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Prof.

Atul Waghmare – 9527202189/9657824223

Chapter I
Atomic Structure

Q. Define Atom
Ans: Atom: Atom is the smallest particle of an element which cannot be
further sub divided and which takes part in all chemical changes.

Q. Define Atomic number &Atomic mass number


Ans: Atomic number (Z): Atomic number is the number of protons present in
the nucleus which is equal to the number of electrons revolving around
the nucleus in extra nuclear part of the atom. OR
The number of protons present in one atom of element is called as atomic
number. It is denoted by the symbol “Z”.
Z=p=e
The atomic number of Na is 11 & Carbon is 6

Atomic mass number (A): Atomic mass number is the sum of number of
protons & neutrons present in the nucleus of atom of an element
It is denoted by the symbol “A”
A=p+n
The atomic mass number of Na is 23 & Carbon is 12

Q. Define Isotopes & Isobars with examples


Ans: Isotopes: The different atoms of same element having the same atomic
number but different atomic mass number are called as isotopes
Ex:1H1 , 1H2, 1H3. 8O16 ,8O17 ,8O18

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Prof. Atul Waghmare – 9527202189/9657824223

Isobars: The different atoms of different elements having same atomic


mass number but different atomic numbers are called as isobars.
Ex: 18Ar40,19K40, 20Ca40. 28Ni
64
,30Zn64.

Q. State the properties of isotopes.


Ans: 1) They have same atomic number
2) They occupy same place in periodic table.
3) They have identical electronic configuration
4) They have identical chemical properties
Ex: 1H1,1H2,1H3. 17Cl
35
,17Cl37,
Q. State the properties of isobars
Ans: 1) They have same atomic mass numbers
2) They occupy different place in periodic table
3) They have different electronic configuration
4) They have different chemical properties
Ex: 92U235,93Np235,94Pu235. 28Ni
64
,30Zn64
Q. Why an atom is electrically neutral?
Ans: Atom consists of equal number of positively charged protons in the
nucleus which is exactly balanced by negatively charged electrons
present in extra nuclear part. Therefore atom is electrically neutral.

Q. Why nucleus of an atom is always positively charged?


Ans: Atom consists of nuclear part (Nucleus) &extra nuclear part. Nucleus
consists of positively charged protons &charge less neutrons. Therefore
nucleus of an atom is always positively charged.
Q. Why electron do not fall into the nucleus?
Ans: The electrostatic force of attraction between electron & nucleus is exactly
balanced by the centrifugal force so that electron does not fall into the
nucleus.

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Q. Why sodium is electropositive? Explain with electronic configuration.


Ans:
Na (11) – 1s2,2s2,2p6,3s1
Sodium consist of one valence electron in its outermost shell so it loses
the valence electron & acquires positive charge & becomes
electropositive.
Na → Na++ e-
(2,8,1) (2,8)
Sodium atom sodium ion

Q. State Octet rule with example.


Ans. Statement: The tendency of an atom to have eight electrons in outermost
shell is known as the octet rule.
Ex: Argon[ 18]-(2,8,8) - 1s2,2s2,2p6,3s2,3p6

Q. State Duplet rule.


Ans: Statement: The tendency of an atom with only one orbit to have two
electrons (duplet) in the outermost orbit (shell) is known as duplet rule.
Ex:Helium consist of two electrons in outermost orbit

Q. If 3d &4s orbital’s are available for an electron which orbital will it


occupies first? Why?
Ans: It will occupy 4s orbital first because energy of 4s orbital is less than
energy of 3d orbital.

Q. Arrange the following orbitals in the increasing order their


energies2p,4p,3s,3d,4s,3p,2s.
Ans: The increasing order of energies of orbital as per aufbau‟s principle is as
follows-2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d<4p

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Q. State Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity.


Ans: When several orbital of same energy are available then the electrons first
fills all the orbitals with parallel spin before pairing takes place in any
one orbital.

Q. Define valency and valency electrons.


Ans: The valency of an element is the number of electrons that atom can lose,
gain or share so as to complete its octet or duplet and become stable.
Ex: The valency of Na is 1, Mg is 2, Cl is 1 , O is 2
“The electrons which are present in outer most orbits (last shell) are
known as valency electrons.

Q. Name isotopes of hydrogen. Draw their atomic diagram.


Ans: The isotopes of hydrogen are Protium, Deuterium and Tritium.

Q. State Aufbau principle.


Ans: Statement: The electrons always enter in the various orbitals in the
order of increasing energy.i.e.the lower energy orbitals are filled first and
then high energy orbitals are filled.

1s<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d

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Q. Write any four postulates or assumptions of Bohr’s atomic theory


Ans: Following are the main postulates of Bohr‟s theory

1. An atom consist of a dense positively charged central part called as


nucleus, it is at rest.

2. The electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed circular path called as
„orbit‟ or shell. “The electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus
and electron is exactly balanced by the centrifugal force”. So, the electron
does not fall into the nucleus and the atom remains stable.

3. Out of the number of possible circular orbit around the nucleus, an


electron revolves around the nucleus only in „certain permitted orbits‟
which are known as “stationary states”.

4. Each stationary state is having definite amount of energy. Therefore,


these are also called as energy shells or energy levels.

5. Electron in the energy level nearest to the nucleus has lower energy and
those are at greater distance from the nucleus have higher energy.

6. An „excited electron‟ can jump from a lower energy level to higher


energy level by absorbing energy. Whereas the excited electron jumps
from higher energy level to lower energy level by emitting (losing) the
energy.

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Q. Differentiate between atomic number and atomic mass number


Ans:
Atomic Number Atomic Mass Number

Atomic number is the number of The sum of the number of protons and
protons present in the nucleus is equal neutrons present in the nucleus of an
to the number of electrons revolving atom is called as atomic mass number.
around the nucleus in extra nuclear
part of the atom. Z= p= e A=p+n
It is denoted by symbol ‘Z’. It is denoted by symbol ‘A’.
Ex: Atomic no. of Na is 11. Ex: Atomic mass no. of Na is 23.

Different element have different atomic Atoms of same or different elements


number. Eg. 2He4, 1H1, 6C12 may or may not have same atomic mass
number.

Atomic number fixes the position of an Atomic mass number does not fixes the
element in the periodic table. position of an element in periodic table

Elements are placed in periodic table Elements are not placed in periodic table
according to their atomic number according to their atomic mass number.

Chemical properties of an element Chemical properties of element are not


depend on atomic number. depend on atomic mass number

Atomic number does not decide atomic Atomic mass number decide atomic
weight of element weight of element

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Q. Compare between proton, electron and neutron with respect to their


symbol, mass, charge and location.ORWrite composition of modern
atom.

Ans: Proton, electron and neutron are the fundamental particles of atom
Description Proton Electron Neutron

Definition It is positively It is negatively It is chargeless


charged particle charged particle (neutral) particle
present in the nucleus present in extra present in the
of an atom nuclear part of an nucleus of an
atom atom.

Symbol It is denoted by the It is denoted by the It is denoted by the


symbol „p+‟ symbol e– symbol ‘n’

Mass It has mass It has mass It has mass


1.007825 a.m.u. 0.000555 a.m.u. 1.008665 a.m.u.

Charge It carries unit positive It carries unit It is chargeless i.e.


charge (+1) negative charge (-1) ( 0 ) charge

Location Inside the nucleus Extra nuclear part Inside the nucleus

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Q. Differentiate between isotopes and isobars.


Ans:
Isotopes Isobars
They have same atomic number but They have same atomic mass number
different atomic mass number. but different atomic number

They occupy same place in periodic They occupy different place in


table. periodic table.

They have identical electronic They have different electronic


configuration. configuration.
They have identical chemical They have different chemical
properties. properties.

They have same number protons and They have different number of
electrons but different number of protons, electrons and neutrons.
neutrons.
Ex:1H1, 1H2, 1H3. 8O16, 8O17, 8O18, Ex: 18Ar40, 19K40, 20Ca40. 28Ni,30Zn64,
35
17Cl , 17Cl37. 12 13 14
6C , 6 C , 6C , 92U
235
, 93NP235, 94Pu235.

Q. Differentiate between orbit and orbital.


Ans:
Orbit Orbital ( Atomic orbital )
The electron revolve around the The three dimensional region of space
nucleus in fixed circular path is called around the nucleus where probability
as orbit. (possibility) of finding an electron is
maximum called as orbital.

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They are denoted by capital letters K, They are denoted by small letters
L, M, N etc. s,p,d,f. etc.

They have either circular or elliptical They have different geometrical shapes
shape. such as s-spherical p-dum bell shape
etc.
The maximum numbers of electrons The maximum number of electrons in
in an orbit is given by 2n2 rule i.e. any orbital is two with opposite spin
K=2, L=8, M=18, N=32. [↑↓]
Orbit has two dimensional Orbital have three dimensional
representation. representation
The number of orbit from the nucleus The number of orbital relative to any
are n=1, 2,3,4,5 etc. orbit is n2=1,4,9,16 etc.

Q. Differentiate between energy level and sub energy level.


Ans:
Energy level Sub-energy level

The electrons revolve around the The close grouping of a number of


nucleus in fixed circular path with energy levels in the main energy level
definite amount of energy are known are known as sub-energy levels.
as energy levels

They are denoted by capital letters They are denoted by small letters s, p,
K, L, M, N etc. d, f etc.

They have either circular or elliptical The sub energy levels consist of orbital
shape. which have different geometrical shape
such as s- spherical and p-dumbell.

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The maximum number of electrons in The maximum number of electrons


an energy levels is given by 2n2 rule, present in sub-energy levels are s=2
where, n=main energy number i.e. p=6 d=10, f=14.
K=2, L=8, M=18, N=32
It describes size of an electron cloud It describes shape of electron cloud.

Q. Differentiate between electrovalent compound and covalent


compound.
Ans:
Electrovalent compound Covalent compound
The compounds which are formed by The compound which is formed by
loss or gain of electrons between two mutual sharing of electrons between
dissimilar atoms of an element are two similar or dissimilar atoms of an
called as electrovalent compound. element are called as covalent
compound.
They are found to exist in the form of They are not found to exist in the form
ions even in solid state. of ions in the solid or liquid state.
They are polar They are non-polar.
They have high melting point and They have low melting point and
boiling point boiling point.
They are non-volatile They are volatile.
They are soluble in polar solvent like They are soluble in non-polar solvent
H2O and insoluble in non-polar like benzene, CS2, CCl4, and insoluble
solvents like benzene CS2, CCl4. in polar solvent like H2O
Ex: NaCl, MgO, CaCl2. Ex: H2, CO2, N2.

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Q. Explain Electrovalency and Covalency with examples.


Ans: Electrovalency:The valency obtained by loss or gain of electrons so as to
complete the octet (or duplet) is called as electrovalency. There are two
types of valency
A) Positive electrovalency
B) Negative electrovalency
A) Positive electrovalency: The valency obtained by loss of valence
electron by metallic atom so as to complete its octet is called as positive
electrovalency. Ex: Sodium atom loses one electron to complete its last
shell. Thus positive electrovalency of sodium atom is +1
Na → Na+ + e-
Atom (2,8,1) Ion (2,8)

2. Negative electrovalency: The valency obtained by gain of valence


electron by non-metallic atom so as to complete its octet is called as
negative electrovalency.Ex: Chlorine atom gains one electron to
complete its last shell. Thus negative electrovalency of chlorine is -1
Cl + e- → Cl-
Atom (2, 8, 7) Ion (2, 8, 8)

Covalency: The number of electrons that an atom of element can share to


complete the octet is called as covalency. OR
The valency obtained by mutual sharing of electrons between two similar
dissimilar atoms of an element so as to complete its octet is called as
covalency.
Ex:In the formation of chlorine molecule, each atom of chlorine shares
one electron to complete the octet hence, covalency of chlorine is 1.

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Q. Why Chromium &Copper shows anomalous behavior in electronic


configuration?
Ans: The atomic number of chromium is 24.The expected electronic
configuration of chromium is,
Cr (24) - 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d4.
But the observed electronic configuration of chromium is,
Cr (24) - 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s1, 3d5.
Because one electron from 4s orbital goes to empty 3d orbital of
chromium and has both 4s and 3d orbitals are half filled

The atomic number of copper is 29.The expected electron configuration


of copper is,
Cu (29) - 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d9.

But the observed electronic configuration of copper is,


Cu (29) - 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s1, 3d10.
Because one electron from 4s orbital goes to empty 3d orbital of copper
and has 4s orbital is half filled and 3d orbital is completely filled.
As half-filled and completely filled orbitals have less energy and
therefore they are more stable.

Q. Write orbital electronic configuration of elements from Hydrogen to


Argon.
Ans: (Note: While writing electronic configuration remember the order of
filling of electron in orbital-1s<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d & maximum
capacity of electron i.e. s = 2, p = 6, d = 10.)

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Element Atomic No. Electronic configuration


Hydrogen (H) 1 1s1
Helium (He) 2 1s2
Lithium (Li) 3 1s2 , 2s1
Beryllium (Be) 4 1s2 2s2
Boron (B) 5 1s2,2s2 ,2p1
Carbon (C) 6 1s2,2s2, 2p2
Nitrogen (N) 7 1s2, 2s2, 2p3
Oxygen (O) 8 1s2 ,2s2, 2p4
Fluorine (F) 9 1s2, 2s2, 2p5
Neon (Ne) 10 1s2, 2s2 ,2p6
Sodium (Na) 11 1s2, 2s2 ,2p6 ,3s1
Magnesium (Mg) 12 1s2, 2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2
Aluminium (Al) 13 1s2, 2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p1
Silicon (Si) 14 1s2, 2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p2
Phosphorous (P) 15 1s2, 2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p3
Sulphur ( S) 16 1s2, 2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p4
Chlorine (Cl) 17 1s2, 2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p5
Argon (Ar) 18 1s2, 2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6

Q. Write electronic configuration of potassium & calcium.

Ans:

Element Atomic No. Electronic configuration


Potassium (K) 19 1s2, 2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6, 4s1
Calcium (Ca) 20 1s2, 2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6, 4s2

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Q. Write electronic configuration of elements from Scandium to Zinc.


Ans:

Element Atomic No. Electronic configuration

Scandium ( Sc) 21 1s2 ,2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6 ,4s2,3d1


Titanium (Ti) 22 1s2 ,2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6 ,4s2,3d2
Vanadium (V) 23 1s2 ,2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6 ,4s2,3d3
*Chromium (Cr) 24 1s2 ,2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6 ,4s1,3d5
Manganese (Mn) 25 1s2 ,2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6 ,4s2,3d5
Ferrous (Fe) 26 1s2 ,2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6 ,4s2,3d6
Cobalt (Co) 27 1s2 ,2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6 ,4s2,3d7
Nickel (Ni) 28 1s2 ,2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6 ,4s2,3d8
*Copper (Cu) 29 1s2 ,2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6 ,4s1,3d10
Zinc (Zn) 30 1s2 ,2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2,3p6 ,4s2,3d10

Q. Write characteristies (Properties) of inert gases


Ans: Characteristics of inert gases
1) They are chemical resistant
2) They have good insuating Property
3) They have good didecfric Property
4) They have lowest boiling Poinl
5) They have low density

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Q. Write orbital dectronic contiguarction of linert gases (elements)

Element Symbol Atomic Electronic configuration


No.
Helium He 2 1s2
Neon Ne 10 1s2,2s2,2P6
Argon Ar 18 1s2,2s2,2P6,3s2,3P6
Krypton Kr 36 1s2,2s2,2P6,3s2,3P6 ,3d10,4s2,4p6
Xenon Xe 54 1s2,2s2,2P6,3s2,3P6,3d10,4s2,4p64d10,5s2,5p6

Radon Rn 86 1s2,2s2,2P6,3s2,3P6,3d10,4s2,4p64d10,5s2,5p6,4f14,5d10,6s2,6p6

Q. State maximum no. of electrons & number of sub shells present in K,


L, M, N orbit (shells)
Ans:

Main shells Maximum no. of No. of sub shells


(Energy level) electrons
K 2 1 i.e. s
L 8 2 i.e.s,p
M 18 3 i.e.s,p,d
N 32 4 i.e.s,p,d,f

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Q. Name different subenergy level. State maximum number of electrons


and number of atomic orbital present in s, p, d, and f shell.
Ans:
Sub shells Maximum no. of No. of atomic
(Sub energy level) electrons orbitals
s 2 1
p 6 3
d 10 5
f 14 7

Q. Explain formation of NaCl molecule. Name the type of bonding in it


OR Describe the formation of NaCl molecule. Predict the valency of
Na and Cl atom in NaCl.
Ans: Sodium chloride molecule is formed by combining one atom of sodium
and one atom of chlorine.

1. The atomic number of sodium is 11. So its electronic configuration is


(2,8,1). The atomic number of chlorine is 17 so its electronic
configuration is (2,8,7).
2. Sodium atom contains one electron in the last orbit. So it loses one
valence electron and aquires +1 charge and attains a stable
configuration (2,8) as that of Neon (2,8)
3. Chlorine atom contains seven electrons in last orbit. So it takes one
electron from sodium atom and aquires -1 charge and attains a stable
configuration (2,8,8) as that of Argon (2,8,8)

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4. These two equally and oppositely charged ions (Na+&Cl-) are


combined together by electrostatic force of attraction to form sodium
chloride (NaCl).
5. Thus sodium chloride (NaCl) consists of single electrovalent bond.
6. The valency of Na is +1 and Cl is -1

Q. Explain the formation of MgO molecule. Name the type of bonding in


it. OR Describe the formation of MgO molecule. Predict the valency
of Mg and O atom in MgO.
Ans: Magnesium oxide molecule is formed by combining one atom of
magnesium and one atom of oxygen.

1. The atomic number of Magnesium is 12 so its electronic configuration


is (2,8,2) .The atomic number of oxygen is 8 so its electronic
configuration is (2, 6).2.
2. Magnesium atom contains two electrons in last orbit. So it loses its
two valence electrons and aquires +2 charges and attains stable
configuration (2,8) as that of Neon (2, 8)

3. Oxygen atom contains six electrons in last orbit. So it takes two


electrons from magnesium atom and aquires -2 charges and attains stable
configuration (2,8) as that of Neon (2, 8,)

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4. These two equally and oppositely charged (Mg++ and O--) ions are
combined together by electrostatic force of attraction to form magnesium
oxide molecule (Mgo).

5. Thus magnesium oxide molecule (Mgo) consists of single


electrovalent bond.

