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Chapter I
Atomic Structure
Q. Define Atom
Ans: Atom: Atom is the smallest particle of an element which cannot be
further sub divided and which takes part in all chemical changes.
Atomic mass number (A): Atomic mass number is the sum of number of
protons & neutrons present in the nucleus of atom of an element
It is denoted by the symbol “A”
A=p+n
The atomic mass number of Na is 23 & Carbon is 12
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1s<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d
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2. The electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed circular path called as
„orbit‟ or shell. “The electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus
and electron is exactly balanced by the centrifugal force”. So, the electron
does not fall into the nucleus and the atom remains stable.
5. Electron in the energy level nearest to the nucleus has lower energy and
those are at greater distance from the nucleus have higher energy.
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Atomic number is the number of The sum of the number of protons and
protons present in the nucleus is equal neutrons present in the nucleus of an
to the number of electrons revolving atom is called as atomic mass number.
around the nucleus in extra nuclear
part of the atom. Z= p= e A=p+n
It is denoted by symbol ‘Z’. It is denoted by symbol ‘A’.
Ex: Atomic no. of Na is 11. Ex: Atomic mass no. of Na is 23.
Atomic number fixes the position of an Atomic mass number does not fixes the
element in the periodic table. position of an element in periodic table
Elements are placed in periodic table Elements are not placed in periodic table
according to their atomic number according to their atomic mass number.
Atomic number does not decide atomic Atomic mass number decide atomic
weight of element weight of element
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Ans: Proton, electron and neutron are the fundamental particles of atom
Description Proton Electron Neutron
Location Inside the nucleus Extra nuclear part Inside the nucleus
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They have same number protons and They have different number of
electrons but different number of protons, electrons and neutrons.
neutrons.
Ex:1H1, 1H2, 1H3. 8O16, 8O17, 8O18, Ex: 18Ar40, 19K40, 20Ca40. 28Ni,30Zn64,
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17Cl , 17Cl37. 12 13 14
6C , 6 C , 6C , 92U
235
, 93NP235, 94Pu235.
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They are denoted by capital letters K, They are denoted by small letters
L, M, N etc. s,p,d,f. etc.
They have either circular or elliptical They have different geometrical shapes
shape. such as s-spherical p-dum bell shape
etc.
The maximum numbers of electrons The maximum number of electrons in
in an orbit is given by 2n2 rule i.e. any orbital is two with opposite spin
K=2, L=8, M=18, N=32. [↑↓]
Orbit has two dimensional Orbital have three dimensional
representation. representation
The number of orbit from the nucleus The number of orbital relative to any
are n=1, 2,3,4,5 etc. orbit is n2=1,4,9,16 etc.
They are denoted by capital letters They are denoted by small letters s, p,
K, L, M, N etc. d, f etc.
They have either circular or elliptical The sub energy levels consist of orbital
shape. which have different geometrical shape
such as s- spherical and p-dumbell.
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Ans:
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Radon Rn 86 1s2,2s2,2P6,3s2,3P6,3d10,4s2,4p64d10,5s2,5p6,4f14,5d10,6s2,6p6
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4. These two equally and oppositely charged (Mg++ and O--) ions are
combined together by electrostatic force of attraction to form magnesium
oxide molecule (Mgo).
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3. The electrons lost by calcium atom are gained by two chlorine atoms
and each chlorine atom acquires -1 charge and attains a stable
configuration (2,8,8) as that of Argon (2, 8, 8)
4. These equal and oppositely charged (Ca++ and 2Cl-) ions are
combined together by electrostatic force of attraction to form calcium
chloride molecule (CaCl2)
5. Thus calcium chloride (CaCl2) molecule consists of single
electrovalent bond.
6. The valency of Ca is +2and Cl is -1
Ans: The water molecule is formed by combining two atoms of hydrogen and
one atom of oxygen.
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4. Therefore carbon atom shares four electrons with two oxygen atoms
to complete the octet and attains stable configuration (2,8) as that of
Neon (2,8).
5. There is a seperate double covalent bond between carbon and two
oxygen atoms.
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3. Therefore, each chlorine atom share one electron with other chlorine
to complete the octet and attains stable configuration as that of Argon,
inert gas
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2) Each carbon atom has electronic configuration (2,4) i.e. each contains
4 valency electrons. So they are in short of four electrons to complete
the octet.
3) Each hydrogen atom has electronic configuration (1) i.e. they are in
short of one electron to complete the duplet.
5) Thus, two shared pairs form a double covalent bond between two
carbon atoms, four single covalent bond between carbon and hydrogen
atoms in ethylene molecule.
Ans: Acetylene molecule consists of two atoms of carbon and two atoms of
hydrogen
2) Each carbon atom has electronic configuration (2,4) .i.e. each contains
4 valency electrons. So they are in short of four electrons to electrons
to complete the octet.
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3) Each hydrogen atom has electronic configuration (1) i.e. they are in
short of one electron to complete the duplet.
