Solution

Fundamentals of Dynamics
and Control of Space

Systems
Solution Manual
Krishna Dev Kumar
ii
Dr. Krishna. D. Kumar

Professor and Canada Research Chair in Space Systems
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Ryerson University
Toronto, Ontario
Canada M5B 2K3
Email: kdkumar@ryerson.ca
http://www.ryerson.ca/ kdkumar
c
Copyright 2012 by Krishna Dev Kumar. All rights are reserved whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, especially the right of transla-
tion, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction
on microfilm or any other ways, and storage in data banks.
Cover page: Full view of the International Space Station as photographed

from the Space Shuttle Discovery during the STS-114 Return to Flight mis-
sion, following the undocking of the two spacecraft. (Courtesy of NASA)
Fundamentals of Dynamics
and Control of Space
Systems
Solution Manual
Krishna Dev Kumar

Professor and Canada Research Chair in Space Systems
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Ryerson University
Toronto, Canada
iv
Preface
This Solution Manual is prepared to accompany and supplement the author’s

text “Fundamentals of Dynamics and Control of Space Systems”by Krishna
Dev Kumar, 2012. It contains detailed solutions for most problems in the
textbook.
September 3, 2012 Krishna Kumar

vi PREFACE
Contents
Preface v
2 Kinematics, Momentum and Energy 1
3 Forces and Torques 33
4 Dynamics I 39
5 Dynamics II 45
6 Mathematical and Numerical Simulation 65
7 Control System 85
8 Formation Flying 115
Index 121
vii
viii CONTENTS
Chapter 2
Kinematics, Momentum
and Energy
Problem Set 2
2.1 The coordinate frames used in studying the dynamics of a spacecraft

are as follows:
a) Inertial reference frame,
b) Orbital reference frame,
c) Perifocal reference frame,
c) Satellite body-fixed reference frame.
2.2 The inertial frames are those coordinate frames that are nonrotating
and nonaccelerating frames. The inertial frames are relevant because
in applying the Newton’s second law of motion
~
dV
F~ = m (2.1)
dt
to derive the equation of motion of a system, the velocity V ~ and the

~
corresponding acceleration dV /dt in the right-hand side of the above
equation are to measured with respect to an inertial frame of reference.
An Earth-fixed frame is not an inertial frame as it is spinning about
its axis with a period of 24 hour. When viewed from space, the point
on the surface of the earth moves in a circle as the earth spins on its
axis. Thus, it is accelerating with an centripetal acceleration of rω 2 ,
2 CHAPTER 2. KINEMATICS, MOMENTUM AND ENERGY
where r is the position of the point of the Earth center of mass and ω
is the rate of spin of the Earth. With the earth a point on its surface
also orbits the Sun. With the solar system, it orbits the center of the
galaxy. Thus, the Earth-fixed frame is an accelerating frame and not
an inertial frame.
We consider just the effect of the spinning motion of the Earth and
therefore the inertial acceleration can be written as

~
dV ~
dV

=

+ω ~body
~ ×V (2.2)
dt dt

inertial body
The corresponding error in considering an Earth-fixed frame as an in-

ertial frame is

~
dV dV~
Error = − =ω~ ×V ~body (2.3)
dt dt

inertial body
The Earth’s spin rate ω is

2π
ω
~ = ωk k̂ = − k̂
T
2π
=− k̂ = 7.275 × 10−5 k̂ (2.4)
24 × 3600
where k̂ is a unit vector along the z-direction as taken for the aircraft
body-fixed frame.
The order of magnitude error would be 10−4 ×Vbody . As this magnitude
is usually very small when compared to the magnitude of other relevant
accelerations like the gravitational acceleration, which is 9.81 m/s2 , and
we often treat the Earth-fixed frame as an inertial frame. when solving
problems.
2.3 The inertial position vectors for spacecraft m1 and m2 are
~1 = R
R ~ − γL
~ (2.5)
~2 = R
R ~ + (1 − γ)L
~ (2.6)
where γ = m2 /(m1 + m2 ). The corresponding magnitudes are