6. The valency of Mg is +2 and O is -2

Q. Explain the formation of Calcium chloride (CaCl2) molecule. What is


the nature of bonding in it? OR
Describe the formation of CaCl2 molecule. Predict the valency of Ca
and Cl atom in CaCl2.
Ans: Calcium chloride molecule (CaCl2) is formed by combining one atom of
calcium and two atoms of chlorine.

1. The atomic number of Calcium is 20 so its electronic configuration is


(2, 8, 8, 2).
The atomic number of chlorine is 17 so its electronic configuration is
(2, 8,7).
2. Calcium atom contains two electrons in last orbit. So it loses its two
valence electrons and aquires +2 charge and attains a stable
configuration (2,8,8) as that of Argon (2, 8, 8)

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3. The electrons lost by calcium atom are gained by two chlorine atoms
and each chlorine atom acquires -1 charge and attains a stable
configuration (2,8,8) as that of Argon (2, 8, 8)
4. These equal and oppositely charged (Ca++ and 2Cl-) ions are
combined together by electrostatic force of attraction to form calcium
chloride molecule (CaCl2)
5. Thus calcium chloride (CaCl2) molecule consists of single
electrovalent bond.
6. The valency of Ca is +2and Cl is -1

Q. Explain the formation of Water molecule (H2O)

Ans: The water molecule is formed by combining two atoms of hydrogen and
one atom of oxygen.

1. The atomic number of oxygen is 8 so its electronic configuration is


(2, 6). It contains 6 valence electrons. So it is in short of two
electrons to complete the octet.
2. Each hydrogen atom has electronic configuration (1). So it is in short
of one electron to complete the duplet.

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3. Therefore, oxygen atom shares two electrons with two hydrogen


atoms to complete the octet & attains stable configuration (2, 8) as that
of Neon (2, 8). Also hydrogen completes its duplet.
4. There is a seperate single covalent bond between oxygen and two
atoms of hydrogen.

Q. Explain the formation of Carbon dioxide molecule (CO2)


Ans: Carbon dioxide molecule is formed by combining one atom of carbon and
two atoms of oxygen.

1. The atomic number of carbon is 6. So its electronic configuration is


(2,4). It contains 4 valence electrons. So it is in short of four
electrons to complete the octet.
2. The atomic number of oxygen is 8. Each oxygen atom has electronic
configuration (2, 6).
3. It contains 6 valence electrons. So it is in short of two electrons to
complete the octet.

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4. Therefore carbon atom shares four electrons with two oxygen atoms
to complete the octet and attains stable configuration (2,8) as that of
Neon (2,8).
5. There is a seperate double covalent bond between carbon and two
oxygen atoms.

Q. Explain the formation Nitrogen molecule.


Ans: The nitrogen molecule is formed by combining one atom of nitrogen with
other atoms of nitrogen. It is a diatomic.

1. The atomic number of nitrogen is 7. Each nitrogen atom has electronic


configuration (2, 5). It contains 5 valence electrons so it is in short of
three electrons to complete the octet.
2. Therefore, nitrogen atom shares three electrons with other nitrogen to
complete the octet and both attain stable configuration (2,8) as that of
Neon (2,8)

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3. There is a triple covalent bond between two nitrogen atoms.

Q. Explain the formation of chiorine molecule (Cl2).

Ans: In the formation of chlorine molecule one atom of chlorine combines


with other atom of chlorine.

1. The atomic number of chlorine is 17.

2. Each chlorine atom has electronic configuration (2,8,7) i.e. it contains


7 valency electrons. So it is in short of one electron to complete the
octet.

3. Therefore, each chlorine atom share one electron with other chlorine
to complete the octet and attains stable configuration as that of Argon,
inert gas

4.Thus chlorine molecule (Cl2) constitutes „single covalent bond’


between two chlorine atoms.

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Q. Explain the formation ethylene molecule.

Ans: The ethylene molecule is formed by the combination of two atoms of


carbon and four atoms of hydrogen.

1) The atomic number of carbon is 6 & hydrogen is 1.

2) Each carbon atom has electronic configuration (2,4) i.e. each contains
4 valency electrons. So they are in short of four electrons to complete
the octet.

3) Each hydrogen atom has electronic configuration (1) i.e. they are in
short of one electron to complete the duplet.

4) The ethylene molecule is formed by sharing two pairs of electrons


between two carbon atoms and by sharing one electron with each of
four hydrogen atoms.

5) Thus, two shared pairs form a double covalent bond between two
carbon atoms, four single covalent bond between carbon and hydrogen
atoms in ethylene molecule.

Q. Explain the formation acetylene molecule.

Ans: Acetylene molecule consists of two atoms of carbon and two atoms of
hydrogen

1) The atomic number of carbon is 6 & hydrogen is 1.

2) Each carbon atom has electronic configuration (2,4) .i.e. each contains
4 valency electrons. So they are in short of four electrons to electrons
to complete the octet.

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3) Each hydrogen atom has electronic configuration (1) i.e. they are in
short of one electron to complete the duplet.

4) The acetylene molecule is formed by sharing three pairs of electrons


between two carbon atoms and one pair of electron between carbon and
hydrogen atoms.

5) Thus, acetylene molecule is formed by forming triple covalent bond


between two carbon atoms and single covalent bond with each hydrogen
atom.

Q. Define Element, Molecule

Element: An element is a substance which cannot be break into two or


more simpler. Substances by the chemical methods of applying heat, light
or electric energy. Ex: Hydrogen, Oxygen

Molecule: A molecule in an electrically neutral group of two (or more)


atoms chemically bonded together or A molecule is the smallest particle
of a substance (element or compound) which has the properties of that
substance & can exist in the free state. Ex: Nacl, H2O, N2

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Chapter II
Electrochemistry
Q. Define following terms.

1. Conductor: A substance which allows electric current to pass through


it is called a conductor.

Ex: all metals, impure water, graphite, fused salts, aqueous solution of
acids, bases and salts.

2. Insulator: It is a substance which does not allow the electric current to


pass through it.

Ex: wood, paper, rubber, plastics, oils, alcohols, glass, petrol etc.

3. Dielectric: The materials which are used to prevent the loss of


electricity through certain parts in an electrical system are known as
dielectrics or electrical insulating materials.

4. Electrolyte: These are the substances which in aqueous solution or in


molten (or fused) state liberate ions and allow electric current to pass
through it resulting in its chemical decomposition.

Ex: Acids, bases and electrovalent salts.

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5. Electrolysis: It is the process of chemical decomposition of an


electrolyte by passage of electric currents.

6. Strong electrolyte: Electrolytes which are highly ionized in solution


and hence have a high degree of ionization known as strong
electrolytes.

Ex: Strong acids like H2SO4, HCl , HNO3,Strong bases like KOH,
NaOH and electrovalent salt NaCl, KCl etc.

7. Weak electrolyte: Electrolytes which are weakly ionized in the solution


and hence, have a low degree of ionization known as weak electrolytes.

Ex: organic acids like acetic acid, oxalic acid, weak bases like NH4 OH
and salts like BaSO4,Al(OH)3 etc.

8. Non-electrolyte: It is a substance which is non-conductor of


electricity. Ex: alcohol, petrol, oils, starch, sugar are non electrolytes.

Q. Define metallic conductor and electrolytic conductor.


Ans: Metallic conductor: These are the substances which conduct electricity
without any chemical decomposition
Ex:All metals,graphite etc.

Electrolytic conductors: These are the substance which in aqueous


solution or in molten (or fused) state liberates ions and allows electric
current to pass through it, resulting in its chemical decomposition.
Ex: Acids, bases and electrovalent salts.

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Q. Define cathode and anode.


Ans: Cathode: The electrode which is connected to the negative pole (or
terminal) of the battery is called cathode or negative electrode. When an
electric current is passing there is a flow of electrons from negative pole
of battery to the cathode.

Anode: The electrode which is connected to the positive pole (terminal)


of the battery is called anode or positive electrode. When an electric
current is passing there is a flow of electrons from the anode to the
positive pole of battery.

Q. Why blue colour of copper sulphate solution turns to colourless after


its electrolysis by using platinum electrode?
Ans: When a current is passed through a CuSO4solution by using platinum
electrodes then Cu++ ions (blue) discharged at cathode hence after
electrolysis CuSO4 solution turn to the colourless at cathode.
Cu+++2e-→Cu↓

Q. Justify the following. Instead of H+ ions only Cu2+ ions migrate


towards cathode in the electrolysis of CuSO4 Solution.
Ans: Discharged of cations at cathode depends on “position in the activity
series of cations.”
i.e.Cation at lower position is discharged easily than cation at higher
position.
Ex:In case of electrolysis of CuSO4solution there are H+& Cu2+ ions but
only Cu2+ions migrate towards cathode as they are at lower position than
H+ ions in activity series.

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Q. Why copper is electrorefined when it is to be used in electrical


industries?OR Why blister copper is electro refined?
Ans: Blister copper contains 3 to 5% impurities like Zn,S,As,Ni,Au etc. Such
impure copper is not fit to be used as an electrical conductor.
Conductivity is lowered by the traces of impurities. Copper with 100%
purity is required for electrical conductivity. Hence the blister copper is
refined by the process of electro refining.

Q. Define ionization.
Ans: The process of breaking of substance into charged atoms, radicals or
ions is known as ionization. i.e. ionization is process of formation of
ions in solution or in fused state or gaseous state.
Ex. Heat causes ionization of gas.

Q. Define electrolytic cell and electrochemical cell.


Ans: Electrolytic cell:
“It is the device in which electrical energy is converted into chemical
energy.”
Due to passage of electric current non spontaneous chemical reaction take
place.

Electrochemical cell:
“It is the device in which chemical energy is converted into electrical
energy.”
In this type of cell the electricity can be generated by “spontaneous redox
reaction”.

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Q. Differentiate between following


Ans:

1. Strong electrolyte and Weak electrolyte

Strong electrolyte Weak electrolyte


Electrolytes which are highly ionised Electrolytes which are feebly (weakly)
in solution hence having high degree ionised in solution hence having low
of ionisation are known as strong degree of ionisation are known as weak
electrolyte. electrolyte.
Eg: Strong acids like HCl,H2SO4, Eg:Weak acid like CH3COOH,
strong bases like NaCl, KOH etc. H2CO3,weak bases like NH4OH

2. Metallic conduction and Electrolytic conduction

Metallic conduction Electrolytic conduction


It involves flow of electrons in a It involves movement of ions in a
conductor solution
There is no change in the chemical The chemical reactions take place at the
properties of conductor. electrodes with the decomposition of
the electrolyte.
It does not involves any transfer of It involves transfer of electrolyte in the
matter form of ions.
It shows the increase in resistance as It shows the decrease in resistance as
the temperature is increased the temperature is increased

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Q. Define PH and POH.

Ans: PH: PH of a solution can be defined as the negative logarithm to the


base 10 of hydrogen ion concentration expressed in mole/ litre
PH= -log10 [H+]

POH: POH of solution can be defined as the negative logarithm to the


base 10 of hydroxyl ion concentration expressed in moles/litre.
POH= -log10 [OH-]

Q. What is PHScale? State its significance.


Ans: Hydrogen ion concentration in molarity is conveniently expressed on
logarithmic scale known as PH Scale.
It is a simple logarithmic scale. It is the measure of acidity, alkalinity and
neutrality of solution. It is numerically expressed from 0 to 14.

Significance:
1) When PH value of a solution is 7, then solution is neutral.
2) When PH of a solution is less than 7, then solution is acidic.
3) When PH of a solution is greater than 7, then solution is basic
4) When PH=14 then solution is extremely basic.
5) When PH=0 then solution is extremely acidic.

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Q. What is the PH of extremely acidic and basic solution?


Ans: For extremely acidic solution PH is Zero (0)
For extremely basic solution PH is fourteen (14)

Q. Define electrolytic dissociation.


Ans: The process of breaking up of an electrovalent compound
(electrolyte) into ions when dissolved in solvent like water is called as
electrolytic dissociation.

Q. Explain Arrhenius theory of Dissociation. OR State four postulates of


Arrhenius theory of ionization. OR Write the four assumptions of
Arrhenius theory of ionization.
Ans: In 1887 Arrhenius put forward theory of ionization. The main postulates
of Arrhenius theory are as follows.

1. When a molecule of electrolyte is dissolved in solvent like water, it


produces
Positively charged cation

Negatively charged anion

2. Cations are obtained from metal by the loss of electrons

Na Na+ + e-
(2,8,1) (2,8)
Atom Cation (Sodium ion)

Anions are obtained from non metal by the gain of electrons

Cl + e - Cl-
(2, 8, 1) (2, 8, 8)
Atom Anion (Chloride ion)

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3. In a solution total number of positive charges on cations and total


numbers of negative charges on anions are equal and hence solution as a
whole electrically neutral.

CaCl2 Ca++ + 2Cl –

4. The number of positive charges on cation and negative charges on


anion indicates the valency of that element from which it is derived

BaCl2 B a++ + 2Cl –

5. Cation and anions present in solution are constantly reuniting to form

original undissociated molecule

NaOH N a+ + OH –

Q. Define degree of ionization. Explain the factors affecting degree of


ionization.
Ans: Degree of ionization: The fraction of the total numbers of molecules of
an electrolyte that ionizes in solution is known as degree of ionization.

Degree of ionization = Numbers of molecules ionised into ions


Total number of molecules dissolved in solvent
Following are the factor affecting degree of ionization

1) Nature of solute
2) Nature of solvent
3) Concentration of solution
4) Temperature

Nature of solute:

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Ionic compounds like acids, bases and salts are highly ionized in solution.
Strong electrolyte like HCl, H2SO4, NaOH, NaCl are highly ionised but
weak electrolyte like CH3COOH,NH4OH etc are weakly ionised. Hence
degree of ionization depends upon the nature of solute.

Nature of solvent:
In polar solvent like H2O, NH3 degree of ionization is more. In non polar
solvents degree of ionization is less i.e. degree of ionization depends on
the nature of solvent.

Concentration of solution:
The degree of ionization is inversely proportion to the concentration of
solution. If concentration of solution is more, then degree of ionization is
lessEx:8 Molar HCl ionizes to only 80% while 0.1molar ionizes to 100%

Temperature: At higher temperature molecules aquire higher thermal


energy hence degree of ionisation increases with increases in temperature.

Q. Define electrode potential. What is oxidation &reduction potential?


Ans: Electrode Potential: It is defined as the difference of potential between
the electrode and its surrounding solution at equilibrium.

Oxidation Potential: It is defined as the difference of potential between


the electrode and its surrounding solution at equilibrium due to
oxidation. Ex: Zn electrode dipped in its salt (ZnSO4) solution.

Reduction Potential: It is defined as the difference of potential between


the electrode and its surrounding solution at equilibrium due to
reduction Eg: Cu electrode dipped in its salt solution (CuSO4) solution

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Q. Explain mechanism of electrolysis with suitable example.


Ans: Electrolysis: It is the process of chemical decomposition of an electrolyte
by passage of electric currents.
Consider, electrolysis of fused electrolyte AB (salt) taken in electrolytic
cell. Two electrodes are dipped in it. Cathode is connected to the negative
terminal and anode to the positive terminal of the battery.
The salt is ionised as,
AB → A+ + B-
Salt Cation anion
When electric current is passed through the bath, electrolysis take place

At Cathode: Cations (A+) move towards cathode and get discharged by


attracting electrons and become neutral atom.
A+ + 1e- → A (Reduction)
This is primary reaction at cathode.

At anode: Anions (B-) move towards anode and get discharged by losing
electrons and become neutral atom
B- → B + 1e- (Oxidation)

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This is primary reaction at anode. “If the product of primary reaction is


not stable then secondary reaction takes place ,to form stable product.

Examples:
At cathode: Reduction of cation takes place
Na+ + 1e- → Na (neutral sodium atom)

At anode: Oxidation of anion take place


Cl- → Cl + e- (neutral chlorine atom)

Q. Explain the electrolysis of CuSO4 solution using platinum electrode.


Write the product of electrolysis.
Ans: Aqueous solution of CuSO4 contains H+, Cu ++, OH- and SO4-- ions

According to electrochemical series, Cu++ ions are discharged at the


cathode in preference to H+ ions and copper is deposited as cathode. At
anode,OH- ions are discharged in preference to SO4-- ions and oxygen is
liberated at anode

Then ionization of CuSO4 takes place which is shown below

CuSO4 → Cu++ + SO4- - (strongly ionised)


H2O → H+ + OH- (weakly ionised)

At cathode: (Reduction)

Cu++ + 2e- → Cu (s)


Ion Neutral atom

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At anode : ( Oxidation)

2OH- → H2O + ½ O2 + 2e- (Primary reaction)


Neutral radical

A neutral radical (OH) is not stable product, hence secondary reaction


take place.

4OH → 2H2O + O2 (Secondary reaction)

Product of electrolysis:

1. At cathode, Cu is deposited and at anode O2 gas is evolved (liberated)


2. In electrolytic cell, colourless sulphuric acid is formed
(2H+ + SO4- -→ H2SO4)

Q. Explain electrolysis of CuSO4 solution using copper electrode. Write


the product of electrolysis.
Ans: Aqueous solution of CuSO4 contains H+, Cu ++, OH- and SO4-- ions

According to electrochemical series, Cu++ ions are discharged at the


cathode in preference to H+ ions and copper is deposited as cathode.

At anode, Cu++ ions are formed as when a same metal in contact with its
own salt solution. These Cu++ ions go to cathode and discharged.

Then ionization of CuSO4 takes place which is shown below.