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Chapter II
Electrochemistry
Q. Define following terms.
Ex: all metals, impure water, graphite, fused salts, aqueous solution of
acids, bases and salts.
Ex: wood, paper, rubber, plastics, oils, alcohols, glass, petrol etc.
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Ex: Strong acids like H2SO4, HCl , HNO3,Strong bases like KOH,
NaOH and electrovalent salt NaCl, KCl etc.
Ex: organic acids like acetic acid, oxalic acid, weak bases like NH4 OH
and salts like BaSO4,Al(OH)3 etc.
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Q. Define ionization.
Ans: The process of breaking of substance into charged atoms, radicals or
ions is known as ionization. i.e. ionization is process of formation of
ions in solution or in fused state or gaseous state.
Ex. Heat causes ionization of gas.
Electrochemical cell:
“It is the device in which chemical energy is converted into electrical
energy.”
In this type of cell the electricity can be generated by “spontaneous redox
reaction”.
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Significance:
1) When PH value of a solution is 7, then solution is neutral.
2) When PH of a solution is less than 7, then solution is acidic.
3) When PH of a solution is greater than 7, then solution is basic
4) When PH=14 then solution is extremely basic.
5) When PH=0 then solution is extremely acidic.
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Na Na+ + e-
(2,8,1) (2,8)
Atom Cation (Sodium ion)
Cl + e - Cl-
(2, 8, 1) (2, 8, 8)
Atom Anion (Chloride ion)
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NaOH N a+ + OH –
1) Nature of solute
2) Nature of solvent
3) Concentration of solution
4) Temperature
Nature of solute:
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Ionic compounds like acids, bases and salts are highly ionized in solution.
Strong electrolyte like HCl, H2SO4, NaOH, NaCl are highly ionised but
weak electrolyte like CH3COOH,NH4OH etc are weakly ionised. Hence
degree of ionization depends upon the nature of solute.
Nature of solvent:
In polar solvent like H2O, NH3 degree of ionization is more. In non polar
solvents degree of ionization is less i.e. degree of ionization depends on
the nature of solvent.
Concentration of solution:
The degree of ionization is inversely proportion to the concentration of
solution. If concentration of solution is more, then degree of ionization is
lessEx:8 Molar HCl ionizes to only 80% while 0.1molar ionizes to 100%
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At anode: Anions (B-) move towards anode and get discharged by losing
electrons and become neutral atom
B- → B + 1e- (Oxidation)
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Examples:
At cathode: Reduction of cation takes place
Na+ + 1e- → Na (neutral sodium atom)
At cathode: (Reduction)
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At anode : ( Oxidation)
Product of electrolysis:
At anode, Cu++ ions are formed as when a same metal in contact with its
own salt solution. These Cu++ ions go to cathode and discharged.
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At Cathode: (Reduction)
Cu++ + 2e- → Cu(s)
At Anode: (Oxidation)
Cu(s) → Cu++ + 2e-
Product of electrolysis:
Applications:
Then, WαQ
But C = Q/t
Q = ct
W α ct
W=Zct
Where, c = Current in ampere
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t= time in seconds
Z= Electrochemical equivalent.
If c =1 ampere and t = 1 sec
Then W= Z
Explanation: Let the same electric current is passed through CuSO4 and
AgNO3 solution arranged in series as shown in figure.
According faradays 2nd law
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Wcu = Ecu OR W1 = E1
WAg EAg W2 E2
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Process:
A plating of silver on iron spoon is done in a rectangular tank made up of
steel. Potassium argentocyanide solution K [Ag (CN) 2] is used as
electrolyte.
1. The iron spoon is first thoroughly cleaned by boiling with caustic soda to
remove grease and dirt.
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2. Then it is washed with water until free from caustic soda. Then it is
treated with dil. HCl to remove any oxide layer. Again it is washed with
water and polished carefully.
3. The iron spoon is then made as cathode. The plate or block of pure silver
metal is made as anode.
4. The cathode and anode both are immersed in electrolytic solution taken in
cell.
5. When current is passed, then iron spoon get plated with a smooth and
bright deposit of silver.
6. The silver anode gets slowly dissolved in solution by giving Ag+ ions
At cathode- Ag+ + e- → Ag
At anode- Ag → Ag+ + e-
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2) Battery:
“Battery is a device in which many cells are connected in series.”
3) Charge (Charging):
“This is the operation of a cell when an external source of current
reverses the electrochemical reaction of the cell to restore the battery to
its original state.”
4) Discharge (Discharging):
“This is the operation of a cell when current flows spontaneously from
the battery into the external circuit.”
Electrochemical cell:
“It is the device in which chemical energy is converted into electrical
energy.” In this type of cell the electricity can be generated by
“spontaneous redox reaction”.
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1. Primary battery:
“The type of battery in which cell reaction is not reversible is called
as primary battery.”
These are not rechargeable. If these are discharged then discarded.
2. Secondary battery:
“The type of battery in which cell reaction is reversible is called as
secondary battery.”
These are rechargeable.
3. Reserve battery:
“It is a battery in which active material are kept separated by special
arrangements.”