~ · L]
R1 = [R2 + γ 2 L2 − 2γ R ~ 1/2 (2.7)
~ · L]
R2 = [R2 + (1 − γ)2 L2 + 2(1 − γ)R ~ 1/2 (2.8)
where L = L0 + vt. The nomenclature Lo defines the initial length of

the cable while v is the speed by which the length of the cable varies.
3
Orbit m2
β
L
S
R
Y
m1
θ
E
X
Figure 2.1: A dumbbell satellite system undergoing in-plane libration.
~ and L
Expressing R ~ in terms of unit vectors of the respective coordinate
frames as
~ = Rîo ,
R ~ = Lî
L (2.9)
Applying the transformation between coordinate frames S −xo yo zo and

S − xyz, we get
îo · î = cosβ (2.10)
and using this relation in Eqs. (2.7) and (2.8), we have the inertial
positions of the spacecraft m1 and m2 as
R1 = [R2 + γ 2 L2 − 2γRLcosβ]1/2 (2.11)

2 2 2 1/2
R2 = [R + (1 − γ) L + 2(1 − γ)RLcosβ] (2.12)
The inertial velocity vectors for spacecraft m1 and m2 are
~˙ 1 = R
V~1 = R ~˙ − γ L
~˙ (2.13)
~˙ 2 = R
V~2 = R ~˙ + (1 − γ)L
~˙ (2.14)
The corresponding magnitudes are
~˙ 2 + γ 2 L
V1 = [R ~˙ 2 − 2γ R~˙ · L]
~˙ 1/2 (2.15)
~˙ 2 + (1 − γ)2 L
V2 = [R ~˙ 2 + 2(1 − γ)R~˙ · L]
~˙ 1/2 (2.16)
~˙ and L
R ~˙ can be written as
~˙ = R
~˙

R +ω ~
~o × R (2.17)
xo y o zo
~˙ = L
~˙

L +ω ~
~ ×L (2.18)
xyz
Knowing the system is orbiting in a circular orbit (i.e., Ṙ = 0), and the
cable connecting the two spacecraft is moving with a constant speed of
v, we get
~˙ ~˙

R = 0, L = ~v (2.19)
xo y o zo xyz
~ Substituting the above relations in

where ~v is in the direction of L.
Eqs. (2.17)-(2.18), we obtain
~˙ = ω
R ~o × R~ (2.20)
~˙ = ~v + ω
L ~ ×L~ (2.21)
~˙ 2 and L
The terms R ~˙ 2 can be written as
~˙ 2 = (~
R ωo × R)~ 2 (2.22)
~˙ 2 = v 2 + (~
L ~ 2 + 2~v · (~
ω × L) ~
ω × L) (2.23)
Writing ω ~ ω
~ o , R, ~ and ~v in terms of the unit vectors of the respective
~ , L,
coordinate frames, we have
ωo = θ̇k̂o , ~ = Rîo ,
R ω
~ = (θ̇ + β̇)k̂, ~ = Lî,
L ~v = v î (2.24)
Inserting these expressions into Eqs. (2.22)-(2.23) and solving, we have
~˙ 2 = θ̇2 R2
R (2.25)
~˙ 2 = v 2 + (θ̇ + β̇)2 L2
L (2.26)
Note that as ~v ⊥ (~ ~ ~v · (~
ω × L), ~ = 0.
ω × L)
Next we derive R ~˙ · L.
~˙ Using Eqs. (2.20)-(2.21), we can write
~˙ · L
R ~˙ = (~ ~ · (~v + ω
ωo × R) ~
~ × L)
= (~ ~ · ~v + (~
ωo × R) ~ · (~
ωo × R) ~
ω × L)
= θ̇Rv(ĵo · î) + θ̇(θ̇ + β̇)RL(ĵo · ĵ) (2.27)
5
From the coordinate transformation between the coordinate frame S −