CuSO4 → Cu++ + SO4- - (strongly ionised)


H2O→ H+ + OH- (weakly ionised)

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At Cathode: (Reduction)
Cu++ + 2e- → Cu(s)

At Anode: (Oxidation)
Cu(s) → Cu++ + 2e-

Product of electrolysis:

1. Cu metal is deposited at cathode


2. Cu anode is slowly dissolved in solution
3. Neither SO4- - nor OH- ions are discharged
Therefore concentration of CuSO4 solution remains constant

Applications:

1. This process is useful for refining (purification) of copper.


2. It is also used in copper plating.

Q. State Faraday`s first law of electrolysis.


Ans: Statement: “The weight of substance deposited or liberated at an
electrode during electrolysis is directly proportional to the quantity of
electricity passed through its solution”.
Explanation: If „W‟ is the amount of substance deposited or liberated at
an electrode and „Q‟ is the quantity of electricity passed through the
electrolyte solution

Then, WαQ
But C = Q/t
Q = ct
W α ct
W=Zct
Where, c = Current in ampere

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t= time in seconds
Z= Electrochemical equivalent.
If c =1 ampere and t = 1 sec

Then W= Z

Q. State & explain faraday’s second law of electrolysis. Give its


mathematical relation.
Ans: Statement: When same quantity of electricity is passed through different
electrolyte arranged in series then the weight of different substances
deposited or liberated at the respective electrode is directly proportional
to the chemical equivalents (Equivalent weight of substance)

Explanation: Let the same electric current is passed through CuSO4 and
AgNO3 solution arranged in series as shown in figure.
According faradays 2nd law

Weight of copper (Cu) deposited (Wcu) α Chemical equivalent of


copper (Ecu) - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)

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Weight of silver (Ag) deposited (WAg) α Chemical equivalent of


Silver (EAg) - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
Dividing equation (1) by (2) we get

Weight of Cu deposited (Wcu) = Chemicl aequivalent of Cu (Ecu)


Weight of Ag deposited (WAg) Chemical equivalent of Ag (EAg)

Wcu = Ecu OR W1 = E1
WAg EAg W2 E2

Q. Define electrochemical equivalent. State the relation between


chemical equivalent (CE) and electrochemical equivalent (ECE).
Ans: “Electrochemical equivalent of a substance is defined as the weight of
substance deposited or liberated at an electrode when a current of 1
ampere passed for 1 sec through its solution.
Equivalent weight of substance (C.E.) is 96,500 times the electrochemical
equivalent. Therefore,

Chemical equivalent (C.E.) = 96,500× Electrochemical equivalent


C. E. = 96,500 × E.C.E.

Q. Define electroplating. Describe electroplating of silver with diagram.


Ans: Electroplating: It is the process of obtaining metallic coating of a
superior metal (like silver, gold, nickel, Cr) on inferior base metal with
the help of electric current is called as electroplating.

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The purposes of electroplating are as follow,

1. For decoration purpose


2. Protection from corrosion
3. Repairing of worn out machinery parts
4. To improve surface hardness of metals
5. For making plastic surface conducting

Principle: An active coating metal as anode deposits on cathodic article


in the electrolytic cell with the help of electric current. Ex: Electroplating
of silver on iron spoon.

Process:
A plating of silver on iron spoon is done in a rectangular tank made up of
steel. Potassium argentocyanide solution K [Ag (CN) 2] is used as
electrolyte.

1. The iron spoon is first thoroughly cleaned by boiling with caustic soda to
remove grease and dirt.

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2. Then it is washed with water until free from caustic soda. Then it is
treated with dil. HCl to remove any oxide layer. Again it is washed with
water and polished carefully.
3. The iron spoon is then made as cathode. The plate or block of pure silver
metal is made as anode.
4. The cathode and anode both are immersed in electrolytic solution taken in
cell.
5. When current is passed, then iron spoon get plated with a smooth and
bright deposit of silver.
6. The silver anode gets slowly dissolved in solution by giving Ag+ ions

Ionisation of K [Ag (CN) 2] take place as follows

K [Ag (CN) 2]- → K+ + [Ag (CN) 2]-


[Ag (CN) 2]- → Ag+ + 2CN-

At cathode- Ag+ + e- → Ag

At anode- Ag → Ag+ + e-

Q. What is electrorefining? Explain electrorefining of blister copper


(impure copper) with diagram.
Ans: Electrorefining: Electrorefining is the process in which pure metal can
be obtained from impure metal by the method of electrolysis.

Principle: An impure metal as anode dissolves and gets deposited at


cathode by passing the electric current
.Example: Electrorefining of blister copper

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Process: In this process15% CuSO4+ 5-10%H2SO4solution is used as


electrolyte

The thick rod of impure copper is made as anode


A thin strip of pure copper is made as cathode.

1. The two electrodes are then dipped in an electrolytic cell containing


CuSO4 solution
2. On passing electric current Cu anode is slowly dissolved in solution
and deposited on the surface of cathode
3. The impurities of less active metal like Ag, Au and Pt fall down from
the anode and settle below anode as anode mud.
4. From anode mud, precious metals like Ag, Au and Pt are recovered.
Electro refined copper is 99.95% pure

Ionisation: CuSO4 → Cu++ + SO4- -


H2O→ H+ + OH-

At cathode - Cu++ + 2e- → Cu(s)


At anode - Cu(s) → Cu++ + 2e-

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Q. Define following terms


Ans: 1) Cell:
“A cell is a device in which either electrical energy is converted to
chemical energy or chemical energy is converted to into electrical
energy.”

2) Battery:
“Battery is a device in which many cells are connected in series.”

3) Charge (Charging):
“This is the operation of a cell when an external source of current
reverses the electrochemical reaction of the cell to restore the battery to
its original state.”

4) Discharge (Discharging):
“This is the operation of a cell when current flows spontaneously from
the battery into the external circuit.”

Q. Define electrolytic cell and electrochemical cell.


Ans: Electrolytic cell:
“It is the device in which electrical energy is converted into chemical
energy.” These cells are also known as voltameters. Due to passage of
electric current non spontaneous chemical reaction take place.

Electrochemical cell:
“It is the device in which chemical energy is converted into electrical
energy.” In this type of cell the electricity can be generated by
“spontaneous redox reaction”.

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Q. Give the classification of batteries.


OR How batteries are classified?
Ans: Batteries are classified into

1. Primary battery:
“The type of battery in which cell reaction is not reversible is called
as primary battery.”
These are not rechargeable. If these are discharged then discarded.

e.g. Dry cell, Daniel cell

2. Secondary battery:
“The type of battery in which cell reaction is reversible is called as
secondary battery.”
These are rechargeable.

e.g. Lead acid storage cell, Ni- Cd-cell.

3. Reserve battery:
“It is a battery in which active material are kept separated by special
arrangements.”
Such a battery is designed for long storage before use.

e.g. Gordon-magnesium battery, Silver chloride cell.

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Q. Differentiate between Primary cell and Secondary cell OR How


electrochemical cells are classified?
Ans: Electrochemical cells are classified into primary cell and secondary cell

Primary Cell Secondary Cell


The type of cell in which net cell The type of cell in which net cell
reactions cannot be reversed on reactions can be reversed on applying
applying higher e.m.f. is called as higher e.m.f. is called as secondary
primary cell cell
Its cost is low Its cost is high
It is light in weight It is heavier
It‟s life is short Its life is longer
It cannot recharge once discharged It can be recharged number of times.
E.g. Dry cell, Daniel cell. E.g. Lead acid storage cell, Ni- Cd cell

Q. State Ohms law with mathematical equation and meaning of each


symbol used in it
Ans: Statement:
The strength of current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference applied across the conductor and
inversely proportional to the resistance of the conductor.

i.e. I=E/R
Where, I = current
E = potential difference
R = Resistance

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Q. Define Specific conductivity and equivalent conductivity. State their


units. State the relation between equivalent conductivity and specific
conductivity
Ans: Specific conductivity (conductance) is the reciprocal of specific
resistance. OR It is also defined as the conductance of 1cm cube of
solution

It is denoted by (K) kappa.


The unit is ohm-1 cm-1

Equivalent conductivity (conductance) is defined as the conductivity of a


solution containing 1gm equivalent of the electrolyte”

It is denoted by „λ’
The unit is ohm-1 cm2 eqvt -1

λ = KV

Where, V is volume of solution containing 1gm equivalent of an


electrolyte.

But V = 100/ C
Where, C is concentration in gram equivalent/ litre

λ = K × 1000
C

This is the relation between equivalent conductivity and specific


conductivity

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Q. Explain the construction and working of Dry (Leclanche) cell. Give


two applications of Dry cell. OR Describe construction and working
of Zn – MnO2 cell
Ans: Dry cell is modified form a leclanche cell. It is primary cell. It is
irreversible and cannot be recharged.

Construction: Dry cell consist of

1. Zn vessel which acts as anode


2. A graphite rod surrounding by a paste made up of graphite powder,
manganese dioxide (MnO2) and water placed in muslin cloth, It acts as
a cathode.
3. A paste of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), Zinc chloride (ZnCl2) and
water

Working: The following electrode reactions takes place.


At anode:
Zinc dissolves in solution to form zinc ions
Zn Zn++ + 2e- (oxidation)

Zn++ ions produced combine with NH3 to form its complex


Zn++ + 4NH3 Zn (NH3)4++

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At cathode:
The ammonium ion reacts with MnO2 to liberate ammonia (NH3)
2NH4+ + 2MnO2 + 2e- Mn2O3 + H2O + 2NH3

The voltage of cell is 1.5 volt.


The cell cannot be recharged because it is not possible to reverse the cell
reaction

Applications:
It is used in calculator, radio, watches, tape recorder, flash light and
transistor.
.
Q. Explain construction and working of Lead acid storage cell (Lead
accumulator). Write charging and discharging reactions.

Ans: It is secondary cell it is reversible cell and can be charged.


Construction:

1. Lead acid storage cell consist of lead plate which acts as anode and
lead plate coated with lead oxide (PbO2) which acts as cathode.
2. Several such an anode and cathode pairs are connected in parallel and
are dipped in 20% of H2SO4 solution with specific gravity 1.25g/cm3.
3. The battery is encased in plastic or glass container.
4. Each pairs of anode and cathode produces a voltage of 2 Volt.

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Working:
Due to the formation of water in the cell the acid get diluted. When its
specific gravity falls below 1.25gm/cm3 the battery needs charging.

The following discharging and charging reactions take place.


Discharging

At anode: Pb + SO4-- PbSO4 + 2e-


Charging

Discharging
-- + -
At cathode: PbO2 + SO4 + 4H +2e PbSO4 + 2H2O
Charging

_________________________________________________________
Net cell reaction: Discharging

Pb +PbO2 + 4H++2SO4-- 2PbSO4 + 2H2O


Charging

During charging lead & lead oxide is again deposited on anode & cathode
respectively & charging reaction is
Discharging

2PbSO4 + 2H2O Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO4


Charging

Applications:

1. Lead acid battery used in starting motor


2. It is used in UPS system & research centers
3. It is used in marketing area, railway signaling in mines, laboratories
and hospitals
4. It is used in security alarms system

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Chapter III
Metallurgy

Q. Define Following Terms.

Mineral: A naturally occurring substance present in earth crust which


contains metal in free state or in combined state is known as mineral.
Ex: Hematite (Fe2O3) , Galena (PbS), Limestone (CaCO3) .

Ore: A mineral from which a metal can be extracted economically &


easily is called as ore.
Ex: Hematite (Fe2O3) is ore of iron, Bauxite (Al2O3.H2O) is ore of
aluminium

Gangue Or Matrix: The unwanted impurities like sand, clay ,rocks etc.
associated with the ores are called as gangue or matrix.
Ex: In Hematite (Fe2O3) ore, silica is gangue.

Flux: The substance used during extraction of metal to remove gangue is


known as flux.
Ex: For removal of gangue like silica (SiO2), calcium oxide (CaO) is
used as flux

Slag: The fusible substance formed by combination of added flux &


gangue present in ore is known as slag.
SiO2 + CaO

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Metallurgy: Metallurgy is the process of extraction of metal easily,


economically and profitably from their ores.
Ex: Iron is extracted from Hematite ore.

Q. Define following terms.

1. Hardness: It is the ability of the metal to resist wear or abrasion &


resist penetration.

Ex: Tungsten metal is found to be the hardest metal

2. Ductility: It is the property of the metal by which it can be stretched


into length and allows it to drawn into wires without breaking.

Ex: gold, silver, and platinum having this property can be easily
drawn into wires.

3. Malleability: It is the property of metal by which it can be rolled into


thin sheet without breaking.

Ex: Gold, silver, platinum, copper, aluminium, are most malleable


metals.

4. Toughness: The property of a metal to resist repeated shocks or


vibrations without breaking is called as toughness

Ex: Gold & Silver are tough metals.

5. Tensile Strength: The tensile strength of a metal is the ability of


metal to carry load without breaking.

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6. Brittleness: It is the property of a material (like glass) which don’t


permit permanent deformation without breakage.

7. Weldability: It is the process of uniting two pieces of metals by


means of heat by bringing their ends in the molten state.

8. Castability: (Casting): It is the process of pouring molten metal into


a mould& allowing it to solidify is known as casting.

9. Machinability: A property due to which a metal can be easily cut by


cutting tools to produce a desired shape & surface finish on its
surface. Ex: Sawing, Shaping, Drilling, etc.

10.Forging: It is the process of giving predetermined shape to a piece of


metal at sufficiently high temperature when metal is in the plastic state
it is known as forging.

11.Soldering: It is defined as a process of joining the metal surface by


introducing a molten non ferrous alloy with melting point below
4000C between them is known as soldering.

12. Brazing: It is defined as a process of joining the metal surface by


introducing a molten non ferrous alloy with melting point above
4000C between them is known as brazing.

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Q. Define concentration of ore. Name physical & chemical processes of


concentration of ore.
Ans: The process of removal of unwanted (Gangue or matrix) impurities from
the ore is called as concentration of ore.
Physical Process (Methods)

1) Gravity separation method


2) Magnetic separation method
3) Froth floatation method

Chemical Process (Methods)

1. Calcination
2. Roasting

Q. Why wood metal is used in electric fuse?

Ans: The melting point of wood metal is 710C.So it is easily fusible. As the
fuse wire is made up of wood metal due to sudden high voltage the
temperature of the fuse wire increases and wire gets melted and the
circuit breaks. This makes the current supply off, which keeps the
electrical equipment safe and saves from damage.

Q. Define refining. Name the methods of refining of metals.


Ans: The process of purification a metal to get extra pure metal is called as
refining.
The methods used for refining of metals are as follows.

1. Poling
2. Liquation
3. Distillation
4. Electrolytic refining

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Q. Define alloy and binary alloy with example.


Ans: Alloy: The homogeneous mixture of two or more element in which one
must be a metal.Ex: Brass, Bronze.

Binary alloy: The alloy which contain only two components is known as
binary alloy Ex:Brass (Cu+Zn), Bronze (Cu+Sn)

Q. When alloy is called amalgam? Give two examples. OR What is


amalgam.
Ans: An amalgam is prepared by mixing element with mercury.
When an alloy contains mercury as one of the component then it is called
as amalgam.
Ex: Na- Hg Zn- Hg

Q. Name the methods of preparation of alloys.


Ans: Following are the methods used for preparation of alloy.

1. Fusion
2. Compression
3. Electrode position 4.Reduction

Q. Give classification of alloys based on its composition.


Ans: Alloys are classified into two types

1) Ferrous alloys
2) Non-Ferrous alloys

Ferrous alloys: These alloys have iron as one of the main component
Ex: Magnetic steel, Stainless steel etc.

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Non- ferrous alloy: These alloys do not contain iron as one of the main
component. Ex: Brass, Bronze, Duralumin etc.

Q. State the purposes of alloying of metals


Ans: 1) To increase the hardness of a metal
2) To increase the tensile strength
3) To increase corrosion resistance of metal.
4) To modify colour.
5) To change the chemical reactivity.
6) To lower the melting point of metal.
7) To reduce malleability & ductility.

Q. State the ingradients added to blast furnace for extraction of iron.


Ans: Haematite ore (Fe2O3) Coke (c) and Limestone (CaCO3) are the
ingradient in the proportion 8:4:1 added to blast furnace for extraction of
iron.

Q. Name the products of blast furnace. Give one application of each.


Ans: The products of blast furnace are pig iron, slag and flue gases.

Applications:

i) Pig iron: It is used for stoves, lamp posts, drainage covers, pipes,
railing etc
ii) Slag: It is used for road building, cement manufacturing and as
fertilizers
iii) Flue gases: Used as fuel

Q. Explain with justification coke and limestone are added during the
extraction of iron. OR What is function of coke and limestone in
extraction of iron by the blast furnace

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Ans: During the extraction of iron from its ore smelting is done in blast
furnace. During the process of smelting coke is added as reducing agent
and limestone as flux to remove impurities. Coke reduces haematite ore
to metallic iron. Lime stone (CaCO3) decomposes to lime which
combines with impurities of silica to form calcium siliate which is
removed as slag.

Q. What are the different zones of blast furnace according to temperature.


Ans: Blast furnace is divided into three temperature zones

i) Zone of reduction – 3000 C to to 8000 C-


ii) Zone of heat absorption- 8000 C to 12000 C
iii) Zone of fusion – 12000 C to 15000 C

Q. Write the chemical reactions taking place in the zone of reduction.


Ans: Following reactions take place in the temperature range 3000-8000C i.e. Zone
of reduction.

1. At the top of the furnace the charge is heated between 3000C to 5000C, Fe2O3
is converted into Fe2O4

3Fe2O3 + CO 2Fe3O4 + CO2 .


Ferric oxide Ferroso ferric oxide (stable upto 6500C)

2. At temperature between 6500C- 7000C, Fe3O4 is converted into FeO

Fe3O4 + CO 3FeO + CO2

3. At temperature between 7000C- 8000C, FeO is converted to metallic iron

FeO + CO Fe + CO2

4. At the same temperature 3000C – 8000C, limestone is decomposed to lime.

CaCO3 CaO + CO2

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Q. Write the chemical reactions takes place in the zone of heat absorption.

Ans: Zone of heat absorption has temperature range 800-12000C. In this


temperature zone following reactions takes place.

1. Any oxide of iron which is not reduced in the zone of reduction is reduced
by red hot carbon and also carbon dioxide is reduced by red hot carbon to
carbon monoxide by the absorption of heat.

Fe2O3 + 3C 2Fe + 3CO + heat

CO2 + C 2CO + 39 Kcal

2. The hot iron meets the carbonmonoxide to carbon which is absorbed by


hot iron.
2CO CO2 + C

3. The lime obtained in the zone of reduction by decomposition of lime stone


combines with silica and forms calcium silicate i.e. slag.

CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3

4. At about 12000C ,non metallic and metallic oxide are reduced by coke to
respective elements

SO2 + 2C S + 2CO

P2O5 + 5C 2P + 5CO

MnO2 + 2C Mn + 2CO

SiO2 + 2C Si + 2CO

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Q. Differentiate between metals and non-metals.


Ans:

Metals Non–metals
Chemically these elements have Chemically these elements have
tendency to donate or lose the tendency to accept or share the
electrons. electrons.
Ex: Na, Fe, Ni, Mg etc. Ex: Sulphur, carbon, chlorine etc.
Metals are solid at ordinary Non-metals are solid, liquid or gas at
temperature except mercury which is ordinary temperature.
liquid.