Such a battery is designed for long storage before use.
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i.e. I=E/R
Where, I = current
E = potential difference
R = Resistance
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It is denoted by „λ’
The unit is ohm-1 cm2 eqvt -1
λ = KV
But V = 100/ C
Where, C is concentration in gram equivalent/ litre
λ = K × 1000
C
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At cathode:
The ammonium ion reacts with MnO2 to liberate ammonia (NH3)
2NH4+ + 2MnO2 + 2e- Mn2O3 + H2O + 2NH3
Applications:
It is used in calculator, radio, watches, tape recorder, flash light and
transistor.
.
Q. Explain construction and working of Lead acid storage cell (Lead
accumulator). Write charging and discharging reactions.
1. Lead acid storage cell consist of lead plate which acts as anode and
lead plate coated with lead oxide (PbO2) which acts as cathode.
2. Several such an anode and cathode pairs are connected in parallel and
are dipped in 20% of H2SO4 solution with specific gravity 1.25g/cm3.
3. The battery is encased in plastic or glass container.
4. Each pairs of anode and cathode produces a voltage of 2 Volt.
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Working:
Due to the formation of water in the cell the acid get diluted. When its
specific gravity falls below 1.25gm/cm3 the battery needs charging.
Discharging
-- + -
At cathode: PbO2 + SO4 + 4H +2e PbSO4 + 2H2O
Charging
_________________________________________________________
Net cell reaction: Discharging
During charging lead & lead oxide is again deposited on anode & cathode
respectively & charging reaction is
Discharging
Applications:
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Chapter III
Metallurgy
Gangue Or Matrix: The unwanted impurities like sand, clay ,rocks etc.
associated with the ores are called as gangue or matrix.
Ex: In Hematite (Fe2O3) ore, silica is gangue.
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Ex: gold, silver, and platinum having this property can be easily
drawn into wires.
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1. Calcination
2. Roasting
Ans: The melting point of wood metal is 710C.So it is easily fusible. As the
fuse wire is made up of wood metal due to sudden high voltage the
temperature of the fuse wire increases and wire gets melted and the
circuit breaks. This makes the current supply off, which keeps the
electrical equipment safe and saves from damage.
1. Poling
2. Liquation
3. Distillation
4. Electrolytic refining
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Binary alloy: The alloy which contain only two components is known as
binary alloy Ex:Brass (Cu+Zn), Bronze (Cu+Sn)
1. Fusion
2. Compression
3. Electrode position 4.Reduction
1) Ferrous alloys
2) Non-Ferrous alloys
Ferrous alloys: These alloys have iron as one of the main component
Ex: Magnetic steel, Stainless steel etc.
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Non- ferrous alloy: These alloys do not contain iron as one of the main
component. Ex: Brass, Bronze, Duralumin etc.
Applications:
i) Pig iron: It is used for stoves, lamp posts, drainage covers, pipes,
railing etc
ii) Slag: It is used for road building, cement manufacturing and as
fertilizers
iii) Flue gases: Used as fuel
Q. Explain with justification coke and limestone are added during the
extraction of iron. OR What is function of coke and limestone in
extraction of iron by the blast furnace
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Ans: During the extraction of iron from its ore smelting is done in blast
furnace. During the process of smelting coke is added as reducing agent
and limestone as flux to remove impurities. Coke reduces haematite ore
to metallic iron. Lime stone (CaCO3) decomposes to lime which
combines with impurities of silica to form calcium siliate which is
removed as slag.
1. At the top of the furnace the charge is heated between 3000C to 5000C, Fe2O3
is converted into Fe2O4
FeO + CO Fe + CO2
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Q. Write the chemical reactions takes place in the zone of heat absorption.
1. Any oxide of iron which is not reduced in the zone of reduction is reduced
by red hot carbon and also carbon dioxide is reduced by red hot carbon to
carbon monoxide by the absorption of heat.
4. At about 12000C ,non metallic and metallic oxide are reduced by coke to
respective elements
SO2 + 2C S + 2CO
P2O5 + 5C 2P + 5CO
MnO2 + 2C Mn + 2CO
SiO2 + 2C Si + 2CO
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Metals Non–metals
Chemically these elements have Chemically these elements have
tendency to donate or lose the tendency to accept or share the
electrons. electrons.
Ex: Na, Fe, Ni, Mg etc. Ex: Sulphur, carbon, chlorine etc.
Metals are solid at ordinary Non-metals are solid, liquid or gas at
temperature except mercury which is ordinary temperature.
liquid.
They have high melting & boiling They have low melting & boiling
point. point.
They have high density. They have low density.
They are good conductor of heat and They are bad conductor of heat &
electricity. electricity.
They are malleable & ductile. They are neither malleable nor ductile.
They are generally hard. They are generally soft.
Metals form basic oxides. Non metals form acidic oxides
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Process:
1. In this process firstly the finely powdered ore (containing magnetic
impurities) is allowed to fall through hopper on a non magnetic belt of
leather or rubber moving over the electromagnetic rollers.