îo ĵo k̂o and S − îĵ k̂, we have
ĵo · î = sinβ (2.28)
ĵo · ĵ = cosβ (2.29)
~˙ · L
Thus, we can express R ~˙ as
~˙ · L
R ~˙ = θ̇Rvsinβ + θ̇(θ̇ + β̇)RLcosβ (2.30)
Substituting the expressions for R ~˙ 2 and L

~˙ 2 from Eqs. (2.25)-(2.26)
~˙ · L
and the expression for R ~˙ from Eq. (2.30) into Eqs. (2.15)-(2.16),
we finally obtain the magnitudes of the inertial velocity vectors for
spacecraft m1 and m2 as
V1 ={θ̇2 R2 + γ 2 (L̇2 + (θ̇ + β̇)2 L2 ) − 2γ θ̇R[vsinβ + (θ̇ + β̇)Lcosβ]}1/2
(2.31)
V2 ={θ̇2 R2 + (1 − γ)2 (L̇2 + (θ̇ + β̇)2 L2 )
+ 2(1 − γ)θ̇R[vsinβ + (θ̇ + β̇)Lcosβ]}1/2 (2.32)
The inertial acceleration vectors for the spacecraft m1 and m2 are writ-
ten using Eqs. (2.13)-(2.14) for their velocity vectors, as
~˙ 1 = R
~a1 = V ~¨ − γ L
~¨ (2.33)
~˙ 2 = R
~a2 = V ~¨ + (1 − γ)L
~¨ (2.34)
~¨ and L
Here R ~¨ can be expressed as
~¨ = R
R ~¨ xo yo zo + 2(~
ωo × R ~˙ xo yo zo ) + ω
~ o × (~
ωo × R) ~˙ o × R
~ +ω ~ (2.35)
~¨ = L
L ~¨ xyz + 2(~ ω×L ~˙ xyz ) + ω ~ × (~ ~ +ω
ω × L) ~˙ × L
~ (2.36)
The centripetal acceleration components ω ~ o × (~ ~ and ω

ωo × R) ~ × (~ ~
ω × L)
can be simplified using the triple vector product relation ~a × (~b × ~c) =
(~a · ~c)~b − (~a · ~b)~c, as
ω
~ o × (~ ~ = (~
ωo × R) ~ ωo − ωo2 R
ωo · R)~ ~ = −ωo2 R~ (2.37)
ω
~ o × (~ ~ = (~
ωo × L) ~ ωo − ω 2 L
ωo · L)~ ~ = −ω 2 L
~ (2.38)
o
Note the terms ω ~ = 0 and (~

~o · R ~ = 0 since ωo ⊥ R
ωo · L) ~ and ω ⊥ L.
~
Knowing that the system is in a circular orbit and the cable connecting
the two spacecraft is deployed with constant velocity, i.e.,
~˙ xo yo zo = R
R ~¨ xo yo zo = 0, ~˙ o = 0,
ω ~¨ xyz = v̇ = 0,
L ~˙ = β̈ k̂
ω (2.39)
and writing all vectors in Eqs. (2.35)-(2.36) in terms of the unit vectors
along the respective coordinate frames, we obtain
~¨ = −θ̇2 Rîo
R (2.40)
~¨ = 2(θ̇ + β̇)v(k̂ × î) − (θ̇ + β̇)2 Lî + β̈L(k̂ × ~i)
L
= 2(θ̇ + β̇)v ĵ − (θ̇ + β̇)2 Lî + β̈Lĵ
= −(θ̇ + β̇)2 Lî + [2(θ̇ + β̇)v + β̈L]ĵ (2.41)
Substituting the above relations in Eqs. (2.33)-(2.34), we have the

