table 8-48 Minimum Edge of Traveled Way Designs for Turns at Intersection
Angle Simple
of Turn Design Curve Radius Offset Taper
(degrees) Vehicle Radius (m) (m) (m) (m:m)
P 18 - - -
SU 30 - - -
WB-12 45 - - -
Ws-15 60 - - -
30
WB-19 110 67 1.0 15:1
P 15 - - -
SU 23 - - -
WB-12 36 - - -
P 12 - - -
SU 18 - - -
WB-12 28 - - -
Angle Simple
of Turn Design Curve Radius Offset Taper
(degrees) Vehicle Radius (m) (m) (m) (m:m)
P 11 8 0.6 10:1
SU 17 14 0.6 10:1
P 9 6 0.8 10:1
SU 15 12 0.6 10:1
P - 6 0.8 8:1
SU - 11 1.0 10:1
Angle Simple
of Turn Design Curve Radius Offset Taper
(degrees) Vehicle Radius (m) (m) (m) (m:m)
SU - 9 1.0 10:1
P - 6 0.5 15:1
SU - 9 1.2 8:1
P - 6 0.6 10:1
SU - 9 1.2 8:1
P - 5 0.2 20:1
Angle Simple
of Turn Design Curve Radius Offset Taper
(degrees) Vehicle Radius (m) (m) (m) (m:m)
Turning Roadways
Turning roadways are channelized areas which allow a right turn to be made away from the
intersection area. They should be considered where:
it is desirable to allow right turns at 25 km/h or more
intersections are skewed; or
buses or semi-trailers must be accommodated
Table 8-50 provides the design data for the horizontal alignment, width, and superelevation for
various design speeds. Figure 8-62 illustrates a typical design for a turning roadway. These criteria
apply to the design of a turning roadway.
Curvature - 3 centered compound curves should be used. Table 8-51 and Figure 8-63
show the minimum design criteria.
Spirals - May also be used for smoother transitions. See Table 8-52 for minimum spiral
lengths.
Superelevation - Superelevation on turning roadways does not need to be developed to
the strict criteria of open highways. A flexible approach may be used where
superelevation is provided as site conditions allow. The maximum superelevation is 0.04
m/m. If possible, the superelevation should be developed in the same manner as
described in Section 5 for deceleration lanes at freeway exits.
Speed-Change Lanes - For large differences between the design speeds of mainline and
turning roadway, the designer should consider deceleration and acceleration lanes. The
decision to use a speed-change lane will depend upon the functional classification of the
two highways, traffic volumes, accident history, design speed, and the speed differential
between the mainline and turning roadway. Speed-change lanes should be provided
from high-volume, high-speed urban and rural arterials. Acceleration lanes are normally
provided when the turning roadway is merging with these facilities. A 15:1 taper is
sufficient for deceleration lanes, and a 25:1 taper is preferred for the acceleration lane.
Preferably, the length of the speed change lane should be determined from the criteria in Section 8.8
for interchanges.
4
Design1 Side Assumed2 Minimum3 Width (m)
Speed Friction Superelevation e+ f Radius
(km/h) (f) (e) (m) A B C
A flatter curve, no more than twice the minimum radius, should be used to transition into and out of
the sharper radius. The minimum length of the flatter transition curve will be:
Minimum Length
12 15 18 24 30 36 43
(m)
Desirable Length
18 20 27 36 42 41 60
(m)
3. Add a minimum of 0.5 m and desirable 1.25 m on each side of a barrier curb.
Traffic conditions are:
A – Predominantly P vehicles, but some consideration for SU trucks;
B – Predominantly SU vehicles, but some considerations for semitrailers;
C – Sufficient bus and semitrailer vehicles to govern design (>10%)
3-Centered
Compound Curve
NOTES: Asymmetric three-centered compound curve and straight tapers with a simple curve can also be used
without significantly altering the width of roadway or corner island size.
2
Painted island delineation is recommended for islands less than 7 m in size
Design Classification:
A - Primarily passenger vehicles; permits occasional design single-unit truck to turn with restricted clearances.
B - Provides adequately for SU; permits occasional WB-15 to turn with slight encroachment on adjacent traffic
lanes.
C - Provides fully for WB-15.
1. Taper - A taper of 15: 1 should be used. Short curves should be used at the
beginning and end of the taper.
2. Deceleration - It is desirable for the lengths for deceleration to be the same as those
given for deceleration lanes at freeway exits in Chapter 8, and for all deceleration to
occur within the full width of the turn lane. Figure 8-65 provides the minimum criteria
for the length of turn lanes.
3. Storage Length - The storage length should be long enough to store the number of
vehicles likely to accumulate in the design period. The following minimum criteria will
apply:
Advancing Volume/Hour
Left Turns
Opposing
Volume/Hour
5% 10% 20% 30%
NOTES:
1. Widths must be increased for curb offsets or shoulders, where applicable.
2. As shown in the figure, all deceleration will desirably occur after the full width of the turning lane begins. If
possible, the criteria in Table 8-53 should be used. However, in areas of restricted right-of-way, this may not be
practical. Use the following minimum distances for deceleration:
50 70 m
60 100 m
80 130 m
NOTES:
1. Tables are based on:
Curve radii are minimum radii for open highway conditions for given design speed and a normal crown of
0.02 m/m, which is the typical cross slope.