2. Then the magnetic impurities fall below the magnetic roller due to
attraction by magnet.
3. While the non magnetic ore falls in a separate heap away from the
magnet.
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Process:
1. In this process firstly the powdered sulphide ore is mixed with water
& pine oil.
2. Then the whole mixture of ore, water and pine oil is stirred
vigorously by passing compressed air through it.
3. After that the oil forms froth with air bubbles.
4. Then sulphide ore particles get attached with the froth & floats on the
surface.
5. The gangues (impurities) are wetted by water & sink to the bottom of
the tank.
6. The floating froth overflows the tank & collected in the settling basin
where ore particles settle down after some time.
Principle: It is the reaction of metal oxide with carbon (or its compounds
like Co, CO2, charcoal, coke) at high temperature.
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Process: The calcined or roasted ore is mixed with coke and flux (in the
ratio of 8:4: 1) and heated in a blast furnace or reveberatory furnace, in
the presence of controlled air supply. The reducing agent coke converts
oxide of metal (ore) into molten metal while the flux removes the gangue
in the form of fusible mass known as slag. This process is called smelting
Heat
Fe2O3 + 3C 2Fe + 3CO
Hematite Coke Iron Carbon
(Ore) (Reducing agent) metal monoxide
Lime stone i.e. flux removes the impurities in the form of fusible mass
called as slag.
Q. Explain all ores are minerals but all minerals are not ores.
OR Explain the term mineral and ore.
Ans: Ore: A mineral from which the metal can be extracted economically is
called as ore.
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“It is not possible to extract metal in profitable amount from all the
minerals of same metal.”
Ex: Clay & Bauxite are minerals of aluminium but aluminium is
extracted economically from bauxite & not economically from clay
hence, clay & Bauxite are minerals but ore is only “Bauxite.”
Therefore, all ores are minerals but all minerals are not ores.
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5. The molten mass is then allowed to cool which gives the required
alloy.
Ex: Manufacture of Brass: Brass is a mixture of Cu & Zn. Cu ( M.P.
10890C) is melted first & then required quantity of Zn ( M.P. 4190C)
added to it which melts immediately.
Purposes of calcination:
1. To convert carbonate & hydroxide ores into oxides.
Ex: CaCO3 CaO + CO2
Limestone Calcium oxide
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Ans: Roasting: “It is the process of heating the ore strongly in the presence of
excess of air below its melting point.”
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Q. Draw the flow chart for extraction of metal from its ore.
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Chapter 4
Corrosion of Metals & Its Protection
Q. Define corrosion.
Ans: “Any process of chemical or electrochemical decay (destruction) of a
metal due to the action of its surrounding medium is called as
corrosion”.
Example: Rusting of Iron
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Q. Name the oxide film which is corrosive against corrosion. Give one
example
Ans: Volatile oxide film is more corrosive against corrosion
Volatile oxide film. Ex. Molybdenum
Q. Name the oxide film which is protective against corrosion. Give one
example
Ans: Non porous oxide film is protective against corrosion
Non-Porous oxide film. Ex. Aluminium, tin, lead
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pass into the solution. When iron comes in contact with copper iron
undergoes corrosion as it is more electropositive than copper
2M + O 2 2MO
Metal Metal oxide
2. Then the electrons from metal are transferred to oxygen and oxide ion
is formed.
3. Then the metallic ion and oxide ion combine together to form metal
oxide.
4. The mechanism of oxide film formation can be represented by the
following equation,
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ion ion
In industrial area the air contains the corrosive gases like CO2, H2S,
SO2 along with acidic impurities such as H2SO4, HNO3 and HCl etc. In
all of these SO2 is most corrosive factor. In the presence of such acidic
impurities the corrosion of metals becomes faster.
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At anode:
Thus, zinc goes into the solution (get dissolved) and corroded,
while copper is deposited at cathode and get protected.
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Therefore top elements are more active than that of bottom element.
So top elements are easily oxidized and get corroded easily.
3. Purity of metal: The impurity present in metals form minute
electrochemical cell and the anodic part get corroded. Hence, rate of
corrosion also increases with increase in impurities present in the
metal
6. Nature of oxide film: If the oxide film is non porous then the metal
protects itself from corrosion. But if the oxide film is porous then the
corrosion by the gas continues
Ans: When metal comes in contact with atmospheric oxygen then a thin film of
oxide is formed on the surface of metal. The oxide film which is formed
can be classified into three types.
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1. Stable
2. Unstable
3. Volatile
Metals like Sn, Pb, Cu, Al forms their oxides. Here the volume of
metal is ‘less’ than the volume of oxide film formed. This oxide film
is hard, adherent and non-porous. Due to absence of pores there is no
free access of O2 and form metal oxide layer again.
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2MO 2M + O2
Metal oxide Metal Oxygen
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Mechanism:
Consider a steel (Fe) tank which contains acidic solution (waste) and a
small piece of copper. As copper and iron come in contact and
surrounded by acidic solution, then galvanic cell is formed. Then large
steel tank (Fe) becomes anode and small copper becomes cathode.