inertial accelerations as
~a1 = −θ̇2 Rîo + γ(θ̇ + β̇)2 Lî − γ[2(θ̇ + β̇)v + β̈L]ĵ} (2.42)
2 2
~a2 = −θ̇ Rîo − (1 − γ)(θ̇ + β̇) Lî − (1 − γ)[2(θ̇ + β̇)v − β̈L]ĵ} (2.43)
The corresponding magnitude for spacecraft m1 can be expressed using

the algebraic relations ((a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2ac + 2bc)) as
n
a1 = (θ̇2 R)2 + γ 2 (θ̇ + β̇)4 L2 + γ 2 [2(θ̇ + β̇)v + β̈L]2
o1/2
− 2γ θ̇2 (θ̇ + β̇)2 RL(îo · î) + 2θ̇2 γ[2(θ̇ + β̇)v + β̈L]R(îo · ĵ)
(2.44)
From the coordinate transformation between the coordinate frames S −

îo ĵo k̂o and S − îĵ k̂, we get
îo · î = cosβ, îo · ĵ = cos(90 + β) = −sinβ (2.45)
Using these relations, the corresponding magnitude for spacecraft m1

can be expressed as
n
a1 = (θ̇2 R)2 + γ 2 (θ̇ + β̇)4 L2 + γ 2 [2(θ̇ + β̇)v + β̈L]2
o1/2
− 2γ θ̇2 (θ̇ + β̇)2 RLcosβ − 2θ̇2 γ[2(θ̇ + β̇)v + β̈L]Rsinβ
(2.46)
Similarly, the acceleration of spacecraft m2 can be obtained as

n
a2 = (θ̇2 R)2 + (1 − γ)2 (θ̇ + β̇)4 L2 + (1 − γ)2 [2(θ̇ + β̇)v − β̈L]2
o1/2
+ 2(1 − γ)θ̇2 (θ̇ + β̇)2 RLcosβ − 2θ̇2 (1 − γ)[2(θ̇ + β̇)v − β̈L]Rsinβ
(2.47)
Note the preceding expression can be derived simply by replacing re-

placing γ by (1 − γ) and L by −L in Eq. (2.46).
7
2.4 The inertial position vectors for spacecraft m1 and m2 are

~1 = R
R ~ − γL
~ (2.48)
~2 = R
R ~ + (1 − γ)L
~ (2.49)
where γ = m2 /(m1 + m2 ). The corresponding magnitudes are

~ · L]
R1 = [R2 + γ 2 L2 − 2γ R ~ 1/2 (2.50)
~ · L]
R2 = [R2 + (1 − γ)2 L2 + 2(1 − γ)R ~ 1/2 (2.51)
~ and L
Writing R ~ in terms of the unit vectors of the respective coordinate
frames, we have
~ = Rîo ;
R ~ = Lî
L (2.52)
To express î in terms of unit vectors in the frame S−xo yo zo , we consider

the transformation as
   
 î   î 
 o 

 
 
 
  
ĵ = Rzy (β, η) ĵo (2.53)

 
 
 

 k̂ 
   k̂ 
 
o
where Rzy (β, η) is

  
cosη 0 −sinη cosβ sinβ 0
  
Rzy (β, η) = Ry (η)Rz (β) =  0 1 0  −sinβ cosβ 0
  
  
sinη 0 cosη 0 0 1
 
cosβcosη sinβcosη −sinη
 
=  −sinβ cosβ 0  (2.54)
 
 
cosβsinη sinβsinη cosη
Using Eq. (2.52), we can write î as
î = cosβcosη îo + sinβcosη ĵo − sinη k̂o (2.55)
Applying the above relation and using Eqs. (2.52), we obtain the mag-
nitudes of the position vectors as
R1 = [R2 + γ 2 L2 − 2γRLcosβcosη]1/2 (2.56)