Tangent Distance Assumes A Taper Of: L=Ws²/100
2. See Figure 8-65 for details of turning lane taper.
3. See Figure 8-65 for details of turning lane length.
4. Island may be raised, painted, or scored concrete.
NOTES:
1. L = Length, m
W = By-Pass Lane Width, m
S = Design Speed, km/h
2. Increase Length If Storage Requirements Exceed 30 m.
3. May be used as an alternative to Figure 8-66 in highly developed areas, where right-of-way is restricted.
Other Considerations
When designing an auxiliary turning and storage lane, these factors should also be considered:
1. Where the proper length of a turn lane cannot be provided or becomes prohibitive,
the designer may consider a dual-turn lane. Generally, a dual-turn lane
approximately 60% as long as a single-turn lane will operate comparably. However,
double left turns require a protected turn phase to operate properly.
2. A right-turn lane in an urban area will often require parking restrictions beyond the
usual restricted distances from the intersection. Also, it may require relocating near-
side bus stops to the far side of the intersection.
3. With sufficiently wide medians, a left-turn lane may be offset 0.5 m or more from the
inside through lane to provide a striped island between the two.
4. Medians must be designed to accommodate the turning radii of the design vehicle.
5. Pavement markings for lanes must line up from one side of the intersection to the
other.
6. The width of the turn lane should be 3.0m minimum.
7. Median openings should be designed according to the criteria in Section 8.11.3.4.
8.11.3.3 Two-Way Left-Turn Lanes
A continuous or two-way left-turn lane (2WLTL) is a paved, flush, traversable median which can be
used for left-turn storage in either direction. A 2WLTL may be considered in developed areas with
frequent commercial roadside access and with no more than two through lanes in each direction.
Although the 2WLTL offers advantages, they are hazardous unless there is sufficient sight distance
and adequate delineation. The following should be used as guidance in selecting and designing a
2WLTL:
Control Radius of 15 m
Control Radius of 23 m
Control Radius of 15 m
24 27.6 20.4
Control Radius of 23 m
Bullet Nose
Skew Width of Semi- R For
Angle Median Circular Symmetrical Asymmetrical Design C
(degree) (m) A B B (m)
3 27 19
6 24 13
9 21 12 MIN.
0
12 18 12 MIN.
15 15 12 MIN.
18 13 12 MIN.
3 32 24 23
6 28 17 16
10 9 25 14 12 MIN.
12 21 12 MIN. 12 MIN.
15 18 12 MIN. 12 MIN.
Bullet Nose
Skew Width of Semi- R For
Angle Median Circular Symmetrical Asymmetrical Design C
(degree) (m) A B B (m)
18 14 12 MIN. 12 MIN.
3 36 29 27 29
6 32 22 20 28
9 28 18 14 26
20
12 24 14 12 MIN. 25
15 20 12 MIN. 12 MIN. 23
18 16 12 MIN. 12 MIN. 21
3 41 34 32 42
6 36 27 23 39
9 31 23 17 36
30
12 27 19 13 33
15 23 15 12 MIN. 30
18 18 12 12 MIN. 27
3 44 38 35 63
6 39 32 27 58
9 35 27 20 53
40
12 29 23 15 47
15 24 19 12 MIN. 42
18 19 15 12 MIN. 36
12 15 23
Predominant P SU WB-12
8.12 Roundabouts
8.12.1 General
Roundabouts are circular intersections with specific design and traffic control features. These
features include yield control of all entering traffic, channelized approaches, and appropriate
geometric curvature to ensure that travel speeds on the circulatory roadway are typically less than 50
km/h. Thus, roundabouts are a subset of a wide range of circular intersection forms.
A roundabout can be provided on any class of road where at-grade intersections are permissible, and
so is an appropriate form of intersection on all roads, except for freeways and expressways where at-
grade intersections are not to be used.
It is reasonable to assume that roundabouts on Local Roads will operate within capacity, and it is
likely that roundabouts on Collectors can be designed to do so too. On Arterials, adequate capacity
may often be difficult to achieve while maintaining a safe layout.
8.12.2 Design Principles
The principal objective of roundabout design is to secure the safe interaction of traffic between
crossing traffic streams with minimum delay. This is achieved by a combination of geometric layout
features that should be matched to the volumes of traffic in the various streams, to vehicle speeds,
and to any location constraints that apply. Roundabouts are defined by two basic operational and
design principles:
Yield-at-Entry: Also known as off-side priority or the yield-to-left rule, yield-at-entry
requires that vehicles on the circulatory roadway of the roundabout have the right-of-way
and all entering vehicles on the approaches have to wait for a gap in the circulating flow.
To maintain free flow and high capacity, yield signs are used as the entry control.
Deflection of Entering Traffic: Entrance roadways that intersect the roundabout along
a tangent to the circulatory roadway are not permitted. Instead, entering traffic is
deflected to the right by the central island of the roundabout and by channelization at the
entrance into an appropriate curved path along the circulating roadway.
From a safety viewpoint, the roundabout should be designed to limit through speeds by means of
adequate deflection angles and entry path curvature, and this may constrain pavement widths and
thus limit the available capacity. See Figure 8-70.
Recommended maximum entry design speeds for roundabouts at various intersection site categories
are provided in Table 8-58.
The design speed of the roundabout is determined from the smallest radius along the fastest
allowable path. The smallest radius usually occurs on the circulatory roadway as the vehicle curves
to the left around the central island. However, it is important when designing the roundabout
geometry that the radius of the entry path (i.e., as the vehicle curves to the right through entry
geometry) not be significantly larger than the circulatory path radius.