They have high melting & boiling They have low melting & boiling
point. point.
They have high density. They have low density.
They are good conductor of heat and They are bad conductor of heat &
electricity. electricity.
They are malleable & ductile. They are neither malleable nor ductile.
They are generally hard. They are generally soft.
Metals form basic oxides. Non metals form acidic oxides

Q. Explain concentration process for hematite & tinstone ore.


OR Explain gravity separation method with labelled diagram.
Ans: Principle: This method of concentration of ore is based on the difference
in densities of the ore & impurities.

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Process: In this process

1. The finely powdered ore is placed on a sloping platform.


2. Then the powdered ore is allowed to flow with water on a sloping
platform.
3. The platform has depressions on certain intervals.
4. After that the heavier particles of ore settle down (collected) in the
bottom of sloping platform.
5. The lighter particles of the gangue are washed away with water

Q. Explain electromagnetic separation process with suitable diagram.


OR Name & explain the process used for the concentration of
tinstone ore which contain tungstates of iron & manganese.
Ans: This method used for concentration of iron ores, tin ores, tin stone ores.

Principle: This method is based on the principle of magnetism i.e. for


separation of magnetic impurities from non-magnetic particles & vice
versa.
Ex: Tinstone (ore of tin) in which tinstone (SnO2) is non magnetic, while
the impurities like tungastate of iron & manganese are magnetic.

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Process:
1. In this process firstly the finely powdered ore (containing magnetic
impurities) is allowed to fall through hopper on a non magnetic belt of
leather or rubber moving over the electromagnetic rollers.
2. Then the magnetic impurities fall below the magnetic roller due to
attraction by magnet.
3. While the non magnetic ore falls in a separate heap away from the
magnet.

Q. Explain froth floatation process with diagram. OR Which method is


used to concentrate sulphide ore? Explain with diagram. OR Name
the physical method used for concentration of sulphide ore. Explain
it with diagram.
Ans: The froth floatation method is especially used for concentration of
Sulphide ores like copper pyrite (CuFeS2), & Zinc blende (ZnS) etc.

Principle: This process is based on the difference in wetting


characteristics of the gangue particles with oil & water respectively.

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Process:
1. In this process firstly the powdered sulphide ore is mixed with water
& pine oil.
2. Then the whole mixture of ore, water and pine oil is stirred
vigorously by passing compressed air through it.
3. After that the oil forms froth with air bubbles.
4. Then sulphide ore particles get attached with the froth & floats on the
surface.
5. The gangues (impurities) are wetted by water & sink to the bottom of
the tank.
6. The floating froth overflows the tank & collected in the settling basin
where ore particles settle down after some time.

Q. Define smelting. State the principle of smelting of hematite ore using


a chemical equation. OR Coke and limestone is added during the
extraction of iron. Explain with proper justification. OR Describe
smelting process in blast furnace.
Ans: Smelting: It is the process of conversion of oxide into metal.

Principle: It is the reaction of metal oxide with carbon (or its compounds
like Co, CO2, charcoal, coke) at high temperature.

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Process: The calcined or roasted ore is mixed with coke and flux (in the
ratio of 8:4: 1) and heated in a blast furnace or reveberatory furnace, in
the presence of controlled air supply. The reducing agent coke converts
oxide of metal (ore) into molten metal while the flux removes the gangue
in the form of fusible mass known as slag. This process is called smelting

The iron oxide ore, Hematite (Fe2O3) is reduced by using coke as a


reducing agent in the blast furnace.

Heat
Fe2O3 + 3C 2Fe + 3CO
Hematite Coke Iron Carbon
(Ore) (Reducing agent) metal monoxide

Lime stone i.e. flux removes the impurities in the form of fusible mass
called as slag.

CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3


Flux Gangue Slag

Q. Explain all ores are minerals but all minerals are not ores.
OR Explain the term mineral and ore.
Ans: Ore: A mineral from which the metal can be extracted economically is
called as ore.

Mineral: A naturally occurring substance present in the earth crust


which contain metal in free state or in combined state is called as
mineral.

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“It is not possible to extract metal in profitable amount from all the
minerals of same metal.”
Ex: Clay & Bauxite are minerals of aluminium but aluminium is
extracted economically from bauxite & not economically from clay
hence, clay & Bauxite are minerals but ore is only “Bauxite.”
Therefore, all ores are minerals but all minerals are not ores.

Q. Explain the purposes of alloying of metal. OR Write any four


purposes of alloying of metals with suitable examples.
Ans: Following are the main purposes for making alloys.
1. To increase the hardness of a metal: Generally pure metals are soft
so that hardness of the metal can be improved by adding other metal.
Ex: In preparation of ornaments of gold & silver little copper is added
into it to improve their hardness & to resist wear & tear.

2. To increase the tensile strength: The tensile strength of pure metal is


low so it can be increased by alloying it with suitable element.Ex:
Tensile strength of iron can be increased by 10 times by addition of
1% of carbon

3. To lower melting point: The melting point of pure metal is high. It


can be decreased by alloying with suitable elements. Ex. Rose metal is
an alloy of bismuth, lead & tin has melting point 1000C

4. To modify colour: Colour is a natural characteristics of metal


therefore we cannot change the colour of given metal but the colour of
the metal can be modified by alloying it with suitable element.

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Ex: An alloy of brass is yellow in colour which is obtained from


copper (Red) & zinc (silvery white).

5. To change chemical reactivity: The reactivity of some metals can be


controlled by adding some other metal to it.Ex: In sodium amalgam
(Na-Hg) alloy, the reactivity of sodium is modified by adding mercury
to it

Q. Explain any one method for the preparation of an alloy.


ORDescribe fusion method for the preparation of an alloy.
OR What is the principal method used for preparation of binary
alloy? Explain the process.
Ans: Fusion method is used for preparation of binary alloy

Process: It is the most common method used for alloy preparation.


1. In this method the component metal having higher melting point is
first melted in crucible (melting pot)
2. The other component of metal having lower melting point are added
into it in required quantity.
3. Then the surface of „molten mass‟ is covered with fine charcoal
powder to avoid oxidation of molten metal due to high temperature.
4. Then the mixture is stirred vigorously to obtain uniform alloy.

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5. The molten mass is then allowed to cool which gives the required
alloy.
Ex: Manufacture of Brass: Brass is a mixture of Cu & Zn. Cu ( M.P.
10890C) is melted first & then required quantity of Zn ( M.P. 4190C)
added to it which melts immediately.

Q. Describe compression method for the preparation of alloy


Ans: In this method two or more components of metal powders are uniformly
mixed. This mixture is compressed to a high pressure in a suitable mould.
The temperature of molded article is increased to just below the melting
point. Due to high temperature the tiny particles of the metal are welded
to one another producing an alloy. Ex. solder alloy of lead and tin is
prepared by this method.

Q. Explain the term calcination. What are the purposes of calcination?


OR With the help of figure, explain the process of calcination. OR
How carbonate ore are concentrated by using chemical method.
Ans: Calcination: “It is the process of heating the ore strongly in the absence
of air below its melting point.”
Generally carbonate, hydroxide & oxide ores are concentrated by this
method.
Calcination is carried out in the hearth of a reverberatory furnace by
keeping the doors closed.

Purposes of calcination:
1. To convert carbonate & hydroxide ores into oxides.
Ex: CaCO3 CaO + CO2
Limestone Calcium oxide

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2. To remove moisture from ore.


Fe2O3 .3 H2O Fe2O3+3 H2O
3. To remove the volatile impurities.
4. To make the ore porous for easy reduction.

Q. How sulphide ores are concentrated by using chemical method? OR


Explain the term roasting. What are the purposes of roasting? OR
What is roasting of the ore? Give purposes of roasting.

Ans: Roasting: “It is the process of heating the ore strongly in the presence of
excess of air below its melting point.”

Generally sulphide ores are concentrated by this method.


Roasting is carried out in the hearth of a reverberatory furnace by keeping
the door open.
Purposes of Roasting:

1. To convert sulphide ores into oxides &sulphate.


Ex: 2PbS + 3O2 2PbO + 2SO2
Galena Lead oxide

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PbS + 2O2 PbSO4


Galena Lead sulphate

2. To remove the moisture from ore.


Fe2O3.3 H2O Fe2O3+3 H2O
3. To remove volatile impurities like sulphur, arsenic, antimony in the
form of their oxides
4. To make the ore porous for easy reduction.

Q. Differentiate between Calcination & Roasting.


Ans:
Calcination Roasting
It is the process of heating the It is the process of heating the ore in
ore in absence of air. presence of air
The purpose of calcination is to The purpose of roasting is to convert
convert carbonates & hydroxides sulphides of metal into oxides &
of metal into its oxides. sulphates.

Impurities are evaporated on Impurities are oxidized and then


heating. evaporated.
Decomposition reaction takes Oxidation reaction takes place in
place in calcination. roasting
The mass become highly porous The mass become less porous on
on calcination. roasting.
Ex: CaCO3 CaO + CO2 Ex: PbS + 2O2 PbSO4
Limestone Calcium oxide Galena Lead sulphate

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Q. Draw the flow chart for extraction of metal from its ore.

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Q. Write the composition, Properties and applications of following


alloys.
1.Alnico 2. Duralumin 3. Dutchmental 4. German silver or Nickel
silver. 5. Gun metal 6. Monel metal 7. Wood metal

Sr.No Alloy Composition Properties Uses

1.For making small powerful


Al = 20% magnets in Radio & T.V.
1 Alnico Ni = 20% 1) It is highly
Co = 10% magnetic 2. In making cores of
Steel = 50% 2)It is corrosion Transformers, dynamos,
resistant. Motors etc.

1) To fabricate the parts


1)It has high automobiles.
Al = 95% strength being light 2) It is used in making
2 Duralumin Cu = 4% in weight. electrical cables.
Mg = 0.5% 2) It has good 3) In making surgical
Mn = 0.5% machinability. instruments.
3) Good conductor 4) In making kitchen utensils,
of heat & underground railways, etc.
electricity.

1) It is Golden 1)In musical instruments.


yellow alloy. 2) In cheap jewellary, Caps
3 Dutch metal Cu = 80% of battery cell.
Zn = 20% 2)It is suitable for 3) For tubes and flexible
all drawing and hoses.
framing work.

1) It is silver colour 1) In making of utensils,


German Cu = 60% alloy. coins, cheap ornaments.
4 Silver or Zn = 20% 2) It has good (Resistors)
Nickel Silver Ni = 20% strength and 2) In decorative articles
corrosion resistant (statues).
In salt water. 3) For making screws, bolts,
3) It is highly tableware etc
malleable and
ductile.

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1)For making gun barrels.


1)It is silvery white, 2)In gears and heavy load
soft alloy. bearings.
Cu = 88% 2) It is hard and 3) In spare pars of boilers and
5 Gun metal Sn = 10% tough. marine fittings.
Zn = 2% 3) It is strong to 4) For foundary work
resist the force of
explosion
4) It is corrosion
resistant to water
and atmosphere.

1)For making safety plugs of


pressure cookers, boilers, fire
alarms, water sprinklers.
6 Monel Metal Cu = 30% 1) It is easily fusible 2) As a soft solder, in
Ni = 67% alloy soldering electronic
Fe+Mn =3% 2) It‟s melting point components.
is low (700C.) 3) As casting for dental work.
4) It is used for fuse-wire in
electric fuses.
5) For taking impression of
coins

1) For making safety plug of


pressue cookers,boilers,fire
alarms, water sprinklers.
2) As a soft solder, in
Wood Bi = 50% 1) It is easily fusible soldering electronic
7 Metal Pb = 25% alloy components.
Sn = 12.5% 2) It‟s melting point 3) As casting for dental work.
Cd = 12.5% is low (710C) 4) It is used for the dental in
electric fuses.
5) For taking impessinon of
coins

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Chapter 4
Corrosion of Metals & Its Protection

Q. Define corrosion.
Ans: “Any process of chemical or electrochemical decay (destruction) of a
metal due to the action of its surrounding medium is called as
corrosion”.
Example: Rusting of Iron

Q. State the types of corrosion.


Ans: There are two main types of corrosion namely,

1. Atmospheric corrosion or Dry corrosion/Direct chemical corrosion


2. Electro chemical/Wet/Immersed corrosion

Q. Define Atmospheric corrosion/Dry corrosion. Give two examples


Ans: The corrosion which is brought out by atmospheric condition is called as
atmospheric corrosion or
The corrosion which is caused by direct chemical action of gases like O2,
halogens, SO2, H2S with metal surface is called as atmospheric
corrosion/dry corrosion

Example: 1. Rusting of Iron.


2. Formation of green film of basic carbonate on the surface of copper
Q. State the factors affecting rate of atmospheric corrosion.
Ans: Factors affecting atmospheric corrosion are
1. The impurities present in the atmosphere.
2 . Moisture in the atmosphere

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Q. Define Electrochemical/Wet corrosion/Immersed corrosion


Ans: “The corrosion of metal which take place in presence of liquid (Solution)
through ionic reaction when two dissimilar (different) metals are in
contact with each other is called as electrochemical/wet/immersed
corrosion.”

Q. Give two examples of electrochemical corrosion.


Ans: a) Steel pipe connected to copper plumbing
. b) Copper sheets joined by iron nails.
c) Corrosion at rivetted joints

Q. State the factors affecting rate of electrochemical/immersed /wet


corrosion.
Ans: 1. PH value of solution
2. Purity of metal
3. Position of metal in electrochemical series
4. Solubility of the corrosion product
5. Area of cathode and anode
6. Nature of metal surface

Q. Name the oxide film which is corrosive against corrosion. Give one
example
Ans: Volatile oxide film is more corrosive against corrosion
Volatile oxide film. Ex. Molybdenum
Q. Name the oxide film which is protective against corrosion. Give one
example
Ans: Non porous oxide film is protective against corrosion
Non-Porous oxide film. Ex. Aluminium, tin, lead

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Q. State the necessary condition for electrochemical corrosion to take


place.
Ans: a) Formation of anodic and cathodic area
b) Presence of conducting medium which acts as electrolyte
c) Electrical contact between anode and cathode for conduction of
electron

Q. Iron corrodes faster than aluminium, even though iron is placed


below aluminum in electrochemical series. Why?
Ans: Aluminium forms a stable, non porous, very thin, tightly adhering
protective oxide film (Al2O3) on its surface which restrict for their
corrosion. But iron forms a porous non protective oxide film on its
surface & its corrosion continue. Therefore iron corrodes faster than
aluminium even though it is placed below it in electrochemical series.

Q. Why protection from corrosion is necessary?


Ans: Corrosion causes many effects as

1. It reduces the life span of machine


2. It weakens the metallic structure and machinery which may causes
injuries to worker
3. It causes loss of cost of extraction of metal from their ores, cost of
fabrication of metal etc

Due to above reasons protection from corrosion is necessary.

Q. Compare the rate of corrosion of iron when it is in contact with zinc


and copper
Ans. When iron come in contact with zinc, zinc protects the iron from
corrosion a it is more electropositive than iron and does not allow iron to

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pass into the solution. When iron comes in contact with copper iron
undergoes corrosion as it is more electropositive than copper

Q. Name different types of oxide film with examples.


Ans: There are three types of oxide film namely,

A) Stable oxide film: These are of two types namely,


1. Porous (Non-protective) oxide film: e.g. Na, K, Ca, Mg
2. Non- porous (Protective) oxide film: e.g. Sn, Pb, Cu,Al
B) Unstable oxide film: e.g. Ag, Au, Pt
C) Volatile (Corrosive) oxide film: e.g. Molybdenum

Q. Explain mechanism of atmospheric (oxidation) corrosion OR


Explain mechanism of corrosion due to action of oxygen
Ans: “Oxidation corrosion” is brought about by direct chemical action of
oxygen on metals or by forming “oxide film”.

2M + O 2 2MO
Metal Metal oxide

1. When metallic surface comes in contact with atmospheric oxygen then


metallic ion is formed.

2. Then the electrons from metal are transferred to oxygen and oxide ion
is formed.
3. Then the metallic ion and oxide ion combine together to form metal
oxide.
4. The mechanism of oxide film formation can be represented by the
following equation,

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M M++ + 2e – (oxidation – loss of e-)


+ O + 2e- O - - (Reduction – gain of e-)

M++ + O- - MO (Metal oxide)


Metal Oxygen Metallic Oxide

ion ion

Q. Explain the factors which affect the rate of atmospheric corrosion.


Ans: The factors which affect the rate of atmospheric corrosion are

1. Impurities in the atmosphere


2. Moisture in the atmosphere

1. Impurities in the atmosphere :

In industrial area the air contains the corrosive gases like CO2, H2S,
SO2 along with acidic impurities such as H2SO4, HNO3 and HCl etc. In
all of these SO2 is most corrosive factor. In the presence of such acidic
impurities the corrosion of metals becomes faster.

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2. Moisture in the atmosphere:

The rate of corrosion increases in the presence of moisture. The


atmospheric gases or chemical vapours are dissolved in the moisture.
The reaction between such dissolved gases with metallic surface
becomes faster. Therefore moisture acts as conducting medium and
increases the corrosion.
Ex. Rusting of iron increases in presence of moisture.

Q. Explain mechanism of electrochemical/wet/immersed corrosion by


using Daniel cell (Galvanic cell action).
Ans: The mechanism of electrochemical corrosion can be explained by using
Daniel cell
Construction:
Daniel cell consist of Zn and Cu electrodes which are dipped in ZnSO4
and CuSO4 solution respectively. These two solutions are separated by a
porous partition to prevent mixing of two solutions. Zinc and copper
electrodes are connected by a metallic conductor.

Working: The EMF is developed due to two separate reactions taking


place at the two electrodes.

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a. Zinc metals is higher in the electrochemical series acts as anode


and goes into the solution as Zn++ ions with liberation of electrons

At anode:

Zn(s) Zn++ (aq) + 2e- (oxidation)

b. The liberated electrons move along metallic conductor and are


accepted by copper which acts cathode.
At cathode:

Cu++(aq)+ 2e- Cu(s) (reduction)

Thus, zinc goes into the solution (get dissolved) and corroded,
while copper is deposited at cathode and get protected.

Q. Explain the factors which affect the rate of


electrochemical/wet/immersed corrosion.( Any four )
Ans: Following are the main factors which affect the rate of electrochemical
corrosion.