Working:
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Mechanism:
Consider a steel (Fe) surface exposed to atmosphere, after a course of
time iron oxide layer is formed on the surface of steel (Fe) plate. If there
is a small crack developed in iron oxide layer and a drop of water
(moisture) is collected in crack, then
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Working:
At anode: The liberated electrons flow through anodic area to
cathodic area.
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For the purpose of increasing electrical contact, the active metal is placed
in back fill (Coal + NaCl). The sacrificial anode has to be replaced time
to time after complete corrosion..
Example: Several hundred kilometers long zinc wire is buried along oil
pipe line in Alaska
Applications:
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Applications:
This method is used for roofing sheets, water pipes, bars, rods, fencing
wires etc.
Q. Why Galvanized containers are not useful for storing food and food
stuff (material).
Ans: Galvanized containers are not useful for storing or preparation of food
stuff because galvanized containers have a coating of zinc. This zinc
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metal reacts with the acids present in food stuff and forms highly
poisonous compounds which are harmful for human consumption
Ans: Tinning: “It is the process of coating of tin metal on the surface of iron
(steel) by hot dipping method to prevent it from corrosion is called as
tinning.”
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CHAPTER 5
WATER
1. Rain water
2. Surface water
3. Ground water
1. Rain water:
2. Surface water:
A. River water
B. Sea water
C. Lake water
3. Ground water:
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Ans:
Soft water: “Water which is free from any salts of calcium and
magnesium is called as soft water”. Soft water easily produces lather
with soap and can be safely used for boilers and for other household and
industrial purposes.
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Q. Name the salts which are responsible for temporary and permanent
hardness of water with chemical formula.
0
Clark =
0
French =
PPM =
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1. Dissolved gases
2. Dissolved salt
3. Acidity and alkalinity of water
Ans: The common impurities present in the natural water may be classified as
follows:
1. Suspended impurities:
Water may contain the suspended impurities such as clay, mud, algae,
industrial waste, organic matter etc. These remain suspended in water.
They produce turbidity, colour and odour and may cause diseases.
2. Dissolved Impurities:
There may be two types of impurities viz.(A) Gases (B) Mineral salts
A) Gases:
B) Mineral salts:
The commonly observed salts in natural water are carbonates,
bicarbonates, sulphates and chlorides of calcium, magnesium, sodium
and potassium. When salts of calcium and magnesium are present in
water, it is known as hard water. Such water cannot be used for
washing clothes and in boilers.
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3. Colloidal impurities;
Colloidal particles of clay, fine mud, and decayed leaves, organic matter
(Insects and fungi) may be present in water. Such impurities neither settle
down on standing not can these be removed by filtration
4. Biological impurities:
Slime growth such as algae, micro-organism i.e. bacteria, fungi etc. are
considered as pathogenic impurities
1. The rain water absorbs carbon dioxide from air and also from
decaying plants on soil & it forms carbonic acid
H2 O + CO2 H2CO3
Water Carbonic acid
2. When this water flows over rock containing calcium & magnesium
carbonates.
3. These reacts with carbonic acid present in water to form calcium
bicarbonate and magnesium bicarbonate which are highly soluble in
water.
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Q. Write the ill (bad) effect of using hard water in following industries.
OR What are the disadvantages of hard water in 1) Paper industry 2)
Dyeing in industry 3) Textile industry 4) Sugar industry.
1. Paper industry:
2. Dying industry:
A) In dyeing industry, colouring of fabrics is done with the help of some
organic as well as inorganic coloring substances.
B) If hard water is used for dissolving the dyes then calcium &
magnesium salts present in it reacts with die to form unwanted
precipitate.
C) These changes the shades of the dies & unwanted coloures are
produced. Iron produces yellow stains (spots) on clothes
Hence hard water should not be used in dyeing industry.
3. Textile industry:
A) If hard water is used in textile industry then a large quantity of soap as
well as water is wasted during washing the yarn because calcium &
magnesium salts do not allow formation of lather with soap.
B) They react with soap (sodium or potassium salt of fatty acid) to form
curdy precipitate which sticks to the fabric making it weak & brittle.
Iron & manganese present in hard water produces spots ( stains) on
fabrics therefore water used in textile industry should be free from
calcium, magnesium, iron & manganese salts.
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4. Sugar industry:
If hard & impure water is used in sugar industry for refining of sugar
the impurities like sulphates nitrates, alkali carbonate & bacteria
present in it causes difficulties in the crystallization of sugar. The
sugar so formed may be deliquescent (become watery) & get
decomposed during storage.
Q. What are the disadvantages or ill (bad) effect of using hard water in
1) Washing 2) Cooking 3) Bathing 4) Drinking OR
Ans:
1.Washing:
If hard water is used for washing, then the Ca & Mg salts react with soap
& produces curdy precipitate of Ca of Mg salts of fatty acid
In this way large quantity of soap is wasted & the precipitate stick to the
cloth making it weak & brittle.