2 2 2 1/2
R2 = [R + (1 − γ) L + 2(1 − γ)RLcosβcosη] (2.57)
~˙ 1 = R
~1 = R
V ~˙ − γ L
~˙ (2.58)
~˙ 2 = R
~2 = R
V ~˙ + (1 − γ)L
~˙ (2.59)
~˙ 2 + γ 2 L
V1 = [R ~˙ 2 − 2γ R~˙ · L]
~˙ 1/2 (2.60)
~˙ 2 + (1 − γ)2 L
V2 = [R ~˙ 2 + 2(1 − γ)R~˙ · L]
~˙ 1/2 (2.61)
~˙ and L
The R ~˙ can be written as
~˙ = R ~˙

R +ω ~
~o × R (2.62)
xo y o zo
~˙ = L ~˙

L +ω ~
~ ×L (2.63)
xyz
Knowing the system is orbiting in a circular orbit (i.e., Ṙ = 0), and

length of the cable connecting the two spacecraft is constant, we get
~˙ ~˙

R = 0, L =0 (2.64)
xo y o zo xyz
Substituting the above relations in Eqs. (2.62)-(2.63), we obtain
~˙ = ω
R ~o × R~ (2.65)
~˙ = ω
L ~ ×L~ (2.66)
~˙ 2 and L
The terms R ~˙ 2 can be written as
~˙ 2 = (~
R ~ 2
ωo × R) (2.67)
~˙ 2 = (~
L ~ 2
ω × L) (2.68)
Writing ω ~ ω
~ o , R, ~ and ~v in terms of the unit vectors of the respective
~ , L,
coordinate frames, we have
ωo = θ̇k̂o , ~
R = Rîo , ω
~ = (θ̇ + β̇)k̂o + η̇ ĵ, ~ = Lî
L (2.69)

k̂o = −sinη î + cosη k̂ (2.70)

9
Using the preceding equation, we write ω

~ in terms of unit vectors along
the rotating coordinate frame S − xyz as
ω
~ = ωx î + ωy ĵ + ωz k̂ (2.71)
where
ωx = −(θ̇ + β̇)sinη, ωy = η̇, ωz = (θ̇ + β̇)cosη (2.72)
Inserting the expressions given by Eqs. (2.69) and (2.71) into Eqs.
(2.67)-(2.68) and solving, we have
~˙ 2 = θ̇2 R2
R (2.73)
~˙ 2 = [(θ̇ + β̇)2 + η̇ 2 ]L2
L (2.74)
~˙ · L.
Next we derive R ~˙ Using Eqs. (2.65)-(2.66), we can write
~˙ · L
R ~˙ = (~ ~ · (~
ωo × R) ~
ω × L)
= θ̇RL{ĵo · [−η̇ k̂ + (θ̇ + β̇)cosη ĵ]}
= θ̇RL[−η̇(ĵo · k̂) + (θ̇ + β̇)cosη(ĵo · ĵ)] (2.75)

ĵo · ĵ = cosβ, ĵo · k̂ = sinβsinη (2.76)
~˙ · L
Thus, we can express R ~˙ as
~˙ · L
R ~˙ = θ̇RL[−η̇sinβsinη + (θ̇ + β̇)cosβcosη] (2.77)
~˙ 2 , L
Substituting the expressions for R ~˙ 2 from Eqs. (2.73)-(2.74) and the
˙~ ~˙
expression for R · L from Eq. (2.77) into Eqs. (2.60)-(2.61), we finally
obtain the magnitudes of the inertial velocity vectors for spacecraft m1
and m2 as
V1 ={θ̇2 R2 + γ 2 {L̇2 + [(θ̇ + β̇)2 + η̇ 2 ]L2 }