1. PH value of the solution:

PH value of solution indicates the acidity or alkalinity of solution.


Acidic solutions are more corrosive to metals than neutral or alkaline
solution; hence solution with PH value less than 7 causes more
corrosion.

2. Position of metal in electrochemical series: In electrochemical


series, elements are arranged in the order of their decreasing activity.

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Therefore top elements are more active than that of bottom element.
So top elements are easily oxidized and get corroded easily.
3. Purity of metal: The impurity present in metals form minute
electrochemical cell and the anodic part get corroded. Hence, rate of
corrosion also increases with increase in impurities present in the
metal

4. Solubility of the corrosion product:

In the process of corrosion a thin oxide film is formed on the surface


of metal. If this oxide film is soluble it can be easily removed and
which makes the metal surface free for corrosion and this increases the
rate of corrosion. If this oxide film is insoluble then it cannot be
removed. It sticks to the metal surface and resist further corrosion of
metal.

5. Area of anode and cathode:


If the cathode area is large in comparison of anode then corrosion can
be take place at anode because there is more demand for electrons by
larger cathodic area

6. Nature of oxide film: If the oxide film is non porous then the metal
protects itself from corrosion. But if the oxide film is porous then the
corrosion by the gas continues

Q. Explain different types of oxide film. OR

What is the role (significance) of oxide film in atmospheric corrosion?

Ans: When metal comes in contact with atmospheric oxygen then a thin film of
oxide is formed on the surface of metal. The oxide film which is formed
can be classified into three types.

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1. Stable
2. Unstable
3. Volatile

1. Stable oxide film:


Stable film (consist of fine grains in its structure) is tightly adhering
and impervious in nature. Stable oxide film may be porous or non
porous.

a. Porous (non-protective) oxide film:


Metals like Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, forms their oxides. Here the volume of
metal is „greater‟ than the volume of oxide film formed.
Therefore this oxide layer faces stress and strain and produces crack or
pores in its structure.
These porous oxide layers allow free access of O2 to fresh metal
surface and corrosion continues.

b. Non porous (protective) oxide film:

Metals like Sn, Pb, Cu, Al forms their oxides. Here the volume of
metal is ‘less’ than the volume of oxide film formed. This oxide film
is hard, adherent and non-porous. Due to absence of pores there is no
free access of O2 and form metal oxide layer again.

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2. Unstable oxide film: When oxide film is unstable it decomposes back


into the metal and oxygen, hence atmospheric corrosion due to oxygen
(oxidation corrosion) is not possible. Therefore Ag, Al, Pt, do not
undergo oxidation corrosion.

2MO 2M + O2
Metal oxide Metal Oxygen

3. Volatile oxide film: When oxide film formed is volatile it vaporizes


as soon as it formed. Therefore the fresh metal surface is exposed to
the atmosphere continuously and corrosion continues.
Ex. Molybdenum forms MoO2 which is volatile in nature.

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Q. Describe mechanism of electrochemical corrosion with evolution of


Hydrogen gas
Ans: The hydrogen evolution mechanism of electrochemical corrosion takes
place in acidic environment like industrial waste.

Mechanism:
Consider a steel (Fe) tank which contains acidic solution (waste) and a
small piece of copper. As copper and iron come in contact and
surrounded by acidic solution, then galvanic cell is formed. Then large
steel tank (Fe) becomes anode and small copper becomes cathode.

Working:

1. At anode: Electrons flow through the metal from anode to cathode

Fe Fe++ + 2e- (oxidation)

2. At cathode: At cathode, H+ ion present in acidic solution are


eliminated as hydrogen gas

2H+ + 2e- H2 (reduction)

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Net reaction: Fe + 2H+ Fe++ + H2


Thus, iron (steel) gets corroded in acidic reaction.

Q. Describe mechanism of electrochemical corrosion with absorption of


oxygen gas
Ans: This type of corrosion takes place in neutral or alkaline medium

Example: Consider “Rusting of iron” take place in presence of neutral


or alkaline medium.

Mechanism:
Consider a steel (Fe) surface exposed to atmosphere, after a course of
time iron oxide layer is formed on the surface of steel (Fe) plate. If there
is a small crack developed in iron oxide layer and a drop of water
(moisture) is collected in crack, then

a. Water acts as electrolyte


b. Small crack acts as anode
c. Iron oxide covered steel surface acts as cathode.

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Working:
At anode: The liberated electrons flow through anodic area to
cathodic area.

2Fe 2Fe ++ + 4e- (oxidation)

At cathode: The dissolved oxygen present in moisture (water) .The


electrons are reacting with water and dissolved O2

2H2 O + O2 + 4e- 4OH- (reduction)

The net reaction:

2Fe + 2H2O + O2 2Fe++ + 4OH- 2Fe (OH) 2 brown rust

If enough O2 is present Fe (OH) 2 oxidised to Fe (OH)3 which is called as


yellow rust
4Fe (OH)2 + 2H2O + O2 4Fe (OH) 3 yellow rust

Q. Name different methods of applying metal (protective) coating OR


List different methods used for the prevention of corrosion.
Ans: Methods used for protective coating

1. Hot dipping : a) Galvanising b) Tinning


2. Metal spraying
3. Electroplating
4. Metal cladding
5. Cementation : a) Colorizing b) Chromizing c) Sheradizing

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Q. Define cementation. State the types of cementation.


Ans: “Cementation is the process in which base metal is heated with a powder
of protective metal”.
The types of Cementation are: Chromizing, Colorizing and Sheradizing

Q. What is cathodic protection? Give one example.


Ans: Cathodic protection is a method in which the base metal to be protected
from corrosion is made to acts as cathodic by attaching more active
anodic metal to it. e.g.: Protection of underground pipelines

Q. What is electroplating? Give two main purposes (Applications) of it.


Ans: “The process in which superior metal (like Silver, gold, nickel,
chromium) deposited on base metal by passing electric current is called
as electroplating”.
Purposes: Decoration , Protection of metal from corrosion, Repair

Q. What is sacrificial anodic ( Galvanic ) protection? Explain sacrificial


anodic protection method of prevention of corrosion. OR How
sacrificial anodic protection can be done?
Ans: Sacrificial anodic protection: In this method the metallic structure to be
protected from corrosion is connected to the anodic metal (active) by an
insulating wire is known as sacrificial anodic protection.
Method: The more active metal like Zn, Mg, and Al (acts as anode) are
connected to the metal structure to be protected so that the chemical
reactions are taking place at the more reactive metal surface and thus
saving the metal structure from corrosion as shown in fig. and gets
corroded, hence it is known as sacrificial anode.

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For the purpose of increasing electrical contact, the active metal is placed
in back fill (Coal + NaCl). The sacrificial anode has to be replaced time
to time after complete corrosion..
Example: Several hundred kilometers long zinc wire is buried along oil
pipe line in Alaska

Applications:

1. It is used for protection of ships and boats


2. It is used for protection of underground pipeline, cables from soil
corrosion

Q. Explain impressed current cathodic protection method of prevention


of corrosion. Write its applications.
Ans: In this method the corroding metal is converted from anode to cathode by
applying impressed current to the metal to be protected and is itself used
as cathode.. This can be done by applying amount of direct current from
D-C source to an anode

Method: In this method


1. The negative terminal of battery is connected to the metal
2. The positive terminal of battery is connected to an inert anode

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3. The inert anode used is graphite platinized titanium


4. Then the anode is buried in a “back fill” to provide electrical contact.
5. Then oxidation reaction is taking place at the cathode electrode and
electrons are liberated, which are repelled by the cathode electrode.
6. As result, the anode electrode destruct and has to replaced time to time
7. Thus cathode electrode protected from corrosion

Applications: This method is applicable to protection of Open water box


coolers, Water tank, Buried water or gas pipeline, Condensers,
Transmission line tower, Ships

Q. Explain Galvanising method. OR Describe the process of protecting


steel articles from corrosion by coating of zinc over it
Ans: Galvanising:“The process of coating of zinc on the surface of iron
(steel) by hot dipping method to prevent it from corrosion is called as
galvanising”

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The method involves following steps:

1. The iron (steel) sheet to be galvanised is first cleaned by dil. H2SO4


to remove rust, dirt and oxide layer on the surface of iron
2. Then it is washed with water to remove acid completely and dried
3. Then the sheet is dipped in bath of molten zinc at 425oC to 460oC
temperature. Then it is passed through ammonium chloride and zinc
chloride flux to prevent oxidation of zinc
4. Then the metal sheet is passed through a series of rollers & to get
uniform coating.
5. Finally galvanized sheet is annealed at a temperature 6500C

Applications:
This method is used for roofing sheets, water pipes, bars, rods, fencing
wires etc.

Q. Why Galvanized containers are not useful for storing food and food
stuff (material).
Ans: Galvanized containers are not useful for storing or preparation of food
stuff because galvanized containers have a coating of zinc. This zinc

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metal reacts with the acids present in food stuff and forms highly
poisonous compounds which are harmful for human consumption

Q. Explain Tinning method. OR Describe the process of protecting steel


articles from corrosion by coating of tin over it

Ans: Tinning: “It is the process of coating of tin metal on the surface of iron
(steel) by hot dipping method to prevent it from corrosion is called as
tinning.”

The method involves following steps:

1. The iron (steel) sheet to be tinned is first cleaned by dil. H2SO4 to


remove rust, dirt and oxide layer on the surface of iron
2. Then it is washed with water to remove acid completely and dried
3. Then the sheet dipped in bath containing ammonium chloride and
zinc chloride flux and then it is dipped in molten tin
4. Finally it is dipped in palm oil to prevent oxidation of tin
5. Then the metal sheet is passed through a series of rollers to remove
excess of tin & to get uniform coating

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Applications: Tinning is used for coating steel used for manufacturing of


containers for storing food stuff, oil, ghee, pickles etc.

Q. Which property of tin makes useful for tinning? Why? OR Tinned


articles are used for storing food stuff. Why? OR Tin coated utensils
are mostly preffered to zinc coated utensils for the storage of food
stuff. Explain
Ans: In tinning base metal iron is coated with thin layer of tin (Sn). Tin (Sn) is
less electropositive than iron, hence it is more resistant to chemical attack
and thus protects the base metal. Due to its non-toxic nature and
resistance to chemical attack tinned articles are used for storing food
stuff.

Q. Distinguish between galvanizing and tinning.


Galvanizing Tinning
1. The process of coating a base 1. The process of coating a base
metal like iron or steel with metal like iron, steel or copper
zinc by hot dipping method is with tin by hot dipping method
called as galvanizing. is called as tinning.
2. If a scratch or gap is produced 2. If a scratch or gap is produced
on a galvanized surface, zinc on a tinned surface, tin will not
will corrode and iron will be be corroded, instead iron starts
protected. corroding.
3. In the above case, corrosion of 3. In the above case, corrosion of
zinc will not take place very anode (iron) takes place very
fast because anodic area (Zn) is fast because anodic area is
large. small.

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4. Galvanized articles cannot be 4. Tinned articles are mostly used


used for storing food stuff but for storing and preparing food
galvanized sheets are mostly Stuff.
used for manufacture of roofing
sheets, buckets etc.
5. Zinc protects the iron from 5. Tin protects the iron from

corrosion because zinc is more corrosion because tin is less

electropositive than iron. electropositive than iron.

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CHAPTER 5

WATER

Q. What are the main sources of water?

Ans: The main sources of water are:

1. Rain water
2. Surface water
3. Ground water

1. Rain water:

It is the purest form of water but gets contaminated by particulates and


gaseous pollutants.

2. Surface water:

Types of surface water

A. River water
B. Sea water
C. Lake water

3. Ground water:

Available under the ground

Q. Name the two coagulant substances with chemical formulae.

Ans: Alum: [K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3. 24H2O]

Ferrous sulphate: [FeSO4. 7H2O]

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Q. Write the names of the processes which are used to remove


impurities present in natural water.

Ans:

S.No. IMPURITY PROCESS


1 Suspended Sedimentation
2 Colloidal Sedimentation with coagulation,
filtration
3 Dissolved Ion exchange, Zeolite, Limesoda
4 Biological Sterilization

Q. Name the impurities present in natural water. OR List the common


impurities present in natural water. Give two examples

Ans: 1. Suspended impurities: dust, mud, clay particles

2. Colloidal impurities: fine dust, fine clay particles, fine mud

3. Dissolved impurities: CaCl2, MgSO4, CO2, O2, H2S

4. Biological impurities: Bacteria, Germs, microorganism

Q. Distinguish between hard water and soft water. OR Define hard


water & soft water.

Ans: Hard water: “Water which contains chlorides, sulphates and


bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium called as hard water.” Such
water does not produce lather with soap. Hard water cannot use for
boilers or for cooking or washing purposes.

Soft water: “Water which is free from any salts of calcium and
magnesium is called as soft water”. Soft water easily produces lather
with soap and can be safely used for boilers and for other household and
industrial purposes.

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Q. Name the salts which are responsible for temporary and permanent
hardness of water with chemical formula.

Ans: A) Temporary hardness is due to the presence of dissolved “bicarbonates


of calcium and magnesium” i.e. Ca (HCO3)2 & Mg (HCO3)2

B) Permanent hardness is due to the presence of dissolved “chlorides and


sulphates of calcium and magnesium” i.e. CaCl2 & CaSO4, MgCl2 &
MgSO4

Q. Write short notes on ‘Units of Hardness’ of water?

Ans: Units of hardness:

The hardness of water is expressed in terms of parts by weight of calcium


carbonate.

There are three systems to express the hardness of water.

1. Clark’s degree of hardness: It is defined as the number of parts by


weight of CaCO3 present in 70,000 parts by weight of water

0
Clark =

2. French degree of hardness: It is the number of parts by weight of


CaCO3 present in 1,00,000 parts by weight of water.

0
French =

3. Parts per million (ppm): It is the number of parts by weight if


CaCO3 present in 10,00,000 parts by weight of water.

PPM =

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Q. What is meant by boiler corrosion? Name the factors causing


corrosion of boiler.

Ans: Corrosion of boiler can be defined as the decaying of metals by a


chemical or electrochemical reaction with their environment.

Corrosion in boiler is due to following reasons.

1. Dissolved gases
2. Dissolved salt
3. Acidity and alkalinity of water

Q. Describe the common impurities present in natural water.

Ans: The common impurities present in the natural water may be classified as
follows:

1. Suspended impurities:

Water may contain the suspended impurities such as clay, mud, algae,
industrial waste, organic matter etc. These remain suspended in water.
They produce turbidity, colour and odour and may cause diseases.

2. Dissolved Impurities:
There may be two types of impurities viz.(A) Gases (B) Mineral salts

A) Gases:

The gases present in air such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, oxides of


nitrogen, hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide are soluble in natural
water.

B) Mineral salts:
The commonly observed salts in natural water are carbonates,
bicarbonates, sulphates and chlorides of calcium, magnesium, sodium
and potassium. When salts of calcium and magnesium are present in
water, it is known as hard water. Such water cannot be used for
washing clothes and in boilers.

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3. Colloidal impurities;

Colloidal particles of clay, fine mud, and decayed leaves, organic matter
(Insects and fungi) may be present in water. Such impurities neither settle
down on standing not can these be removed by filtration

4. Biological impurities:

Slime growth such as algae, micro-organism i.e. bacteria, fungi etc. are
considered as pathogenic impurities

Q. What are the causes of hardness of water? Explain with chemical


reaction.

Ans: The causes of hardness of water are discussed below

1. The rain water absorbs carbon dioxide from air and also from
decaying plants on soil & it forms carbonic acid

H2 O + CO2 H2CO3
Water Carbonic acid

2. When this water flows over rock containing calcium & magnesium
carbonates.
3. These reacts with carbonic acid present in water to form calcium
bicarbonate and magnesium bicarbonate which are highly soluble in
water.

H2CO3 + CaCO3 Ca(HCO3)2


H2CO3 + MgCO3 Mg (HCO3)2

4. There are chlorides & sulphates of calcium & magnesium present on


the surface layer which also dissolve in water.
5. When this water flow on the earth surface,these salt enter in water.In
this way chlorides, sulphates & bicarbonate of calcium and
magnesium are dissolved in water and making it hard.

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Q. Write the ill (bad) effect of using hard water in following industries.
OR What are the disadvantages of hard water in 1) Paper industry 2)
Dyeing in industry 3) Textile industry 4) Sugar industry.

Ans: Bad effect of using hard water in industries

1. Paper industry:

A) During the manufacturing of paper, the material like rosin size is


added to the paper pulp to make the surface of paper smooth & glossy.
If hard water is used then Ca++ & Mg++ ions present in it reacts with
the material. So the paper will not have desired smoothness &
glossiness.
B) If salts of heavy metal like Fe & Mn are present in hard water they
make paper yellowish & dull.
Therefore water used in paper industry must be free from these salts.

2. Dying industry:
A) In dyeing industry, colouring of fabrics is done with the help of some
organic as well as inorganic coloring substances.
B) If hard water is used for dissolving the dyes then calcium &
magnesium salts present in it reacts with die to form unwanted
precipitate.
C) These changes the shades of the dies & unwanted coloures are
produced. Iron produces yellow stains (spots) on clothes
Hence hard water should not be used in dyeing industry.

3. Textile industry:
A) If hard water is used in textile industry then a large quantity of soap as
well as water is wasted during washing the yarn because calcium &
magnesium salts do not allow formation of lather with soap.
B) They react with soap (sodium or potassium salt of fatty acid) to form
curdy precipitate which sticks to the fabric making it weak & brittle.
Iron & manganese present in hard water produces spots ( stains) on
fabrics therefore water used in textile industry should be free from
calcium, magnesium, iron & manganese salts.

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4. Sugar industry:
If hard & impure water is used in sugar industry for refining of sugar
the impurities like sulphates nitrates, alkali carbonate & bacteria
present in it causes difficulties in the crystallization of sugar. The
sugar so formed may be deliquescent (become watery) & get
decomposed during storage.

Q. What are the disadvantages or ill (bad) effect of using hard water in
1) Washing 2) Cooking 3) Bathing 4) Drinking OR

Why hard water is not suitable for 1) Washing 2) Cooking 3) Bathing


4) Drinking

Ans:

1.Washing:

Hard water consist of soluble sulphate, chlorides & bicarbonates of


calcium & magnesium

If hard water is used for washing, then the Ca & Mg salts react with soap
& produces curdy precipitate of Ca of Mg salts of fatty acid

In this way large quantity of soap is wasted & the precipitate stick to the
cloth making it weak & brittle.