2. Cooking:
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3. Bathing:
a) Wastage of soap takes place as hard water does not form good lather
b) Insoluble residue is formed with soap which is adsorbed on our body,
due to which our skin become dry & dark
4. Drinking:
If hard water is used for drinking then impurities in hard water causes bad
effect on digestion process and also kidney stone may formed due to
accumulation of calcium oxalate crystals
Q. What are the causes of boiler corrosion? Explain the causes of boiler
corrosion.
1. Dissolved gases
2. Dissolved salts
3. Acidity or alkalinity of water
1. Dissolved gases:
Among the dissolved gases oxygen has most corroding effect on boiler
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2. Dissolved salts:
This liberated hydrochloric acid react with iron material of the boiler like
a chain reaction producing hydrochloric acid again & again
Fe + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2
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The deposition of more & more caustic soda dissolves iron material of the
boiler.
Q. Define scales & sludge OR What are scales and sludge in boiler.
Scales: The hard and adherent coating formed on inner walls of the
boiler is called as boiler scales.
Sludge: When the precipitated matter forms a soft, loose, slimy deposits
inside the boiler which do not stick to the boiler permanently are called
boiler sludge.
Ans: The main causes of scale & sludge formation in boiler are
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Salts present in hard water; like CaSO4 & silicates of Ca & Mg formed by
reaction with silica (SiO2) have lower solubility at high temperature. As
the water in boiler starts heating up, the solubility decreases & excess
salts are thrown out of water forming hard deposits in the form of scales.
Explain the ill (bad) effect of using hard water in boiler unit.
Ans: The disadvantages of scale & sludge formation in boiler are as follow.
1. Wastage of fuel:
Scales deposited on the inner wall of the boiler are poor conductor of
heat. Hence to get the steady supply of steam; overheating of boiler is
needed. Most of the heat is wasted in heating the scales & in this way
there is wastage of fuel.
It is estimated that for 25mm thick scale, nearly 60% of the fuel is
wasted.
Scales are poor conductor of heat it reduces transfer of heat from boiler to
water.
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3. Danger of explosion:
a) When scales crack due to uneven expansion of scale & boiler material,
the water comes suddenly in contact with overheated iron plate of
boiler
b) This causes the formation of a large amount of steam suddenly inside
the boiler
c) Hence sudden high pressure is developed which may causes explosion
of boiler
4. Decrease in efficiency:
Ans: During the process of softening of hard water, the soluble calcium and
magnesium salts are converted into insoluble salts. These insoluble salts
can be removed by filtration and soft water can be obtained
Ans:
Scale Sludge
1 When the precipitated matter forms When the precipitated matter forms a
a hard adherent coating on the inner soft, loose, slimy deposits inside the
surface of the boiler is called boiler boiler which do not stick to the boiler
scales. permanently are called boiler sludge.
2 Scales are hard and adherent Sludges are soft
3 It cannot be removed by Sludges can be removed by
mechanical means mechanical means
4 Scales are bad conductor of heat Sludges are poor conductor of heat
5 Scales are formed throughout the Sludges are formed at comparatively
metal surface in contact with water cooler parts of the boiler
6 Scales lead to bursting or explosion Sludge lead to check up problems
of metal tube
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This involves mixing of calculated quantities of lime and soda with water
at room temperature.
1. The cold lime soda process consists of a cylindrical steel tank with
two chambers, having separate inlets for raw water and chemicals.
2. The inner chamber is provided with a paddle stirrer for proper mixing
of chemicals and water.
3. The outer chamber is provided with a fiber filter.
4. As raw water and chemicals are flow down, stirring and mixing is
done by operating the stirrer.
5. Water get softened and the resulting sludge get deposited at the
bottom of the outer chamber.
6. The softened water moves upward through the filter to ensure
completer removal of sludge.
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Ans:
Principle: When zeolite come in contact with hard water, sodium ions
in zeolite are replaced by calcium and magnesium to form insoluble
calcium and magnesium zeolite
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3. Chemical Reactions:
4. Regeneration: After some time all the Na+ ions from zeolite
(permutit) completely gets converted into calcium and gets exhausted.
At this stage, supply of hard water is stopped. The exhausted zeolite
is regenerated or reactivated by passing 10% Brine solution(
NaCl) through it
Brine Solution
The washings containing CaCl2 and MgCl2 are passed to drain and the
regenerated zeolite is used again. Water softened by zeolite is almost
of zero hardness.
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2. It is a clean process
1. Hard water is first passed through the cation exchanger. It removes all
the cations like Ca++, Mg2+ and releases H+ ions.
2. The acidic water is then passed through anion exchanger where acids
are converted into water.
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3. Thus water is free from all cations and anions. Finally water is made
free from dissolved gases like CO2, O2 by passing it through third tower
of degsifier.
Regeneration: When the cation exchanger resins get exhausted, they are
regenerated by passing the solution of dill. HCl or H2SO4 through first
tower.
When the anion exchanger resin get exhausted, they are regenerated by
passing the solution of dil. NaOH or KOH through second tower.