8.12.5 Design Vehicle
An important factor determining a roundabout’s layout is the need to accommodate the largest
motorized vehicle likely to use the intersection. The turning path requirements of this design vehicle
will dictate many of the roundabout’s dimensions. Before beginning the design process, the designer
In general, smaller inscribed diameters are better for overall safety because they help to maintain
lower speeds. It should be noted, however, that if roundabouts are below 40m ICD it can prove
difficult to achieve adequate deflections. In such cases consideration could be given to the use of a
larger, low-profile central island which would provide adequate deflection for standard vehicles but
allow overrun of all or part of the island by the rear wheels of articulated vehicles and trailers.
In high-speed environments, however, the design of the approach geometry is more critical than in
low-speed environments. Larger inscribed diameters generally allow for the provision of better
approach geometry, which leads to a decrease in vehicle approach speeds. Larger inscribed
diameters also reduce the angle formed between entering and circulating vehicle paths, thereby
reducing the relative speed between these vehicles and leading to reduced entering-circulating crash
rates.
8.12.7 Circulating Roadway Width
The circulating roadway pavement width should, if possible, be circular in plan, and its width should
generally not exceed 15m. However, flush block-paved 'collars' around the central island can be used
to provide additional width if long vehicle turning movements need to be catered for on smaller
roundabouts.
The width of the circulating pavement should be constant and should be between 1.0 and 1.2 times
the width of the widest entry. It may be necessary to exceed 1.2 on smaller ICD roundabouts, but
care should be taken to ensure that the wider pavement does not permit vehicle paths with less than
adequate deflection.
It is normal practice to avoid short lengths of reverse curve between an entry and the subsequent exit
by joining those curves with tangents between the entry and exit curves. One method is to increase
the exit radius. However, where there is a considerable distance between the entry and the next exit,
as with three-leg layouts, reverse curvature may be unavoidable. The circulating pavement must be
wide enough to allow those vehicles which have entered the roundabout side-by-side to continue
side-by-side. Allowance should be made for increased width because of the curve, as set out in
Table 8-60. For island diameters less than 30m, the width requirements should always be checked
using a relevant software package or swept path templates.
Circulation
Island Diameter
(m)
2-Lane 3-Lane
30 12.6 Check
50 11.1 using
Template
75 10.3 15.0
Flaring is an effective means of increasing capacity without requiring as much right-of-way as a full
lane addition. While increasing the length of flare increases capacity, it does not increase crash
frequency. Entry widths should therefore be minimized and flare lengths maximized to achieve the
desired capacity with minimal effect on crashes. Generally, flare lengths should be a minimum of 25m
in urban areas and 40m in rural areas. However, if right-of-way is constrained, shorter lengths can be
used with noticeable effects on capacity.
8.12.9 Entry Curves
The entry radius is an important factor in determining the operation of a roundabout as it has
significant impacts on both capacity and safety. The entry radius, in conjunction with the entry width,
the circulatory roadway width, and the central island geometry, controls the amount of deflection
imposed on a vehicle’s entry path. Larger entry radii produce faster entry speeds and generally result
in higher crash rates between entering and circulating vehicles. In contrast, the operational
performance of roundabouts benefits from larger entry radii.
The entry curve is designed curvilinearly tangential to the outside edge of the circulatory roadway.
Likewise, the projection of the inside (left) edge of the entry roadway should be curvilinearly tangential
to the central island. Figure 8-80 shows typical roundabout entrance geometry.
8.12.11.2 Superelevation
As a general practice, a cross slope of 2% away from the central island should be used for the
circulatory roadway. This technique of sloping outward is recommended for four main reasons:
It promotes safety by raising the elevation of the central island and improving its visibility;
It promotes lower circulating speeds;
It minimizes breaks in the cross slopes of the entrance and exit lanes; and
It helps drain surface water to the outside of the roundabout.
The outward cross slope design means vehicles making through and left-turn movements must
negotiate the roundabout at negative superelevation. Excessive negative superelevation can result in
Inscribed Circle
Visibility Distance “a”
Diameter
(m)
(m)
40 to 60 40
The area which should be able to be seen from the centerline of the inner approach lane for a
distance of 15m back from the "Give Way" line is as shown in Figure 8-90.
These requirements apply to all roundabouts, including those with parapets on either side of the
circulating pavement. A check should also be made to ensure that the combination of cross slopes
and longitudinal grades does not restrict visibility.
Figure 8-89 Visibility to the Left from the “Give Way” Line
The objective of this manual is to provide the Engineer or Designer with sufficient information so that
the necessary input data can be developed and proper engineering principles applied to design a new
flexible pavement, or develop a properly engineered rehabilitation project. This design manual
addresses methods to properly develop a rehabilitation project, pavement milling, and the
computations necessary for the pavement design process.
The standards in this manual represent minimum requirements, which must be met for flexible
pavement design for new construction and pavement rehabilitation of HIB projects. Any variances
should be documented in project files.
Pavement design is primarily a matter of sound application of acceptable engineering criteria and
standards. While the standards contained in this manual provide a basis for uniform design practice
for typical pavement design situations, the Designer must also apply sound engineering judgment. It
is the responsibility of the Designer to insure that the designs produced conform to HIB policies,
procedures, standards, guidelines, and good engineering practices.