− 2γ θ̇RL[−η̇sinβsinη + (θ̇ + β̇)cosβcosη]}1/2
(2.78)
V2 ={θ̇2 R2 + (1 − γ)2 {L̇2 + [(θ̇ + β̇)2 + η̇ 2 ]L2 }
+ 2(1 − γ)θ̇RL[−η̇sinβsinη + (θ̇ + β̇)cosβcosη]}1/2
(2.79)
The inertial acceleration vectors for the spacecraft m1 and m2 are writ-
ten using Eqs. (2.58)-(2.59) for their velocity vectors, as
~˙ 1 = R
~a1 = V ~¨ − γ L
~¨ (2.80)
~˙ 2 = R
~a2 = V ~¨ + (1 − γ)L
~¨ (2.81)
~¨ and L
Here R ~¨ can be expressed as
~¨ = R
R ~¨ xo yo zo + 2(~
ωo × R ~˙ xo yo zo ) + ω
~ o × (~ ~ +ω
ω × R) ~˙ o × R
~ (2.82)
~¨ = L
L ~¨ xyz + 2(~ ω×L ~˙ xyz ) + ω ~ × (~ ~ +ω
ω × L) ~˙ × L
~ (2.83)
the two spacecraft are moving with constant velocity, i.e.,
~˙ xo yo zo = R
R ~¨ xo yo zo = 0, ~˙ o = 0,
ω ~˙ xyz = L
L ~¨ xyz = 0 (2.84)
and writing all vectors in terms of the unit vectors along the respective
coordinate frames, we obtain
~¨ = −θ̇2 Rîo
R (2.85)
(2.86)
and derive the following terms for L̈ using ω

~ (given by Eq. (2.71)):
ω
~ × (~ ~ = (~
ω × L) ~ ω − ω2L
ω · L)~ ~ = ωx L~ ~
ω − ω2L (2.87)
~˙ × L
ω ~ = [−ω̇y k̂ + ω̇z ĵ]L (2.88)
where
ω̇y = η̈, ω̇z = [β̈cosη − (θ̇ + β̇)η̇sinη] (2.89)
So, the term L̈ can be expressed as
~¨ = aLx î + aLy ĵ + aLz k̂

L (2.90)
where
aLx = [ωx2 − ω 2 ]L, aLy = [ωx ωy + ω̇z ]L, aLz = [ωx ωz − ω̇y ]L
(2.91)
Substituting the above relations for R̈ and L̈ in Eqs. (2.80)-(2.81), we

have
11
~a1 = −θ̇2 Rîo − γ[aLx î + aLy ĵ + aLy k̂] (2.92)

2
~a2 = −θ̇ Rîo + (1 − γ)[aLx î + aLy ĵ + aLy k̂]} (2.93)
The corresponding magnitude for spacecraft m1 can be expressed as

n
a1 = (θ̇2 R)2 + γ 2 [a2Lx + a2Ly + a2Lz ]
− 2θ̇2 Rγ[aLx îo · î + aLy îo · ĵ + aLz îo · k̂]}1/2 (2.94)

îo ĵo k̂o and S − îĵ k̂, we get
îo · î = cosβcosη, îo · ĵ = cos(90 + β) = −sinβ, îo · k̂ = cosβsinη

(2.95)
Thus, the acceleration for spacecraft m1 is
n
a1 = (θ̇2 R)2 + γ 2 [a2Lx + a2Ly + a2Lz ]
− 2θ̇2 Rγ[aLx cos βcosη − aLy sinβ + aLz cosβsinη]}1/2 (2.96)
Similarly, the acceleration for spacecraft m2 can be derived as

n
a2 = (θ̇2 R)2 + (1 − γ)2 [a2Lx + a2Ly + a2Lz ]
+ 2θ̇2 R(1 − γ)[aLx cos βcosη − aLy sinβ + aLz cosβsinη]}1/2
(2.97)
2.5 The inertial position vectors of spacecraft m1 , m2 and m3 are