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Advantages:
1. This process can be used for purifying highly acidic or alkaline water
2. Water of zero hardness is obtained
3. Small space occupying equipment and portable
4. Water totally free from any ionic impurity is obtained
5. Treated water contains negligible amount of total dissolved solid i.e.
up to 5 mg/lit
6. Method of self adjusts with water of all types and different hardness
Limitations:
Ans: “Water which is fit for human consumption and safe to drink is known as
drinking water or potable water.”
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Ans:
1. Screening:
2. Sedimentation:
3. Coagulation:
The commonly used coagulants are the salts of iron and aluminium e.g.
alum [K2SO4. Al2(SO4)3. 24H2O], ferrous sulphate (FeSO4.7H2O) etc.
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Construction:
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Working:
Sediment water enters the sand filter from the top. As the water
percolates through the sand bed, fine suspended particles, most of the
germs and bacteria are retained by the top sand layer. Clean filtered water
is collected in the under drain channel, from where it is drawn out.
Cleaning:
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By using chloramines(ClNH2):
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Advantages of chloramination:
1. It removes irritating smell due to excess of chlorine
2. It imparts good taste to water
3. It checks the dissipation of chlorine (by stabilizing chlorine) when
water is exposed to atmosphere, especially to sunlight
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Chapter 6
Non-metallic Materials
Q. Define. 1) Plastic
2) Polymer
3) Polymerisation
Ans:
2) Thermosetting plastic
Ex:Bakelite,Nylon 6:6 etc.
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Polymerisation
n(CH2 = CH-Cl) (CH2–CH–Cl)n
Vinyl chloride H2O2 polyvinyl chloride
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rubber etc. which generally have low density and possess very large
number of small air pockets.
Properties:
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Application/ Uses:
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Applications:
Ans: Cork is an important insulating material obtained from the bark of the oak
tree used commonly in engineering operation.
Preparation: The light bark of oak tree is cleaned, ground sized and
baked into moulds. During baking its natural resins binds all the partlcles
together. It is converted into thin sheets by pressing.
iii) It is compressible.
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Q. What is asbestos?
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Ans: i) Asbestos sheets are used for roof-covering because they are durable
light in weight and weather resistant.
ii) It is used as damp-proofing for walls and floor in the form of asbestos
felt.
Q. Explain why asbestos sheets are extensively used for roofs covering?
Ans: Asbestos acts as insulator towards heat. Moreover, The asbestos sheets
are fire-resistant, weather resistant, durable and light in weight, They do
not require any painting coat and their maintenance cost is nearly zero.
They can be fixed with nuts and blots easily. Because of all these reasons
asbestos sheets are used as roof coverings.
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1. During summer, the raw rubber becomes soft and sticky & in winter
stiff (hard) and brittle.
2. It has low tensile strength.
3. It is too weak to be used in heavy duty operation.
4. It has a large water absorbing capacity.
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making the rubber stiff. The stiffness depends upon amount of sulphur
added.
Example:
Fillers: These are the substances added to the plastics to improve hardness,
tensile strength, finish, workability & opacity Ex. Wood, mica, Quartz,
Asbestos
Resin: It is the substance which are used to bind (hold) various constituents
of plastics together also called as binder Ex. Polythene, PVC, Polyesters
Plasticizers: These are added into plastic to improve plasticity & flexibility
Ex. Camphor, Tributyl phosphate
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It becomes soft & sticky at higher It does not becomes soft & sticky at
temperature higher temperature
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They can be reshaped & reused They cannot be reshaped & reused
They are soft, weak & less brittle They are hard, strong & more brittle
They are soluble in organic solvent They are insoluble in organic solvent
They can be reclaimed from waste They cannot be reclaimed from waste
They are linked by weak covalent bond They are linked by strong covalent
bond
Ex: Polyethylene,PVC Ex: Bakelite,Polyster.
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Reaction gives only main product Reaction gives main product &
subsidary product
1. They are light in weight and have specific gravity from 1 to 2.4
2. They have low thermal and electrical conductivity.
3. They are highly resistant to corrosion and machined.
4. They can readily mould, drilled and machined.
5. They have low melting point.
6. They are not attacked by fungi, insects etc.
7. They are highly resistant to the attack of light, oil, acids and moisture.
Due to “low density and high tensile strength” plastic are used in
aircraft, motor cars and in structural industries.
Due to low “electrical conductivity they are used in electronic industry
for electrical insulation of PCB, cabinets of TV, computer.
Due to “low thermal conductivity” they are used for making handles
of electric irons, soldering gun, pressure cookers etc.
It is used as thermal insulator in refrigerator, air conditioners, cold
storage etc.
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If M is monomer
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If M is monomer
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Chapter-7
LUBRICANTS
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Viscosity index
Significance:
For e.g. Butter has low viscosity index hence it cannot be used in
machines where temperature change is rapid.
Significance:
Fire point: Fire point is the lowest temperature at which the oil lubricant
gives of enough vapours which catches the fire & burn continuously at
least for 5 second when a small flame is applied to it.