Secondly if iron is present in hard water it forms spots (stains) on clothes

2. Cooking:

The presence of impurities in water also increases the boiling point of


water. Hence vegetables may not cook well, so more time and more fuel
required if hard water is used.

The life of cooking utensils also decreases due to overheating

Hence hard water should not be used for cooking.

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3. Bathing:

If hard water is used for bathing then

a) Wastage of soap takes place as hard water does not form good lather
b) Insoluble residue is formed with soap which is adsorbed on our body,
due to which our skin become dry & dark

4. Drinking:

If hard water is used for drinking then impurities in hard water causes bad
effect on digestion process and also kidney stone may formed due to
accumulation of calcium oxalate crystals

Q. What are the causes of boiler corrosion? Explain the causes of boiler
corrosion.

Ans: “Corrosion can be defined as the decaying of metals by a chemical or


electro chemical reaction with their environment”

The corrosion in boiler due to following reasons

1. Dissolved gases
2. Dissolved salts
3. Acidity or alkalinity of water
1. Dissolved gases:

Among the dissolved gases oxygen has most corroding effect on boiler

Water contains about 8ml of oxygen per litre at 100C

Dissolve oxygen in presence of water under high temperature attacks the


boiler material

4Fe + 4H2O + 2O2 4Fe (OH)2

4Fe (OH)2 + O2 2 ( Fe 2O3. 2 H2O)

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Ferrous hydroxide Rust

Carbon dioxide when dissolved in water forms carbonic acid

H2O + CO2 H2 CO3

The dissolved bicarbonate of Ca & Mg decomposes & gives CO2

Mg (HCO3)2 Mg CO3 + H2O + CO2

2. Dissolved salts:

If hard water contains chlorides of calcium & magnesium; they get


hydrolyses & produces hydrochloric acid

MgCl2+2H2O Mg (OH)2 + 2HCl

This liberated hydrochloric acid react with iron material of the boiler like
a chain reaction producing hydrochloric acid again & again

Fe + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2

FeCl2 + 2H2O Fe(OH)2 + 2HCl

Therefore, due to presence of small amount of CaCl2 or MgCl2 will cause


corrosion of boiler.

3. Acidity or alkalinity of water:

The corrosion in boiler is more it water is used is acidic. It is less when


water is neutral. Again the corrosion of boiler is greater when water is
alkaline.

Q. What is caustic embrittlement? How it can be prevented (avoided)?

Ans: This a type of boiler corrosion caused due to alkaline water.

During water softening process small amount of sodium carbonate


(Na2CO3) is added in water. In high pressure boilers, sodium carbonate
decomposes to form sodium hydroxide & carbon dioxide & water

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becomes alkaline due to formation of caustic soda (NaOH). This alkaline


water goes into the cracks by capillary action. Water evaporates &
dissolved caustic soda is left behind.

The deposition of more & more caustic soda dissolves iron material of the
boiler.

This causes embrittlement (corrosion) of boiler parts, called as caustic


embitterment.

Caustic embrittelment can be avoided by

1. By using sodium phosphate for water softening


2. By adding tannin or lignin additives
3. By adjusting the alkalinity of water (PH 7-9)

Q. Define scales & sludge OR What are scales and sludge in boiler.

Scales: The hard and adherent coating formed on inner walls of the
boiler is called as boiler scales.

Sludge: When the precipitated matter forms a soft, loose, slimy deposits
inside the boiler which do not stick to the boiler permanently are called
boiler sludge.

Q. Explain causes of scale & sludge formation in boiler.

Ans: The main causes of scale & sludge formation in boiler are

1. Chemical decomposition OR Presence of Ca (HCO3)2 & Mg (HCO3)2


2. Decrease in solubility of salts

1. Chemical decomposition OR Presence of Ca (HCO3)2 & Mg


(HCO3)2

If water contains soluble bicarbonate of calcium & magnesium then


under high temperature & pressure inside the boiler, it decomposes to
give calcium carbonate precipitate (insoluble) which forms scales.

This effect is observed in low pressure boiler.

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In high pressure boilers CaCO3 forms soluble Ca (OH)2.

Ca (HCO3)2 CaCO3 + H2 O + CO2

2. Decrease in solubility of salts

Salts present in hard water; like CaSO4 & silicates of Ca & Mg formed by
reaction with silica (SiO2) have lower solubility at high temperature. As
the water in boiler starts heating up, the solubility decreases & excess
salts are thrown out of water forming hard deposits in the form of scales.

Q. Write the disadvantages of scale & sludge formation in boiler OR

Explain the ill (bad) effect of using hard water in boiler unit.

Ans: The disadvantages of scale & sludge formation in boiler are as follow.

1. Wastage of fuel:

Scales deposited on the inner wall of the boiler are poor conductor of
heat. Hence to get the steady supply of steam; overheating of boiler is
needed. Most of the heat is wasted in heating the scales & in this way
there is wastage of fuel.

It is estimated that for 25mm thick scale, nearly 60% of the fuel is
wasted.

2. Lowering safety of boiler OR Decrease in life of the boiler:

Scales are poor conductor of heat it reduces transfer of heat from boiler to
water.

Therefore overheating of boiler is to be done in order to maintain a


constant supply of steam. This makes the boiler material & boiler tubes
soft. This lowers the safety of boiler.

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3. Danger of explosion:

a) When scales crack due to uneven expansion of scale & boiler material,
the water comes suddenly in contact with overheated iron plate of
boiler
b) This causes the formation of a large amount of steam suddenly inside
the boiler
c) Hence sudden high pressure is developed which may causes explosion
of boiler

4. Decrease in efficiency:

Scales may sometimes deposits in the valves of condensers of the boiler


& choke them. These results in decrease of efficiency of boiler

Q. Write the principle which is used to soften hard water

Ans: During the process of softening of hard water, the soluble calcium and
magnesium salts are converted into insoluble salts. These insoluble salts
can be removed by filtration and soft water can be obtained

Q. Differentiate between scale & sludge.

Ans:

Scale Sludge
1 When the precipitated matter forms When the precipitated matter forms a
a hard adherent coating on the inner soft, loose, slimy deposits inside the
surface of the boiler is called boiler boiler which do not stick to the boiler
scales. permanently are called boiler sludge.
2 Scales are hard and adherent Sludges are soft
3 It cannot be removed by Sludges can be removed by
mechanical means mechanical means
4 Scales are bad conductor of heat Sludges are poor conductor of heat
5 Scales are formed throughout the Sludges are formed at comparatively
metal surface in contact with water cooler parts of the boiler
6 Scales lead to bursting or explosion Sludge lead to check up problems
of metal tube

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Q. Describe Cold Lime Soda process.

Ans: Cold lime – Soda process

This involves mixing of calculated quantities of lime and soda with water
at room temperature.

1. The cold lime soda process consists of a cylindrical steel tank with
two chambers, having separate inlets for raw water and chemicals.
2. The inner chamber is provided with a paddle stirrer for proper mixing
of chemicals and water.
3. The outer chamber is provided with a fiber filter.
4. As raw water and chemicals are flow down, stirring and mixing is
done by operating the stirrer.
5. Water get softened and the resulting sludge get deposited at the
bottom of the outer chamber.
6. The softened water moves upward through the filter to ensure
completer removal of sludge.

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Q. Explain Zeolite OR Permutit process. OR What is Permutit


(Zeolite)? Write principle of Permutit (Zeolite) Process. Explain the
process with diagram. Write chemical & regeneration reactions
involved in it.

Ans:

1. Zeolite: Zeolite are complex of silicates and aluminates of metallic


and non metallic oxides. For softening of water, generally sodium
zeolite is used. It has crystalline structure with a chemical formula.
Na2Al2 Si2O8.6 H2O
It is represented as Na2Z or Na2P

Principle: When zeolite come in contact with hard water, sodium ions
in zeolite are replaced by calcium and magnesium to form insoluble
calcium and magnesium zeolite

2. Working: When zeolites come in contact with hard water, sodium


ions in zeolites are replaced by calcium and magnesium ions to form
insoluble calcium and magnesium zeolites.

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3. Chemical Reactions:

For temporary hardness

Ca(HCO3)2+ Na2P CaP + 2NaHCO3

Mg(HCO 3)2+Na2P MgP +2 NaHCO3

For permanent hardness (Write any two reactions)

CaCl2+ Na2P CaP +2 NaCl

MgCl2+ Na2P MgP +2 NaCl

CaSO4+Na2P CaP +Na2SO4

MgSO4 +Na2P MgP +Na2SO4

4. Regeneration: After some time all the Na+ ions from zeolite
(permutit) completely gets converted into calcium and gets exhausted.
At this stage, supply of hard water is stopped. The exhausted zeolite
is regenerated or reactivated by passing 10% Brine solution(
NaCl) through it

CaP + 2NaCl Na2P + CaCl2

Brine Solution

MgP + 2 NaCl Na2P + MgCl2

The washings containing CaCl2 and MgCl2 are passed to drain and the
regenerated zeolite is used again. Water softened by zeolite is almost
of zero hardness.

5. Limitations of Zeolite process:


1. The capital cost involved in the zeolite process is much high as
compared to other conventional methods like soda- lime process.

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2. If water contains some mineral acids, it cannot be softened by this


process since the acids destroys the softening material, sodium
zeolites.
3. If water contains Fe or Mn salts, the original sodium zeolites are
converted into Fe or Mn zeolites which cannot be regenerated easily.

6. Advantages of Permutit or Zeolite Process:

1. Zeolite removes the hardness completely

2. It is a clean process

3. It requires less time for softening

4. The equipment occupy small space

Q. Explain Ion Exchange or Demineralization or Deionisation process


with diagram.(Only process and Diagram). Write chemical &
regeneration reactions involved in it. Write advantages and
limitations.

Ans: Process: It consists of three cylindrical towers. First tower consists of


cation exchanger (RH2) and second tower consists of anion and alkali
tanks for regeneration of the exhausted resins.

Third tower is a degasifier.

1. Hard water is first passed through the cation exchanger. It removes all
the cations like Ca++, Mg2+ and releases H+ ions.

RH2 + CaCl2 RCa + 2HCl

RH2 + MgSO4 RMg + H2 SO4

Thus water is free from cations but it is acidic.

2. The acidic water is then passed through anion exchanger where acids
are converted into water.

R‟-(OH)2 + 2HCl RCl2+2H2O

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R‟-(OH)2 + H2SO4 R- SO4 + 2H2O

3. Thus water is free from all cations and anions. Finally water is made
free from dissolved gases like CO2, O2 by passing it through third tower
of degsifier.

Regeneration: When the cation exchanger resins get exhausted, they are
regenerated by passing the solution of dill. HCl or H2SO4 through first
tower.

R-Ca + 2HCl RH2 + CaCl2

R-Mg + H2SO4 RH2+ MgSO4

The washings containing CaCl2 , MgCl2 , CaSO4 , MgSO4 etc. is passed


to drain.

When the anion exchanger resin get exhausted, they are regenerated by
passing the solution of dil. NaOH or KOH through second tower.

RCl2 + 2NaOH R(OH)2 + 2NaCl

RSO 4 + 2NaOH R(OH)2 + Na2SO4

The washings containing NaCl, Na2SO4 etc. is also passed to drain.


The regenerated resins are then used again.

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Advantages:

1. This process can be used for purifying highly acidic or alkaline water
2. Water of zero hardness is obtained
3. Small space occupying equipment and portable
4. Water totally free from any ionic impurity is obtained
5. Treated water contains negligible amount of total dissolved solid i.e.
up to 5 mg/lit
6. Method of self adjusts with water of all types and different hardness

Limitations:

1. Initial investment is high (low running cost)


2. Turbidity may clog the pores of resins and reduce the output of
process
3. Method cannot be used for getting deionized water on large scale

Q. Define potable water. Mention its requirements (parameters).

Ans: “Water which is fit for human consumption and safe to drink is known as
drinking water or potable water.”

Requirement (Characteristics/Parameters) for potable water:

1. It should be colourless, odourless and clear


2. It should be totally free from disease producing microorganisms like
germs and bacteria
3. Water should be soft and pleasant in taste
4. The turbidity of water should be less than 10 ppm
5. If water has a colour then it should be less than 20ppm
6. If water dissolve any solid then it should be less than 500ppm
7. It should be free from dissolved gases like hydrogen sulphate

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Q. Explain the terms: 1) Screening 2) Sedimentation 3) Coagulation

Ans:

1. Screening:

“Screening is the process of removing floating materials from water.”


To remove the floating matter, mainly this method is used.

The water is allowed to pass through screens having a large number of


pores. Thus, only floating material remains on the screen.

2. Sedimentation:

“Sedimentation is the process of removing suspended impurities by


allowing the water to stay undisturbed for some time in large tanks when
most of the suspended particles settle down due to the force of gravity.”

The process of sedimentation is generally carried out in continuous flow


type tanks in which water flows continuously in a horizontal or vertical
direction at a slow and uniform speed. Due to gravitational force, the
suspended particles get settled down at the bottom of the tank, form
where they can be removed periodically. Sediment water is taken out
continuously.

3. Coagulation:

“Coagulation is the process of removing colloidal (or fine size) particles


from water by the addition of certain chemicals known as coagulants
before sedimentation”. This process is usually carried out along with
sedimentation.

The commonly used coagulants are the salts of iron and aluminium e.g.
alum [K2SO4. Al2(SO4)3. 24H2O], ferrous sulphate (FeSO4.7H2O) etc.

These coagulants react with bicarbonates present in water, and form


bulky gelatinous precipitate called flock. As these flocks descend through
water, they absorb or catch suspended fine particles from water and
forming bigger flocks, which settle down quickly.

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The addition of coagulants to water also removes colour, odour and


improves its taste.

Al2(SO4)3 + 3 Ca (HCO3)2 2Al (OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 6CO2


(Coagulant) Calcium (Bulky gelatinous flock)
Bicarbonate

FeSO4 + Mg(HCO3)2 Fe (OH)2 + MgSO4 + 2CO2


(Coagulant) Magnesium (Ferrous Hydroxide)
Bicarbonate

4 Fe (OH)2 + 2H2O + O2 4 Fe (OH)3


(Dissolved oxygen) Ferric hydroxide
(Heavy flock)

Q. Defing Filtration. Explain Gravity sand filtration process with the


help of a figure.

Ans: “Filtration is a process of removing insoluble colloidal and bacterial


impurities by passing water through a bed of proper sized material.”

Construction:

It consists of a large shallow rectangular tank made of concrete

At the bottom of the tank, there is a channel of bricks through which


filtered water goes out. Over this channel, a layer of coarse and fine
gravels (about 30cm thick) and then a layer of coarse sand (about 20cm
thick) and finally a layer of fine sand (about 50cm thick) are placed

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Working:

Sediment water enters the sand filter from the top. As the water
percolates through the sand bed, fine suspended particles, most of the
germs and bacteria are retained by the top sand layer. Clean filtered water
is collected in the under drain channel, from where it is drawn out.

Cleaning:

1. The rate of filtration, after 24 hours of use becomes slow due to


clogging of pores or the top sand layer by the impurities retained in
the pores
2. Therefore, the portion of the top fine sand layer is scrapped off and
replaced by a new sand layer. The filter is put to use again.

Q. Define sterilization. Explain chlorination with chemical reactions.

a) By using chlorine gas


b) By adding bleaching powder
c) By using chloramines

Ans; “The process of destroying the diseases causing bacteria and


microorganisms etc. from water is known as disinfection or sterilization
of water.”

By using chlorine gas (Cl2):

1. Chlorine can be used directly as a gas or as chlorine water for


sterilization of municipal water supply

2. It reacts with water to form hypochlorous acid and nascent oxygen,


both are powerful germicides.

Cl2 + H2O HOCl + HCl


(Hypochlorous acid)

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HOCl HCl + [O]


(Nascent Oxygen)

Germs + [O] Germs are killed

By adding bleaching powder (CaOCl2):

1. Bleaching powder is a good sterilizer for small water works


2. In practice, about 1 kg of bleaching powder per 1000 litres of water is
mixed and the resulting solution is allowed to stand for several hours.
Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and nascent oxygen (O) produced by the
action of water on bleaching powder are powerful germicides.

CaOCl2 + H2O Ca(OH)2 + Cl2

Cl2 + H2O HOCl + HCl

HOCl HCl + [O]


(Nascent oxygen)
3. The nascent oxygen liberated, oxidizes germs and other harmful
bacteria.
4. Only calculated quantity of bleaching powder should be used, because
excess of it will give a bad taste and disagreeable smell to the water.

By using chloramines(ClNH2):

1. Chlorine and ammonia are mixed in the ratio 2 : 1 by volume to


produce a compound known as chloramines. This process is known as
chloramination.
Cl2 + NH3 Cl NH2 + HCl
( Chloramine)

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2. Chloramines is a quite stable compound and does not impart any


disagreeable smell and bad taste to water, hence it is considered as a
better germicide than chlorine alone

ClNH2 + H2O HOCl + NH3

HOCl HCl + [O] (Nascent oxygen)

Advantages of chloramination:
1. It removes irritating smell due to excess of chlorine
2. It imparts good taste to water
3. It checks the dissipation of chlorine (by stabilizing chlorine) when
water is exposed to atmosphere, especially to sunlight

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Chapter 6
Non-metallic Materials

Q. Define. 1) Plastic
2) Polymer
3) Polymerisation
Ans:

1. Plastic: Plastic are synthetic organic materials having high molecular


weight which can be moulded into any desired shape when subjected
to heat & pressure in presence of catalyst.

2. Polymer: Polymer is a substance obtained from large number of


small molecules having low molecular weight.

3. Polymerisation: It is the process of uniting (linking) together a large


numbers of small molecules (monomers) to form large molecule
(polymer) under specific conditions of temperature, pressure &
catalyst is known as polymerization.

Q. State the types of plastic. Give two example of each type.


Ans: There are two types of plastic

1) Thermosoftening plastic (Thermoplastic)


Ex:PVC,Polythene, PTFE etc

2) Thermosetting plastic
Ex:Bakelite,Nylon 6:6 etc.

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Q. Write chemical equation to show formation of polyethylene.


Ans: n(CH2=CH2) Polymerisation (-CH2-CH2)n
Ethylene heat,pressure, polythylene
catalyst

Q. Describe the formation of Nylon 6:6 ORHow Nylon 6:6 is prepared?


Ans: Nylon 6:6 is obtained by condensation polymerisation of hexamethylene
diamine and adipic acid with the elimination of two water molecules.