9.2 General
Effective pavement design is one of the more important aspects of project design. The pavement is
the portion of the highway which is most obvious to the motorist. The condition and adequacy of the
highway is often judged by the smoothness or roughness of the pavement. Deficient pavement
conditions can result in increased user costs and travel delays, braking and fuel consumption, vehicle
maintenance repairs and probability of increased crashes.
The pavement life is substantially affected by the number of heavy load repetitions applied, such as
single, tandem, tridem and quad axle trucks, buses, tractor trailers and equipment. A properly
designed pavement structure will take into account the applied loading. To select the appropriate
pavement type/treatment and properly design a pavement structure, the Designer must obtain
information from field investigations and input from HIB Engineer.
9.4 References
The pavement design procedures contained in this manual are based on the 1972 AASHTO Interim
Guide as revised in 1981. These are the standard procedures to be followed for the design of all
pavement structures subject to this manual.
Table 9-1 Equivalent 80 kN axle applications per 1000 trucks flexible pavements (ESAL)
Freeways/Expressways 1100
Surface Course:
Hot Mix Asphalt Riding Surface and Binder 1.73 x 10-2
Base Course:
-2
Crushed Stone (Dense Graded), or 0.55 x 10
-2
Hot Mix Asphalt 1.34 x 10
Subbase:
Crushed Stone (Dense Graded) 0.55 x 10-2
-2
Gravel 0.43 x 10
HMA - Base 1 *
Gravel Sub-base **
Expressway - - 4.62
Arterial - - 4.27
1 Low volume design can be used on residential roads and parking lots in housing projects.
* Thicknesses for Base 1 and Base 2 can simultaneously be changed to produce the same overall SN.
** Subbase may not be used if soil conditions show an adequate subgrade that provides the required SN.
The above table is only valid when the conventional design calculations indicate a required pavement
structure less than the above. All pavement thicknesses shall be designed as detailed here. The use
of crushed stone as part of the base course makes a firmer base for the paving machines and
reduces the amount of gravel required. Gravel gives a structural support (though it is weaker than
crushed stone), and provides better drainage.
9.8 Reclamation
For reclaimed pavements, the Designer will determine the depth of reclamation required. A minimum
300 mm granular base or sub-base course must be provided beneath the HMA pavement courses.
The detailed procedure is as outlined in the HIB Master Specifications. The Designer must complete
the Pavement Design Form – New and Reconstructed Pavements in accordance with Section 9.6
above.
When designing structural resurfacings on limited access highways, the Designer may elect to use
non-destructive testing to determine the appropriate resurfacing. The following general parameters
are considered the minimum standards for these roadways:
9.10.1 Design Method
Both a layered component analysis and non-destructive testing analysis should be reviewed to
calculate the effective existing SN.
9.10.2 Serviceability
An initial serviceability no greater than 4.5 should be assumed. A terminal serviceability no greater
than 2.75 should be selected.
9.10.3 Reliability
Traffic disruption and congestion associated with construction operations result in significant user
costs. Increased design reliability helps reduce these user costs. Thus, reliability levels approaching
99.9 percent are used to design structural resurfacings on the Highway System. Reliability levels
approaching 99.5 percent should be used to design structural resurfacings on other limited access
highway.
Construction Work
The Developer shall be responsible for landscaping within the project’s site boundaries, including
open spaces and for pedestrian (footpath/sidewalk) planting areas up to roadside curb with street
according to the landscape design criteria described herein.
There will be a presumption that all plants should be directly sourced and grown from in-country
nurseries. Developers should therefore consider and build-in the necessary lead times. Details to the
contrary should be outlined and the reasons for sources elsewhere specified.
11.1.1 Landscape and Planting
11.1.1.1 General Guidelines
The landscape design must be carefully planned and take into account the intended purpose of the
project and enhance the functionality of the community. Landscaping should reinforce design
concepts and not obstruct or interfere with street signs, lights, or road/walkway visibility. The choice
of species in all locations should be primarily indigenous and must meet and reflect local growing
conditions with the size and scale of the tree appropriate to the location. Species should be chosen
which require low maintenance.
11.1.1.2 Planting
Provide planting at low levels to reinforce routes, mark focal points, and add to the visual
environment. Planting should be varied with a variety of colors and sizes of plants utilized. Species
which flower at different times in the year should be used to ensure that spaces are attractive all year
round.
In public squares, plant beds should be raised in order to reinforce routes, add visual interest, and
prevent from being walked over.
Selection of plants should be based on climatic, geologic, and topographical conditions of the site.
Annual color plantings should be used only in areas of high visual impact close to where people can
appreciate them. Otherwise, drip irrigated, perennial plantings should be the primary source of color.
Selection of water-efficient and low-maintenance plant material is recommended.
Good use of raised beds to add interest to a public square and to prevent people walking on plants. Wall also serves as
somewhere people can sit.
All planted areas must be a minimum of 25 mm below adjacent hardscape to reduce runoff and
overflow.
Plants having similar water use shall be grouped together in distinct hydrozones.
Planter islands in parking lots with canopy trees to meet local jurisdiction's shading requirements
should have planter beds sized roughly by the expected canopy area in square meters equaling the
square meter of planter bed.
Native desert plants shall be specified to be:
Planted in a shallow, wide, rough hole three to five times the root ball width.
The root ball will be set on either undisturbed native soil or a firmed native soil.
The root ball top will be set even with surface grade or above grade if the soil is poorly
drained.
The hole will be backfilled with native soil.