Significance:
A good lubricant should have high flash point and fire point.
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Ans: Cloud point: When oil is cooled slowly, the temperature at which it
becomes cloudy or hazy in appearance is called as its cloud point.
Significance:
Pour point: When oil is cooled slowly, the oil ceases (stops) to flow is
called as its pour point.
Significance:
Q. Define
1. Acid value [Neutralization number]
2. Saponification value
3. Emulsification.
4. Aniline point
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Significance
a. A good lubricant should have low acid value less than 0.1 because
free acid present in lubricant causes corrosion of machine parts and
value greater than 0.1 shows that oil has been oxidised
b. A lubrication oil should posses acid value less than oil
2. Saponification value
It is defined as number of milligrams of KOH required to saponify
1gm of lubricating oil.
Significance
With the help of saponification value we can know whether the oil is
vegetable, animal or mineral
A good lubricating oil should have moderate (high) saponification
value.
3. Emulsification
It is defined as “the tendency of lubricating oil to mix with water to
form a stable emulsion i.e. homogeneous mixture of oil & water”.
Significance: The emulsion have tendency to catch the dust and other
particles from its surrounding which causes failure of lubrication
system. Therefore a good lubricant should have low emulsification
number.
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Ans: Characteristics:
Uses:
Characteristics:
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Ans: Characteristics:
Uses:
1. They are useful for rubber & plastic surfaces including moving picture
film, slide roles, gears bushing, bearing
2. It is used as moisture repellent
3. It is used as dielectric lubricant for clocks time & other electronic
devices
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1. Solid Lubricant
2. Liquid Lubricant
3. Semi – Solid Lubricant
1) Solid lubricant
Ex. Graphite, molybdenum disulphide, soap, wax, talc, mica, chalks etc
2) Liquid lubricant
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For Gears: Lubricants in gears are under very high pressure or load so
the lubricants must have good adhesive properties i.e. must remain stick
to the gear teeth and must not be removed by centrifugal force a rotating
gears.
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1. Good oiliness
2. Have high load carrying capacity thus thick mineral lubricating oil
containing extreme pressure additive such as organic compound of
chlorine sulphur and phosphorous are used for where lubricants.
For transformer
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3. This thin layer avoids metal to metal contact and reduces the friction
4. The resistance in the movement of two moving surfaces is due to
internal resistance of the lubricant particles moving each other. Thus
lubricant should have minimum viscosity
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2. These absorbed layer cannot be removed easily & avoid direct metal
to metal contact
5. This type of lubrication is used for tractor, rollers, lathe machine etc.
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Ans: This type of lubrication is used when the moving parts of machine work
under very heavy load or high pressure & high speed, due to this the
lubricant may decompose.
4. These lubricants have very high melting points & acts under extreme
pressure lubrication conditions
This type of lubrication is used for gears, cutting tools, wire drawing of
titanium etc
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CHAPTER -1
Atomic Structure
FORMULAE:
1. Z = P = e
2. A = Z + n
3. No. of neutrons ( n ) = A – Z
P = no. of protons
e = no. of electrons
Example 1:
235 .
A radioactive element is represented as 92U Find number of neutrons and
number of electrons.
Solution:
Atomic number (Z) = 92= Number of electrons.
Atomic mass no (A) = 235
No. of neutrons = A - Z = 235 – 92 = 143
Example 2:
If atomic number and atomic mass number of an element is 11 and 23
respectively. Write number of protons, neutrons and electrons.
Solution:
Atomic number = Z = 11
Atomic mass number =A = 23
No. of protons (Z) = 11
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Example 4:
Calculate the atomic number and atomic mass number of an atom containing
20 electrons and 20 neutrons.
Ans: Atomic Number = number of electrons in extra nuclear part
Z = 20
Number of electrons = Number of protons
Number of protons = 20
Atomic mass number = No. of protons + No. of neutrons
= 20 + 20
= 40
Atomic no. is 20 & atomic mass no. is 40
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CHAPTER -2
Electrochemistry
FORMULAE:
1. W = Z × C × t
Example 1:
To find : C = ?
Soln : We have W = Z × C × t
7.7 = 0.0013 × C × 40 × 60
C= 12.7
0.0013 × 40 × 60
C = 4.07 amperes
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Example 2:
Eq. wt of Cu = 31.6
To find: Eq. wt of Ag = ?
Example 3:
A current of 3 amperes passing through silver nitrate solution for 20 minutes
deposit 4.0 g of silver. What is the E.C.E. of silver?
Ans. Given : C = 3 amp.
t = 20 min = 20 × 60 = 1200 sec.
W = 4.0 g
To find: Z=?
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Example 4:
When the same amount of current is passed through the solution of CuSO 4
and ZnSO4, then 0.7 and 0.7164 gms of Cu and Zn get deposited on respective
electrodes. Calculate equivalent weight of Zn (atomic wt. of Cu = 63.5 ).
= 0.7 × 31.75
0.716
= 31.04
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