Q. PVC is soft whereas Bakelite is hard. Why? OR Thermosetting


plastics are not regenerated whereas thermo softening plastics are
generated. Explain.
Ans: PVC is thermo softening plastic i.e. the plastic which can be softened on
heating & return to its original property on cooling whereas Bakelite is
thermosetting plastic i.e. the plastic which once can hardened cannot be
made soft again .

Q. Write the constituents present in plastic.


Ans: a) Resins (Binder) b) Fillers c) Pigments d) Plasticizers e) Accelerator

Q. Define Natural rubber.

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Ans: Natural rubber is high molecular weight linear hydrocarbon polymer


which exhibit elasticity & other rubber like properties.

Q. Which organic compound present in the natural rubber.


Ans: Isoprene (C5H8)n is the organic compound present in the natural rubber.

Q. Define synthetic rubber .Give examples of synthetic rubber


Ans: The rubber like material prepared by chemical reaction called as
synthetic rubber.
Examples: 1) Buna-S 2) Buna-N 3) Neoprene 4)Thiokol
5)Butyl rubber.

Q. How polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is prepared?


Ans: Polyvinyl chloride is prepared by addition polymerization of vinyl
chloride in presence of hydrogen peroxide as catalyst.

Polymerisation
n(CH2 = CH-Cl) (CH2–CH–Cl)n
Vinyl chloride H2O2 polyvinyl chloride

Q. Why thermosetting plastic cannot reshaped and reused?


Ans: Thermosetting plastic is formed by condensation polymerization. This
plastic is hard and rigid material. It cannot be softened on heating. If it is
heated intensively, the bonds between monomers are permanently broken
and cannot reset after cooling. Therefore this plastic cannot be reshaped
and reused.

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Q. Define thermal insulator. State the properties of good thermal


insulating material. OR State any four characteristics of ideal (Good)
thermal insulator
Ans: Thermal insulator: “The substances having extremely low conductivity
which prevents the loss of heat by conduction or radiation are called as
thermal insulators. For e.g. in cold storage, refrigerators, boilers, ovens,
steam carrying pipes etc. all need thermal insulator like glasswool,
thermocole, cork, asbestos etc
Properties (characteristics) of good (ideal) thermal insulating
material are as follow:

1. They have low thermal conductivity.


2. It should have low density.
3. It should be cheap.
4. It should be fire proof.
5. It should be odourless during use.
6. It should be waterproof and hence resist absorption of moisture.
7. It should be stable at working temperature.
8. It should be chemically inert to water, surrounding atmosphere and
high temperature.
9. It should withstand the effect of shock and vibrations.

Q. Give the classification of thermal insulators.


Ans: Classification of thermal insulator: Thermal insulators are classified
into two types

1. Organic thermal insulators: These are suitable for low temperature


work, up to 1500C. These are naturally occurring materials such as
wool, cotton, silk, paper, charcoal powder, saw dust, coke powder,

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rubber etc. which generally have low density and possess very large
number of small air pockets.

2. Inorganic thermal insulators: These are suitable for temperature


higher than 1500C. These are glass fiber, glass wool, calcium silicate,
porous silica, refractory insulating bricks. The most commonly used
thermal insulators are Glasswool and Thermocole

Q. What is Glasswool? How glasswool is prepared? Write properties


and applications of glasswool.
OR Write application of glasswool based on different properties
Ans: “Glasswool is fibrous wool like material which is made up of fine
filaments of glass like ordinary wool.”
It is obtained by passing molten mass of alkali free glass through sieve
holes of 0.0005 cm diameter.
The filaments obtained are then thrown over a revolving drum to get glass
wool.

Properties:

1. It has low thermal conductivity


2. It is soft, flexible and has low density.
3. It has low electrical conductivity.
4. It is resistant to chemicals.
5. It is fire proof and non-combustible.
6. Its tensile strength is very high.
7. It is waterproof.
8. It is light in weight.

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Application/ Uses:

1. It is widely used as thermal insulating material in domestic and


industrial appliances such as motors, ovens, refrigerators, walls and
roof of houses because it is soft, heat proof, fire proof, flexible and
even insect proof.
2. It is used for sound and electric insulation.
3. It is resistance to chemicals so it is used for filtration of corrosive
liquids like acids and in acid industry.
4. It is used in air filters as a dust filtering material.
5. It is used in manufacturing fiber glass by reinforcing with plastic
resins.

Q. How Thermocole is prepared? Write properties and application of


thermocole. OR
Write application of thermocole based on different properties
Ans: “Thermocole is foamed plastic obtained by blowing air through molten
polystyrene or polyurethanes.”

Properties: It is spongy, porous and has foam like structure

1. It has low thermal conductivity.


2. It has very low density (22kg/m3).
3. It has low electrical conductivity.
4. It light and shock proof also strong.
5. It can be used up to 550C
6. It is chemically inert.

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Applications:

1. As it has low coefficient of thermal and electrical expansion, it is used


in refrigerator, air conditioning, ice boxes and in cold storage

2. As it spongy, porous, strong, light in weight, it is used in packing of


delicate electrical and electronic instruments.

3. It is used for decorative purpose i.e. art, craft and models.

4. It is used for protecting screens of radars.

Q. What is cork? How is it prepared?

Ans: Cork is an important insulating material obtained from the bark of the oak
tree used commonly in engineering operation.

Preparation: The light bark of oak tree is cleaned, ground sized and
baked into moulds. During baking its natural resins binds all the partlcles
together. It is converted into thin sheets by pressing.

Q. Write properties of cork.

Ans: Cork has the following properties:-

i) It has low density (160 to 190kg/m3)

ii) Its thermal conductivity is low (0.000103 cal/m2)

iii) It is compressible.

iv) It is resistant to water.

v) It posseses good insulating properties against heat and electricity.

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Q. Write applications (uses) of cork.

Ans: Cork is used for the following :-

1. As a living material for cold storage, refrigerators, bottle stoppers and


packing gaskets.
2. In floats of fishing nets.
3. Floor tiles, walls & ceilings are made sound-proof with cork board.
4. In shoe industry, cork sheet is used as cold filler and cushioning.
5. In water proof coatings, linoletes etc.
6. In making base for telephones, bullets, boards and sporting equipment
grips etc.

Q. What is asbestos?

Ans: Asbestos is a magnesium silicate with varying quantities of silicates of


calcium and iron. It is a fibrous, non combustible, naturally occurring
caluium magnesium silicate.

There are many varieties of asbestos. eg,. Chryslite, thremolite


anthrophyllite etc.

Q. Write properties of asbestors.

Ans: It has the following properties.

i) Its density is low (500 kg/m3)

ii) Its thermal conductivity is low (0.000405 units at 500C)

iii) Its electrical conductivity is also low.

iv) It is fire resistant, durable, light weight, weather proof.

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v) Their maintenance cost is negligible.

vi) it is good sound insulator.

vii) It has good acid resistance.

Q. What are the various applications of asbestos?

Ans: i) Asbestos sheets are used for roof-covering because they are durable
light in weight and weather resistant.

ii) It is used as damp-proofing for walls and floor in the form of asbestos
felt.

iii) It is used as filler for natural and synthetic insulating resins.

iv) It is used as heat insulator for boilers.

v) It is used in the manufacturing acid resistant material and heat


insulating bricks.

vi) It is also used as a sound insulator.

Q. Explain why asbestos sheets are extensively used for roofs covering?

Ans: Asbestos acts as insulator towards heat. Moreover, The asbestos sheets
are fire-resistant, weather resistant, durable and light in weight, They do
not require any painting coat and their maintenance cost is nearly zero.
They can be fixed with nuts and blots easily. Because of all these reasons
asbestos sheets are used as roof coverings.

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Q. Explain addition polymerization with suitable example

Ans: Definition (Principle): It is the process in which monomer which


contain at least one C=C bond undergo repeated addition, resulting in
the formation of long chain polymer without elimination of simple
molecules like H2O,HCl, NH3
Example: Formation of polyethylene from ethylene

In addition polymerization, monomers which are taking part in


polymerization must contain at least one double bond.
Ethylene (C2H4) is unsaturated hydrocarbon contain one C=C double
bond.
When ethylene is heated in the range 1500C to 2500C and at the
pressure above 300 atmospheric pressure.
Then number of ethylene molecules gets united to form a long chain
of polyethylene.
During this process one of the double bonds between the carbon atoms
of ethylene (CH2=CH2) is open up and forming an unstable molecule
of ethylene.
The unstable molecule (monomer) to form dimmer and the process
continues to form large molecule of polyethylene.

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Q. Explain condensation polymerization with suitable example


Ans: Definition (Principle): “It is the process in which the monomers of
different types are joined together by condensation forming a large
polymer with the elimination of simple molecule like H2O,HCl, and
CH3OH etc.

Example:“Bakelite” can be prepared by condensation of phenol with


formaldehyde in presence of acidic /alkaline catalyst.
During the reaction oxygen atom of carbonyl group of formaldehyde and
two hydrogen atoms of benzene ring of phenol are eliminated in the form
of H2O molecule.

Q. What are the drawbacks (Deficiencies) of natural rubber?ORWhy it


is necessary to vulcanise rubber? OR Vulcanisation of rubber is
done before industrial use OR Natural rubber is not useful in
permanent application where elastomer is used. Why?
Ans: The drawbacks of natural rubber are as follows:

1. During summer, the raw rubber becomes soft and sticky & in winter
stiff (hard) and brittle.
2. It has low tensile strength.
3. It is too weak to be used in heavy duty operation.
4. It has a large water absorbing capacity.

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5. On stretching, it undergoes permanent deformation.


6. It is affected by the organic solvents like benzene, CCl4 etc.
7. It gets tarnished in air due to oxidation i.e. its durability decrease.

Therefore, to remove the drawbacks and improve the properties, it is


necessary to vulcanise rubber.

Q. Explain Vulcanization of rubber with chemical reaction OR Describe


the process of Vulcanization of rubber OR Name and explain the
process which increases the stiffness of rubber OR Which treatment
is used to make useful the natural rubber?
Ans: Vulcanization is the process that increases the stiffness of rubber.
Natural rubber is compounded with some substances like Sulphur, SF6,
and H2S etc.
“When natural rubber is compounded (heated) with sulphur at 100-1400
C, the process is called as vulcanization of rubber and sulphur is called
as vulcanizing agent.”

Process: In this process crude (raw) rubber is heated with sulphur at


100-1400 C temperature. The sulphur combines chemically at the
double bonds in the rubber molecule of different rubber springs. This
prevents the intermolecular movement or sliding of rubber springs

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making the rubber stiff. The stiffness depends upon amount of sulphur
added.
Example:

1. A rubber tyre contains 3-5% sulphur


2. A battery case contains 30% of sulphur
3. Ebonite contain 50% of sulphur

Q. What is compounding of Plastic? Explain compounding of plastic.


OR What are different substances added during compounding of
plastic? Give functions of each
Ans: “The plastic are in short of some properties required for engineering
application therefore to improve the required properties substances like
fillers, resin accelerators, pigments, plastisizers are added into it during
polymerization. This process is known as compounding of plastic.

Fillers: These are the substances added to the plastics to improve hardness,
tensile strength, finish, workability & opacity Ex. Wood, mica, Quartz,
Asbestos
Resin: It is the substance which are used to bind (hold) various constituents
of plastics together also called as binder Ex. Polythene, PVC, Polyesters

Plasticizers: These are added into plastic to improve plasticity & flexibility
Ex. Camphor, Tributyl phosphate

Accelerators: It is used as catalyst which speed up polymerization process


Ex. Zncl2 , H2O2 , Calcium oxide

Pigments: Different dyes & colored pigments are added to plastic to


provide desired colour or shade. The pigment should resistant to sunlight
Ex. Cobalt blue, Chrome green, Red lead.

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Q. Differentiate between Natural rubber and Synthetic rubber.


Ans:
Natural Rubber Synthetic Rubber

It is an elastic material obtained It is rubber like product obtained by


naturally from „latex‟ of rubber plant some chemical reaction Ex. Buna-S,
Buna-N, Thiokol,

It is an polymer of isoprene (C5H8 )n It is polymer of substance having


molecule. unsaturated nature

It is non resistant to oxidation It is highly resistant to oxidation

It is weak so that cannot be used in It is strong so can be used in heavy


heavy duty operation duty operation

It becomes soft & sticky at higher It does not becomes soft & sticky at
temperature higher temperature

It is plastic in nature It is elastic in nature

It is soluble in organic solvent It is insoluble in organic solvent

Q. Differentiate between thermo softening plastic and thermosetting


Plastic.OR Write charecteristics of thermosoftening plastic and
thermosetting plastic
Ans:
Thermosoftening plastic Thermosetting plastic
They are prepared by addition They are prepared by condensation
polymerization polymerization
They have linear chain structure They have network chain structure
They have smaller molecular weight They have higher molecular weight

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They can be reshaped & reused They cannot be reshaped & reused
They are soft, weak & less brittle They are hard, strong & more brittle
They are soluble in organic solvent They are insoluble in organic solvent
They can be reclaimed from waste They cannot be reclaimed from waste
They are linked by weak covalent bond They are linked by strong covalent
bond
Ex: Polyethylene,PVC Ex: Bakelite,Polyster.

Q. Differentiate between addition polymerization and condensation


polymerization
Ans:
Addition polymerization Condensation polymerization

It is the process in which monomers It is the process in which monomers


undergo repeated addition resulting in of different types are joined together
the formation long chain polymer by condensation forming a large
without elimination of simple polymer with the elimination of
molecules like H2O, HCl, and NH3etc simple molecule like H2O, HCl,
CH3OHetc.
Unsaturated monomers undergo this Functional monomers undergo this
reaction reaction
For this low pressure &temperature is For this high pressure &
required temperature is required

Thermo softening plastic are prepared Thermosetting plastic are prepared


by this method by this method

Linear or chain structure is formed in Three dimensional structure is


Polymer formed in polymer

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It is fast reaction It is slow reaction

Reaction gives only main product Reaction gives main product &
subsidary product

Q. State any four properties of plastics.


Ans: Properties of plastic

1. They are light in weight and have specific gravity from 1 to 2.4
2. They have low thermal and electrical conductivity.
3. They are highly resistant to corrosion and machined.
4. They can readily mould, drilled and machined.
5. They have low melting point.
6. They are not attacked by fungi, insects etc.
7. They are highly resistant to the attack of light, oil, acids and moisture.

Q. Write any four applications of plastic based on its properties.


Ans: Applications of plastic

Due to “low density and high tensile strength” plastic are used in
aircraft, motor cars and in structural industries.
Due to low “electrical conductivity they are used in electronic industry
for electrical insulation of PCB, cabinets of TV, computer.
Due to “low thermal conductivity” they are used for making handles
of electric irons, soldering gun, pressure cookers etc.
It is used as thermal insulator in refrigerator, air conditioners, cold
storage etc.

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Due to “corrosion resistant and chemical resistance” they are used in


chemical industry in manufacturing of tanks, tubes, pipes, absorption
towers etc.
Due to their “high shock absorbing capacity” they are used for making
parts of machinery to reduce noise and vibration.
Due to “optical clarity” they are used for making glass fiber and wind
screens for automobile and aircraft.
As plastic is „water resistant‟ used in manufacturing of polythene
bags, containers, bottles, pipes floor covering, rain coats etc.
As „light in weight‟ and “strong” it is used in furniture like chairs ,
tables, stools, decorative items like clocks, toys, panels sheet, mirror
case etc.

Q. Explain the structure of thermosoftening and thermosetting plastic

Structure of thermosoftening plastic: This plastic is formed by


addition polymerization. It has long chain linear polymer with
negligible cross links. Its monomer has atleast two active valencies.
Under suitable conditions these valencies links with other similar
monomers forming linear chain as shown below

If M is monomer

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Structure of thermosetting plastic: This plastic is formed by condensation


polymerization. It has three dimensional network chain structure. Its
monomer has at least three active valencies. Under suitable condition these
valencies link with other type of monomers forming network chain structure
as shown below

If M is monomer

Q. Explain the following properties of synthetic rubbers.


1. Elasticity 2. Tack 3. Abrasion resistant
4. Tensile strength 5.Hardness 6.Rebound

Ans: Properties of synthetic rubber


1. Elasticity: Elasticity is the property by virtue of which a material
undergoes deformation under stress and regains its original shape on
removal of the stress. Ex: rubber bands, automobile tubes.

2. Tack: Tack is the special characteristic of rubber by virtue of which


two or more surface can stick to each other.Ex: In manufacturing of
rubber tyres.

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3. Abrasion resistance: Abrasion resistance is process of wearing away


the surface of rubber by friction.Ex: Automobile tyres, shoe soles.

4. Tensile strength (stress and strain): When a dumbbell shaped piece


of rubber is taken and placed in the machine and further it is stretched
until it breaks. The load at which it breaks is its tensile strength
Ex. V belts and conveyor belts.

5. Hardness: Hardness is ability of rubber to with stand wear, abrasion


and resists penetration. Ex: shock absorber, gaskets etc

6. Rebound: It is the ability to absorb energy and return without


permanent deformation of a synthetic rubber.Ex: Rubber ball will bounce
when dropped used in shock absorbers.

Q. Write any four applications of rubber with their related engineering


properties.
Ans: Applications of rubber

Properties Based application


Elasticity, toughness, tensile strength For making rubber bands, tubes of
vehicles, sports goods, telephone
reciever, ball etc.
Abrasion resistant Used in tyres of vehicles, shoe heels
and Soles, V-belt, conveyor belt, floor
tiles, Rubber mats, etc.

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Bad conductor of electricity Used for insulation wires and cables,


switch board panels, plug, sockets, and
battery cases.
Hardness Rubber gaskets are used for sealing
refrigerator, cabinet doors, cookers,
autoclave etc.
Chemical resistance Rubber is used for lining in chemical
tank, as gaskets, rubber seals, pumps
etc.

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Chapter-7
LUBRICANTS

Q. Define lubricant. State the types of lubricant.


Ans: - Definition: The substance which is used to reduce the frictional
resistance between two moving (sliding) surfaces is known as lubricant.
There are mainly three types of lubricant namely,
1. Solid lubricant – graphite, soap
2. Liquid lubricant- palm oil, whale oil
3. Semisolid lubricant – grease, waxes

Q. Define lubrication. State the types of lubrication


Ans: Definition: The process of reducing the frictional resistance (force)
between two moving (sliding) surfaces by the introduction of lubricants
between them is known as lubrication.
There are three types of lubrication namely,

a. Fluid (thick) film lubrication


b. Thin (boundary) film lubrication
c. Extreme pressure lubrication

Q. Define viscosity & viscosity index. Give their significance.


Ans: Viscosity: It is defined as the force in dynes required to move 1cm
square of liquid over another surface with velocity of 1 cm/sec. It is
expressed in
poise.