Extra soil may be brought in to mound up around plants where the soil is poorly drained.
Any organic material will be applied only as surface mulch over the planting hole.
Figure 11-2 Use of Colorful Flowers
14. Slopes and surroundings around retention ponds shall be landscaped with
appropriate plant materials. Basins of retention ponds shall be mown and kept free
from rubbish (garbage) and regularly maintained.
11.1.3 Planting on Public Streets and Streets within Private Developments
1. All trees in public streets shall be nursery grown, container grown or ball and
burlapped. All trees shall have a 75 mm to 100 mm caliper with 3.5 m to 4.0 m
minimum height at time of planting. These trees shall grow to a minimum 125 mm to
150 mm caliper with a 5.5 m to 6.0 m height and shall be limb up (clear trunk) a
minimum of 2.5 m above ground.
2. All palms in public streets shall be nursery grown, container or ball and burlapped. All
palms shall have a minimum height of 6 m.
3. There shall be at least 1 tree of the species listed planted every 6.0 meters along
both pedestrian pathways (sidewalks) of public streets, streets within private
developments and public spaces.
4. In parking areas, there shall be at least one tree of the species listed planted for
every 3 consecutive parking spaces (every 6 when are back to back). The use of
berms and additional trees along the perimeters of parking is encouraged to screen
the parking area from public view.
5. Trees and palms planted in rows or series shall be selected to insure uniformity of
height, caliper, and appearance between them.
6. Continuous hedges of one species shall be planted in front of parking spaces along
each parcel frontage. Hedges shall be a minimum height of 1 meter planted at a
spacing of 0.75 meter on center. Hedges also form an important part in ‘softening’
hard landscaping, the general streetscape, and as ecological havens for birds and
wildlife. Their inclusion is encouraged wherever possible and appropriate.
11.1.4 Planting on Public Parks and Landscaped Open Areas
Outdoor spaces are extremely important to any development. They are used as pedestrian routes
and as places where people can relax and socialize. A large amount of resident’s time is spent
outside and as such these spaces will have a very large impact on the quality of life of residents.
Landscaping add visual interest to an area, makes pedestrian routes more enjoyable to use, and
provide shading and wind protection to pedestrians where necessary.
This sub-section covers parks, public squares, courtyards, and public gardens. Designers should
make decisions based on strong concepts to ensure that the function of a space is clearly defined.
Outdoor areas are most successful when they have a clear function and a unifying theme to aesthetic
design decisions. Full information on design concepts should be submitted in accordance with
specified requirements below.
In addition to the criteria specifications outlined above, designs must comply with the following
guidelines when delivering criteria:
1. On common landscaped open areas, provide common outdoor areas that are usable
in all seasons, including shaded areas for outdoor use in warmer months.
2. Consider the special needs of each group of the expected residents.
3. When located on ground level, open areas should be screened from public view by
landscaping, courtyard walls, or privacy fences.
4. On sloping sites, landscaped open areas should be sensitively terraced or provided in
decks or balconies.
5. The requirements for private usable open areas could be reduced if a project
provides some common usable open areas on the site.
6. Private open areas should be oriented to receive good sun penetration and provide
shaded areas for outdoor use in the warmest months.
7. Variety and Identity - Designers must provide outdoor spaces which are interesting
and add to the aesthetic environment. Outdoor space designs must be varied and
should be an individual response to the area in which they are located. Outdoor
spaces should be designed in conjunction with buildings to reinforce architectural
themes and ideas.
The landscape design plan shall be drawn on project base sheets at a scale that accurately and
clearly identifies the following:
1. Show tract name, tract number or parcel map number on cover sheet.
2. Show proposed planting areas.
3. Show plant material location and size.
4. Show plant botanical and common names.
5. Where applicable, plant spacing shall be identified.
6. Natural features including but not limited to rock outcroppings, existing trees and
shrubs that will remain incorporated into the new landscape.
12.1 Introduction
‘Streets’ form the core of the transport network; whether paved, with formal demarcation, as in many
towns, or unpaved forming an informal thoroughfare through a rural settlement, streets are also the
building blocks of the urban area, fulfilling a wide range of roles.
They need to be managed to support all the objectives for any settlement however large or small. The
functions of streets include:
Streets as movement corridors
Streets as the focus of activities
Streets as city identity
All of these functions work together towards ‘place making’ and are influenced by the design of the
street and the landscaping that contribute to the streetscape.
A key component of ‘place making’ is the creation of public spaces, with footways that are sufficiently
safe, attractive and comfortable to use so that people are encouraged to walk in the settlement they
live for pleasure and function in a safe way.
Footways should be sufficiently spacious for their purpose and be uncluttered. People see a scene in
its totality. The space between buildings, usually the roadways and footways, is seen as part of a
wider townscape made up of buildings and streets. Cherished views of important monuments and
groups of buildings are appreciated far more when not detracted by unnecessary foreground clutter.
Within this context there are opportunities for more exciting designs which have a place in the wider
public realm and key spaces of the settlements in Libya. However, throughout Libya, it is essential
that the design of streets should be clear and simple.
12.3 Objective
The guidelines have been developed to help redefine those elements of street design that make up
its character and to ensure new proposals that impact the streetscape are designed, as far as
practicable, to improve and at the very least reinforce the existing character. An over reaching
objective is therefore:
… to facilitate the delivery of a streetscape that provides an enhanced environment for
pedestrians that is designed to respond to its built context and, at the same time,
meets the requirements of traffic movement… .
12.4 Principles
This provides guidance for bridge inspection personnel, provides a reference for consultants, and
helps to ensure consistency in bridge inspection, rating, and evaluation. This section contains:
Introduction; Qualifications, Responsibilities, and Duties of Bridge Inspection Personnel; Field
Inspection Requirements; Ratings and Load Posting; Routing and Permits; Bridge Programming;
Bridge Records and an Appendix.
13.1.1 References
The publications related to bridge inspection with their issue dates are:
1. AASHTO Movable Bridge Inspection, Evaluation, and Maintenance Manual, 1st
Edition, 1998
2. AASHTO Manual for Bridge Evaluation, 1st Edition, 2008
st
3. FHWA Bridge Inspector's Reference Manual, 1 Edition (December 2006)
4. NCHRP Maintenance and Inspection of Fracture Critical Bridges, 2005
5. AASHTO Manual for Maintenance Inspection of Bridges (1993)
6. AASHTO Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges (1994)
7. AASHTO Guide Specifications for Fracture Critical Non-redundant Steel Bridge
Members, 1986
8. AASHTO Interim Specifications for Bridges, 1990
9. AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 17th Edition 2002
10. AASHTO Guide for Selecting, Locating, and Designing Traffic Barriers, 1977
11. AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design Specifications, 2004
12. ASTM Standard Terminology Relating to Fatigue and Fracture Testing, ASTM 1823-
96e1
13. ASTM Specification for Carbon Structural Steel A36/A36M -97 Volume 01.04, 1997
14. FHWA National Bridge Inspection Standards (1988)
15. FHWA Recording and Coding Guide for the Structure Inventory and Appraisal of the
Nation’s Bridges (1972, 1979, 1988, 1991, and 1995)
16. FHWA The Bridge Inspector’s Manual for Movable Bridges (1977)
17. FHWA Culvert Inspection Manual (about 1979)
18. FHWA Inspection of Fracture Critical Bridge Members (1986)
19. FHWA Scour at Bridges, a technical advisory (1988)
20. FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 18 (about 1988)
21. FHWA Bridge Inspector’s Training Manual 90 (1991)
22. FHWA Scour at Bridges, Technical Advisory, 1988
23. TxDOT Administrative Circular No. 60-75,1975TxDOT Construction Specifications,
1962
24. TxDOT Memo from C.W.Heald,P.E. Closing of Weak Bridges, February 1999
25. TxDOT Memo from Robert L. Wilson, P.E Texas Transportation Code, Title 7, Chapter
621 Closing and Posting Recommendations for Off-System Structures, October 1997
13.2.1 Requirements
13.2.1.1 General Requirements
Personnel involved in the various bridge inspection activities must be qualified for their specialized
jobs. In general, depending on the level of responsibility, they must be knowledgeable in the various
aspects of bridge engineering including design, load rating, construction, rehabilitation, and
maintenance.
HIB Requirements
These are summarized as:
The individual in charge of the Bridge Inspection of the RBD, or the contract consultant
firm) must:
be a Licensed Professional Engineer, or
be qualified for licensing, or
have a minimum of ten years experience in bridge inspection assignments and have
completed a comprehensive training course based on the Bridge Inspector’s Training
Manual 90.
The individual in charge of a bridge inspection team must have the same qualifications as
above, or
have a minimum of five years experience in bridge inspection assignments and have
completed a comprehensive training course based on the Bridge Inspector’s Training
Manual 90.
13.2.1.2 AASHTO Requirements
These are described in the current AASHTO Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges.
HIB Requirements
At a minimum, all bridge inspection activities performed by Contractors must comply with HIB
requirements. HIB requirements for bridge inspection personnel are also the same as those in
AASHTO requirements, and in addition, some jobs may require more specific job-related knowledge
and skills such as:
The use of breathing apparatus for underwater inspection
The various applicable requirements for inspection safety including applicable
Occupational, Safety, and Health Administration (OSHA) requirements
Advanced computer skills related to bridge analysis
Geotechnical and hydrological knowledge
Familiarity with HIB bridge construction specifications and with current and old HIB bridge
designs
13.4.1 Overview
This Section includes discussion of the following topics:
Condition Ratings
Appraisal Ratings
Load Ratings
Legal Loads
13.4.2 Condition Ratings
13.4.2.1 Definition of Condition Ratings
Condition Ratings based on the field inspections can be considered as “snapshots in time” and cannot
be used to predict future conditions or behavior of the structure. However, the Condition Ratings
based on the inspections along with the written comments by the field inspector act as the major
source of information on the status of the bridge. The Condition Ratings also help in planning for any
necessary repairs or modifications. In addition, the Condition Ratings are used as flags when
performing overweight permit evaluations.
Condition Ratings are one-digit numbers given by the field inspector to the various components of a
bridge. They are intended to be objective and not distorted by personal beliefs or opinions. There is
significant emphasis to have the Condition Ratings be more consistent between inspectors given the
same deficiency of structural component.
Condition Ratings are a measure of the deterioration or damage and are not a measure of design
deficiency. For instance, an old bridge designed to lower load capacity but with little or no
deterioration may have excellent Condition Ratings while a newer bridge designed to modern loads
but with deterioration will have lower Condition Ratings.
The channel, waterway, riprap, and other channel protection components under and directly upstream
and downstream of the bridge are often inter-related to one another in assigning the Condition Rating
for the channel.