Significance of viscosity: It determines the main oprating characteristics


of the lubricant
Depending on the load conditions in lubrication oil of different
viscosities
are selected. For e.g. for low load condition, an oil of lower viscosity is
required while for high load conditions, oil should have higher viscosity.

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Viscosity index

Definition: “The rate of change of viscosity of lubricating oil with


temperature is called viscosity index”

Significance:

A good lubricant should have minimum variation of viscosity with


temperature i.e. viscosity index.

For e.g. Butter has low viscosity index hence it cannot be used in
machines where temperature change is rapid.

Q. Define oiliness. Give its significance


Ans: “It is defined as the power of an lubricant (oil) to maintain a continuous
film under pressure”.

Significance:

1. Oiliness is important in extreme pressure lubrication


2. Oil with poor oiliness have tendency to be squeezed out of the
machine parts under high pressure
3. A good lubricant should have sufficient oiliness under working
condition

Q. Define flash point & fire point. Give their significance


Ans: Flash point: Flash point is the lowest temperature at which the oil
lubricant gives of enough vapours that gives momentary flash of ligh
when a small flame is applied to it.

Fire point: Fire point is the lowest temperature at which the oil lubricant
gives of enough vapours which catches the fire & burn continuously at
least for 5 second when a small flame is applied to it.
Significance:
A good lubricant should have high flash point and fire point.

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The knowledge of flash point of lubricant aids in precautionary measures


against fire hazards.
Oil of high flash point is supposed to offer more resistance to spontaneous
combustion
Q. Define cloud point & pour point. Give their significance.

Ans: Cloud point: When oil is cooled slowly, the temperature at which it
becomes cloudy or hazy in appearance is called as its cloud point.
Significance:

1. A good lubricating oil should have low cloud point 1.


2. The cloud point indicates the suitability of lubricant in cold condition

Pour point: When oil is cooled slowly, the oil ceases (stops) to flow is
called as its pour point.

Significance:

1. Pour point determines suitability of lubricant for low temperature


condition
2. Lubricant used in the machine working at low temperature should
posses low pour point
3. It indicates the dissolved wax concentration in given sample of oil &
also determine the temperature below which oil cannot be used as
lubricant in the engine

Q. Define
1. Acid value [Neutralization number]
2. Saponification value
3. Emulsification.
4. Aniline point

1. Acid value [Neutralization number]


It is defined as number of milligrams of KOH required to neutralize
free acid in 1gm of oil.

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Significance
a. A good lubricant should have low acid value less than 0.1 because
free acid present in lubricant causes corrosion of machine parts and
value greater than 0.1 shows that oil has been oxidised
b. A lubrication oil should posses acid value less than oil

2. Saponification value
It is defined as number of milligrams of KOH required to saponify
1gm of lubricating oil.

Significance
With the help of saponification value we can know whether the oil is
vegetable, animal or mineral
A good lubricating oil should have moderate (high) saponification
value.

3. Emulsification
It is defined as “the tendency of lubricating oil to mix with water to
form a stable emulsion i.e. homogeneous mixture of oil & water”.

Significance: The emulsion have tendency to catch the dust and other
particles from its surrounding which causes failure of lubrication
system. Therefore a good lubricant should have low emulsification
number.

4. Aniline point: Aniline point of oil is defined as the minimum


equilibrium solution temperature for equal volumes of aniline and oil
sample.
Significance: Aniline point gives an indication of the possible
deterioration of oil in contact with rubber, sealing packing etc.
A high aniline point of lubricant indicates that it contains higher % of
paraffinic hydrocarbons and lower % of aromatic hydrocarbons

Q. Lubricant is added along with fuel in IC engine. Justify.

Ans: Lubricant is added with fuel in IC engine because it reduces the


power loss

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in internal combustion engine. Because in internal combustion engine,


the lubricant acts as a seal between the piston & cylinder wall hence it
prevents
the leakage of gases at high temperature.

Q. Wites the characteristics (properties) &uses of graphite.

Ans: Characteristics (Properties)

1. It is stable at high temperature


2. It is non-inflammable
3. It is very soft
4. It is not oxidized in air below 3750 c
5. It is used up to very high temperature in the absence of air

Uses: It is used as lubricant in air compressors, lathes, food stuff industry,


railway track-joints, open gears, chains, cast iron, bearings, I.C. engine
tube drawing, forging etc.

Q. Write the characteristic & uses of molybdenum disulphide (MoS2)

Ans: Characteristics:

1. It is used in fine powder form


2. It is stable at high temperature & pressure
3. It adheres well to the metal surfaces
4. It has low coefficient of friction

Uses:

1. It is used for lubricating machine which are subjected to high


temperature
2. It is also used as grease additive under required conditions which is
used in automotive & truck chasis
3. It can be used in vacuum & therefore can be used in space craft

Q. Write the characteristics & uses of grease (plastic lubricant)

Ans: “Greases are the mixture of petroleum oil & soaps”.

Characteristics:

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1. Its structure is like a gel


2. They have higher frictional resistance than oil
3. It supports much heavier load at lower speeds
4. They are more convenient in use

Uses: They are widely used as

1. Where gears & bearing works at high temperature


2. Where bearing needs to be sealed against entry of dust, dirt, moisture
3. Where oil cannot remain in place of machine parts
Ex- Rail axle boxes
4. Where oil gives splashes (dripping)
Ex- textile, edible articles, machines, preparing paper

Q. Writes the characteristics & uses of silicone oil (fluid)

Ans: Characteristics:

1. They have high viscosity index


2. They have good oxidation resistance
3. They are chemically inert
4. They are non-inflammable
5. They have high flash point
6. They are water & corrosion resistant

Uses:

1. They are useful for rubber & plastic surfaces including moving picture
film, slide roles, gears bushing, bearing
2. It is used as moisture repellent
3. It is used as dielectric lubricant for clocks time & other electronic
devices

Q. What are the functions of Lubricants?


OR
Write any four functions of Lubricants.

Ans : The functions of lubricants are as follows

1. It reduces wear & tear & surface deformation by avoiding direct


contact

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between the rubbing surface


2. It reduces the loss of energy in the form of heat by acting as a coolant.
3. It reduces the expansion of metal by local frictional heat
4. It reduces the maintaince & running cost of machine
5. It increases the efficiency of the machine by reducing the waste of
energy
6. It reduces the power loss in internal combustion engine

Q. State the types of lubricants with example. OR Classify lubricants


with example
Ans: There are mainly three types of lubricants namely,

1. Solid Lubricant
2. Liquid Lubricant
3. Semi – Solid Lubricant
1) Solid lubricant

Ex. Graphite, molybdenum disulphide, soap, wax, talc, mica, chalks etc

2) Liquid lubricant

Ex. a) Vegetable oils – Palm oil, Castor oil


b) Animal oils – Whale oil, Tallow oil,
c) Mineral oil- Paraffin, Naphthalene
d) Blended oil – Mineral oil + animal oil, Mineral oil + vegetable oil
e) Synthetic oil – Polymerized hydrocarbon, polyglycols, organic amines

3) Semi Solid lubricants


Ex.Greases and Vaseline

Q. How lubricants are selected?


Ans: The selection of lubricant is depends upon on following points,

1. It requires the study of working condition such as speed, pressure


temperature and heat produced.
2. A selected lubricant should neither be very thick nor be very thin.
3. A selected lubricant should form a continuous film between the
moving parts of machine

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4. A selected lubricant should not adhere to moving parts & thus


prevents
the movement of it
The selection of lubricant depends on operating condition

Operating condition Types of lubricant


1. High speed and heavy load Extreme pressure lubricant
2. Low speed heavy load High oiliness boundry film
lubricant
3. Less load and high speed Oil with low viscosity
4. Low temperature High fluidity
5. High temperature Oxidation resistance and less
viscosity

Q. With reason, suggest proper lubricants for sewing machine rollers,


delicate instruments gears, cutting tool, and internal combustion
engine, transformer

Ans: For Sewing machine: It is delicate instrument which is not exposed to


high temperature, heavy loads or to water so that mineral oil, silicones,
thin vegetables and palm oil like palm oil, neat foot oil are used as
lubricant

Road rollers: It is machinery in which extreme pressure and low speeds


areemployed where thick oil film cannot be maintained so that solid
lubricants like graphite, Soap-stone, mica, molybdenum disulphide are
most commonly used
For Delicate instrument (equipments):
Delicate instruments like watches, clocks, scientific instruments, sewing
machine are not exposed to high temperature, pressure load and heavy
load or there is heavy friction between the rubbing parts. Therefore
lubrication oil like thin vegetable oil, palm oil neat foot oil are used as
lubricants.

For Gears: Lubricants in gears are under very high pressure or load so
the lubricants must have good adhesive properties i.e. must remain stick
to the gear teeth and must not be removed by centrifugal force a rotating
gears.

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The lubricant should have

1. Good oiliness
2. Have high load carrying capacity thus thick mineral lubricating oil
containing extreme pressure additive such as organic compound of
chlorine sulphur and phosphorous are used for where lubricants.

For cutting tools

Cutting includes turning, grinding, machining etc. of metals. In this


process the cutting tool is continuously exposed to the fresh underline
metal. This causes high rubbing resulting in generation of large amount of
heat. The liberated heat may over heat the tool and may damage it, cause
imperfect cut, and also increase. The power consumption (because of
friction). Therefore the main functions of cutting fluids are to cool the
tool. For light cutting oil emulsion are used and for heavy cutting, cutting
oils essentially, minerals oil of low viscosities with some additives like
fatty oils, chlorinated compounds and sulphurized fatty oils are added.

For Internal combustion engines

In internal combustion engine, the lubricant is to be exposed to high


temperatures. Therefore, the lubricant, should posses high viscosity index
and high thermal stability. It should not evaporate or decompose at the
operating high temperatures. The petroleum oils containing additives,
which impart high viscosity index and oxidation stability to them, are
used as lubricants for internal combustion engines.

For transformer

The function of a lubricating oil in an an electrical transformer is to


insulate the windings and to remove heat generated, when the transformer
is subjected to on load. The lubricant used for these transformer should
posses low viscosity and good dielectric properties. When transformer oil
exposed to air,high temperature,electrical stress and catalytic influence of
copper cause various chemical changes in the oil causing to formation of
acid as well as sludge. To remove the formation of acids and sludge,
highly refined mineral oil having high insulating properties, optimum
oxidation resistance and high chemical stability are used .

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Q. Explain fluid film (thick film) lubrication


OR Explain hydrodynamic lubrication.

Ans: Fluid film lubrication: This type of lubrication is used in machines


working at low pressure and high speed

In this type of lubrication, the moving or sliding surfaces are separated


from each other by a thick film of fluid (1000 0A thick), so that surface to
surface contact and welding of junctions rarely occurs

1. In this method the liquid lubricant is introduced in between the


moving surfaces.

2. The lubrication film covers or fills the irregularities of moving or


sliding surfaces and forms thin layer in between them

3. This thin layer avoids metal to metal contact and reduces the friction
4. The resistance in the movement of two moving surfaces is due to
internal resistance of the lubricant particles moving each other. Thus
lubricant should have minimum viscosity

Uses: This type of lubrication is provided in case of delicate instrument


and light machines like watches, clocks, guns, sewing machines,
scientific instruments.

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Q. Explains thin film (boundary) lubrication.


OR
Explain the lubrication, which is present in heavy machineries which
are having low speed & high pressure on it.

Ans: This type of lubrication is used

a. When continuous fluid film of lubricant cannot persist i.e. viscosity of


oil lubricant is very low & direct metal to metal contact is possible
b. The machine parts work under low speed & heavy load
c. A shaft moving from rest

In this type of lubrication:

1. A thin layer of lubricant is adsorbed by physical or chemical forces on


both the metallic surfaces

2. These absorbed layer cannot be removed easily & avoid direct metal
to metal contact

3. For boundary lubrication the lubricant molecule should have long


hydrocarbon chains, lateral attraction between the chains, high
viscosity index, good oiliness resistance to heat and oxidation

4. In this type of lubrication graphite, molybdenum disulphide with oil ,


vegetable oil, animal oil and their soaps are used

5. This type of lubrication is used for tractor, rollers, lathe machine etc.

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Q. Explain extreme pressure lubrication

Ans: This type of lubrication is used when the moving parts of machine work
under very heavy load or high pressure & high speed, due to this the
lubricant may decompose.

1. For these conditions, some additives are added to lubricants. These


additives are called as “extreme pressure additives”

2. The additives are reactive compounds of phosphorous, sulphur etc

3. At a very high temperature, they as react with metal & convert as


sulphide or phosphates

4. These lubricants have very high melting points & acts under extreme
pressure lubrication conditions

5. In this type of lubrication sulphurised oil, chlorinated wax are used

This type of lubrication is used for gears, cutting tools, wire drawing of
titanium etc

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Q. Differentiate between fluid film lubrication and boundary lubrication


Ans :
Fluid film lubriacation Boundary lubrication
1. Lubricants having low viscosity 1. Lubricants having high viscosity
are used in fluid lubrication are used
2. Thickness of oil film is more than 2. Thickness of oil film is less than
10000C 10000A
3. These are used in the machines 3. These are used in the machines
working under high load and high working under heavy load and low
speed speed
4. These are sued as such. No 4. The thin lubricating oil is adsorbed
metallic surface is required for by physical or chemical forces
adsorption
5. Watches, clocks, guns, sewing 5. Gears, rollers, tractors, etc. require
machines require fluid film thin film lubrication
lubrication

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CHAPTER -1

Atomic Structure

FORMULAE:

1. Z = P = e
2. A = Z + n
3. No. of neutrons ( n ) = A – Z

Where, Z = Atomic number

P = no. of protons

e = no. of electrons

A = Atomic mass number

Example 1:
235 .
A radioactive element is represented as 92U Find number of neutrons and
number of electrons.
Solution:
Atomic number (Z) = 92= Number of electrons.
Atomic mass no (A) = 235
No. of neutrons = A - Z = 235 – 92 = 143

Example 2:
If atomic number and atomic mass number of an element is 11 and 23
respectively. Write number of protons, neutrons and electrons.
Solution:
Atomic number = Z = 11
Atomic mass number =A = 23
No. of protons (Z) = 11

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No. of electrons (Z) = 11


No. of neutrons (n) = A – Z = 23 – 11 = 12
Example 3:
Nucleus of an atom consists of 19 protons and 20 neutrons. Calculate atomic
no., atomic mass no. and state its electrochemical nature.
Solution:
Protons = 19. Neutron (n) = 20
Atomic number = Number of proton P = Z = 19
Atomic mass number (A) = Z + n = 19 + 20 = 39
This element is potassium which is electro positive

Example 4:
Calculate the atomic number and atomic mass number of an atom containing
20 electrons and 20 neutrons.
Ans: Atomic Number = number of electrons in extra nuclear part
Z = 20
Number of electrons = Number of protons
Number of protons = 20
Atomic mass number = No. of protons + No. of neutrons
= 20 + 20
= 40
Atomic no. is 20 & atomic mass no. is 40

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CHAPTER -2
Electrochemistry

FORMULAE:

1. W = Z × C × t

2. Faraday’s 2nd law :


Wt.of A substance deposited = C.E. of substance A
Wt. of B substance deposited C.E. of substance B

3. C.E. (Eq.wt ) = Z ( E.C.E ) × 96500 Eq. wt= Atomic weight /Valency

Example 1:

What current strength in Amperes will be required to liberate 12.7 gms of


Iodine from KI solution in 40 minutes? (Given E.C.E. of Iodine = 0.0013).

Ans.Given :t = 40 min = 40 × 60 = 2400 sec.

W= 12.7 gms,Z = 0.0013

To find : C = ?

Soln : We have W = Z × C × t

7.7 = 0.0013 × C × 40 × 60

C= 12.7
0.0013 × 40 × 60

C = 4.07 amperes

Current strength required is 4.07 amperes.

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Example 2:

A given quantity of electricity is passed through two cells containing copper


sulphate and silver nitrate respectively. If 0.99 gms of silver and 0.29 gms of
copper are deposited, find equivalent weight of silver when that of copper is
31.6.

Ans.Given :Wt. of Ag deposited = 0.99 gm

Wt. of Cu deposited = 0.29gm

Eq. wt of Cu = 31.6

To find: Eq. wt of Ag = ?

Soln : From Faraday‟s second law.

Wt. of Ag deposited = Eq. wt. of Ag


Wt. of Cu deposited Eq. wt. of Cu

Eq. wt. of Ag = Wt. of Ag deposited × Eq. wt. of Cu


Wt. of Cu deposited

= 0.99 × 31.6 = 107.87


0.29
Eq. wt. of Ag is 107.87

Example 3:
A current of 3 amperes passing through silver nitrate solution for 20 minutes
deposit 4.0 g of silver. What is the E.C.E. of silver?
Ans. Given : C = 3 amp.
t = 20 min = 20 × 60 = 1200 sec.
W = 4.0 g
To find: Z=?

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Soln : From Faradays first law of electrolysis


W=Z×C×t
Z = W = 4.0 = 0.00111 gms.
C ×t 3×1200

E. C.E. of silver is = 0.00111 gms

Example 4:
When the same amount of current is passed through the solution of CuSO 4
and ZnSO4, then 0.7 and 0.7164 gms of Cu and Zn get deposited on respective
electrodes. Calculate equivalent weight of Zn (atomic wt. of Cu = 63.5 ).

Ans. Given: Wt. of Cu deposited = 0.7


Wt. of Zn deposited = 0.716
At. Wt. of Cu = 63.5
To find: Eq. Wt. of Zn = ?
Soln: Eq. Wt. of Cu = At .Wt = 63.5 = 31.75
Valency 2

From Faraday‟s second law of electrolysis

Wt. of Cu deposited = Eq. Wt. of Cu


Wt. if Zn deposited Eq. Wt. of Zn

Eq. wt. of Zn = Wt. of Cu deposited × Eq. wt. of Cu


Wt. if Zn deposited

= 0.7 × 31.75
0.716
= 31.04

Eq. wt. of Zn = 31.04

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