13.4.2.2 Recording Condition Ratings
Condition Ratings are entered on the Bridge Inspection Record, BIR. There are six component items
covered on the form, each of which lists four to 11 elements. The Item Numbers relate to the entry of
the data in the electronic Bridge Inventory Files, the detailed instructions for which are contained in
the instructions for coding guide. The six component items plus a miscellaneous item are:
Deck (Item 58)
Superstructure (Item 59)
Substructure (Item 60)
Channel (Item 61)
Culverts (Item 62)
Approaches (Item 65)
Miscellaneous (used for information, but not entered in the Bridge Inventory file. Still
important as part of the Bridge Folder).
The elements for each component have minimum values (shown to the left of the element description
on the BIR Form that the rating must equal or exceed. Each element is rated based on independent
consideration. For instance, poor or deficient secondary members (bracing, diaphragms, etc.) in a
*Permit Trucks with gross or axle weights that exceed the state legal load limits will not be allowed to use these
bridges.
I.F. – Inspection Frequency.
Refer to AASHTO Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges, Chapter 7, Section 7.4.
Permit Loads will not be allowed on bridges that are load posted.
If the bridge has not been rehabilitated or replaced in 24 months then the structure shall be closed.
I.F. – Inspection Frequency.
OR – Operating Rating (Item 64)
IR – Inventory Rating (Item 66)
Permit Loads will not be allowed on bridges that are load posted
If the bridge has not been rehabilitated or replaced in 24 months then the structure shall be closed.
I.F. – Inspection Frequency
OR – Operating Rating (Item 64)
IR – Inventory Rating (Item 66)
Under the following conditions, Inspection Branch should submit a completed Form showing reasons
for restriction removal.
Repair or rehabilitation of a bridge that increases load capacity and eliminates a load
restriction.
Construction of a new bridge that replaces one with a load restriction.
13.4.5.4 Procedures for Emergency On-System Bridge Load Posting
The following table outlines the procedure for changing the load posting of an on-system bridge in an
emergency.
If the emergency load limit is required for a period longer than 60 days, Inspection contractor should
submit a request to the RBD for the emergency load restriction to remain in place for another 60 days.
If the bridge is not replaced or repaired before the emergency load restriction extension expires, the
Inspection Contractor should submit a request to the RBD for a permanent load restriction following
the procedure for changing on-system bridge load postings.
13.4.5.5 Closure of Weak Bridges
13.5.1 Overview
This Chapter includes discussion of the following topics:
Role of the Bridge Inspection Engineers, and the Traffic Authorities
Permits
Example Comparison of Inventory, Operating, and Permit Loads
13.5.2 Role of Inspection Engineers and the Traffic Authorities
One of the responsibilities of the Bridge Inspection Engineer is to assist the Traffic Authorities in the
evaluation of over-height and over-width permit routes based on experience. The current electronic
Bridge Inventory Files are expected to be accurate; however, should the values for clearances in the
Bridge Inventory Files appear suspect, the actual plans should be reviewed and/or a field visit made
prior to issuing a permit. The Traffic Authorities issues the permit only after review by the RBD.
A supplementary role of the Bridge Inspection Engineer is to notify the Traffic Authorities of any
changes to bridge load postings, particularly for bridges which have never been previously posted.
The Traffic Authorities shall maintain a master set of maps showing the various width, height, and
load restrictions on all highways.
All permits are issued by the Traffic Authorities with the cooperation of the RBD. For overweight
permits, the Traffic Authorities also works closely with the RBD. Any super-heavy permits must also
be coordinated the RBD for structural evaluation of the bridges on a proposed route. This process is
fully explained below.
a. Max positive moment in end and center spans will usually be from an HS-20
live load with 4.20 M center-to-center of trailer axles. However, for very long
plate girders, the lane loading criteria may sometimes control positive moment.
b. Max negative moment will also usually be from the HS pattern, perhaps with
more than 4.20M between the trailer axles if total length of first plus second
spans is less than about 21.30 M. If the sum of the first two spans is more
than about 22.90 M or 24.40 M, then the negative moment will be from lane
loading of the two adjacent spans with the concentrated loads applied at the
critical positions in the two spans.
4. Calculate the Moments and Load Ratings. Apply the appropriate load factors for
the various ratings to both the dead and live load moments at each member location
being investigated. Subtract the dead load effect from the member capacity at yield
(if load factor analysis) or from the member capacity at allowable stress (if allowable
stress analysis). The remainder is the live load capacity. Ratio the remainder to the
calculated live load value at the location and multiply by the live load ton designation.
The result is the member rating at that location. It is best to understand this basic
process rather than use a set formula for calculating the load rating.
5. Tabulate the Maximums. Identify the locations for which stresses and ratings are to
be calculated. Often the maximum positive moment sum of dead plus live effects will
not be at the point of maximum dead load or live load moment. This condition is
another reason to use a computer analysis such as BMCOL51.
6. This program allows the combination of dead and live loads to be investigated at all
points along the continuous member with proper consideration of the effects of cover
plates and composite regions, if any. The maximum moments in the end spans may
not be the same, even though they have the same span length, due to the
unsymmetrical live load pattern. For the results discussed in the remainder of this
section, Program BMCOL51 was used with 21.00– 25.14 – 21.00 M spans.
13.5.4.3 Results for I-Beam Bridge
An H-pattern was used for comparison (normally not necessary) with no railing and no overlay as an
additional check on the original design using allowable stresses. This design pre-dated the 1965
design shown on the standard plans and obviously was done using an allowable stress of 124 MPa.
In 1965 many standard details were changed to specify “H.Y.C.” structural steel which is equivalent to
ASTM A-36. However, the design load was kept the same, and no change was made in the size of
the cover plates. An HS loading, using the allowable stress or load factor methods, and Inventory
Rating or Operating Rating methods was also made for comparison. The various analyses are
summarized in the following table:
Loa ding Ana l ysi s Method 1s t or 3rd Span Support Middl e Span
H (1) N AS -IR H 20.08 H 14.24* H 18.94
H (2) N AS -IR H 23.46 H 17.59* H 22.28
HS (3) N AS -IR HS 15.78 HS 17.60 HS 14.84*
HS (4) Y AS -IR HS 12.65 HS 10.40* HS 11.48
HS (5) Y LF - IR HS 15.84 HS 17.80 HS 14.97*
HS (6) Y LF -OR HS 26.40 HS 29.67 HS 24.96
N = Li ght Ra il i ng a nd no overl a y Y=T501R ra il ing a nd 2-in overl a y
AS=Al l owa bl e Stres s LF= Loa d Fa ctor ,
OR=Opera ti ng Ra ting I R = Inventory Ra ti ng
*= Controll i ng Ra ting
If Item 68 If Item 69
(Deck Geometry) (Under-clearances)
3 C=4 3 D=4
=4 C=2 =4 D=2
=5 C=1 =5 D=1
6 C=0 6 D=0
=N C=0 =N D=0
If Item 71 If Item 72
(Waterway Adequacy) (Approach Roadway Alignment)
3 E=4 3 F=4
=4 E=2 =4 F=2
=5 E=1 =5 F=1
6 E=0 6 F=0
=N E=0 =N F=0
a. If the first two digits of Item 28 (Lanes) = 01, and Y < 14 set H = 15
c. Y 18 set H = 0
3. For bridges with two or more lanes (including culverts):
If and set
X 50 Y<9 H = 7.5
Y 9 H=0
13.7.1 Overview
13.7.1.1 Summary
This presents the specific requirements for inspection records for Libyan bridges. Records must be
prepared and kept in a consistent manner, whether done by RBD personnel or by Contractors.
This chapter includes discussion of the following major topics:
Definition of Terms
Contractors Requirements
Coding Guidelines
Forms
Calculations
Data Submittal
Bridge Folder
13.7.2 Definition of Terms
13.7.2.1 Bridge Record Terms
A partial list of definitions related to bridge inspection is provided in various chapters of this Manual.
The following discussion of Bridge Records includes some specific terms:
Bridge
A structure, including supports, erected over a depression or an obstruction, such as water, a
highway, or a railway; having a roadway or track for carrying traffic or other moving loads; and having
an opening measured along the center of the roadway of more than 6M between faces of abutments,
spring lines of arches, or extreme ends of the openings for multiple box culverts or multiple pipes that
are 1.50M or more in diameter and that have a clear distance between openings of less than half of
the smallest pipe diameter.
Bridge Folder
The file for each bridge maintained by the District Bridge Inspection Coordinator. The Bridge Folder
has dividers on which the various bridge record documents can be fastened in a specific order.
Bridge Identification
The unique 12-digit number assigned to any structure meeting the definition of a bridge. The number
includes the 3-digit Shabiya Number, the 4-digit Control Number, the 2-digit Section Number, and the
3-digit Permanent Structure Number. The Planning Department assigns the road and city street index
numbers, which begin with a letter instead of number. This off-system index number uses the same 6
digits assigned to Control and Section for on-system highways. The Permanent Structure Number for
off-system bridges is assigned by the district.
Bridge Inventory File
This consists of electronic data of RBD’s bridge inventory, inspection, and appraisal files for each
bridge on a public roadway in Libya. The data can be entered from a completed coding form or can be
are entered directly from an input screen of any appropriate data entry device. The instructions for
coding guide describe the step-by-step data entry requirements.
Bridge Record
The over-all collection of data including the Bridge Folder with completed forms, printout of coded
electronic data, sketches, cross sections, photos, etc. It also includes the Bridge Inventory File stored
EXAMPLE 2:
36.0M Pony Truss. H7 Rating
Axle =7 x 660 = 4,620 Kgs
Gross = 7 x 1045 Kgs = 7315 Kgs
Post 4545 Kgs axle or tandem and 7273 Kgs Gross (sign R 12 -4Tb)
EXAMPLE 3:
9.0 M – 12.0 M – 9.0 M Continuous Slab Bridge with 7.6 M slab approach spans, H10
Rating
0.8 x 12.0 M = 9.0 M > 7.6 M = Use 7.6 M span
Axle = 10 x 673 Kgs = 6730 Kgs
Post 673 Kgs Axle or tandem (Sign R 12 -2Tb)
60mm x 90 mm 60 mm x 105 mm
13.8 Attachments
1. Bridge Inspection Record
2. Bridge Appraisal Worksheet
3. Bridge Structural Condition History
4. Bridge Inspection Follow-up Action Worksheet
5. Bridge Inventory Record
6. Bridge Inventory Record Sketch
7. Revision to Bridge Inventory Record
8. Channel Cross-Section Measurements Record
9. Under-clearance Record
10. Bridge Summary Sheet
11. Recommended Change in Bridge Load Posting