~1 = R
R ~ (2.98)
~2 = R
R ~ +L~1 (2.99)
~3 = R
R ~2 + L
~2 (2.100)
R1 = R (2.101)
R2 = [R + 2
L21
+ 2R~ ·L
~ 1 ]1/2 (2.102)
~ ·L
R3 = [R22 + 2R ~ 2 + 2L
~ 1 · L~2 ]1/2 (2.103)
~ L
Expressing R, ~ 1 , and L
~ 2 in terms of unit vectors of their respective
coordinate frames as
~ = Rîo ,
R ~ 1 = L1 î1 ,
L ~ 2 = L2 î2
L (2.104)
in the preceding equation and using the transformations between the

coordinate frames S−xo yo zo and S1 −x1 y1 z1 , and the coordinate frames
S − xo yo zo and S2 − x2 y2 z2 as
îo · î1 = cosβ1 , îo · î2 = cosβ2 , î1 · î2 = cos(β2 − β1 ) (2.105)
we obtain the positions of the spacecraft
R1 = R (2.106)
2
R2 = [R + L21 + 2RL1 cosβ1 ] 1/2
(2.107)
R3 = [R22 + L22 + 2RL2 cosβ2 + 2L1 L2 cos(β2 − β1 )]1/2 (2.108)
~˙ 1 = R
~1 = R
V ~˙ (2.109)
~˙ 2 = R
~2 = R
V ~˙ + L
~˙ 1 (2.110)
V ~˙ 3 = V
~3 = R ~2 + L~˙ 2 (2.111)
~˙ 2 ]1/2
V1 =[R (2.112)
~˙ 2 + L
V2 =[R ~˙ 21 + 2R ~˙ · L
~˙ 1 ]1/2 (2.113)
V3 =[V22 + 2R ~˙ · L
~˙ 2 + 2L ~˙ 1 · L
~˙ 2 ]1/2 (2.114)
~˙ L
The R, ~˙ 1 , and L
~˙ 2 can be written as
~˙ = R~˙

R +ω ~
~o × R (2.115)
xo y o zo
~˙ 1
~˙ 1 = L

L +ω ~1
~1 × L (2.116)
x1 y 1 z1
~˙ 2
~˙ 2 = L

L +ω ~2
~2 × L (2.117)
x2 y 2 z2
Knowing that the system is in a circular orbit, and the cable connecting
the two spacecraft is moving with a constant speed of v, we get
~˙ ~˙ 1 ~˙ 2

R = 0, L = 0, L =0 (2.118)
xo y o zo x1 y 1 z1 x2 y 2 z2
Substituting the above relations in Eqs. (2.115)-(2.117), we obtain
~˙ = ω
R ~
~ o × R, ~˙ 1 = ω
L ~ 1,
~1 × L ~˙ 2 = ω
L ~2
~2 × L (2.119)
13
~˙ 2 , L
The terms R ~˙ 21 , and L
~˙ 22 can be written as
~˙ 2 = (~
R ~ 2,
ωo × R) ~˙ 21 = (~
L ~ 1 )2 ,
ω1 × L ~˙ 22 = (~
L ~ 2 )2
ω2 × L (2.120)
Writing ω ~ ω
~ o , R, ~ 1 , and ω
~ 1, L ~ 2 in terms of the unit vectors of
~ 2 , and L
the respective coordinate frames, we have
~ = Rîo , ω
ωo = θ̇ k̂o , R ~ 1 = L1 î1 ω
~ 1 = (θ̇ + β̇1 )k̂1 , L ~ 2 = (θ̇ + β̇2 )k̂2 ,
~
L2 = L2 î2 (2.121)
The preceding angular velocity expressions can be further written as
ωo = ωo k̂o , ω
~ 1 = ω1 k̂1 , ω
~ 2 = ω2 k̂2 (2.122)
where
ωo = θ̇, ω1 = θ̇ + β̇1 , ω2 = θ̇ + β̇2 (2.123)
Inserting these expressions into Eqs. (2.120) and solving, we have
~˙ 2 = ω 2 R2 ,
R ~˙ 2 = ω 2 L2 ,
L ~˙ 2 = ω 2 L2
L (2.124)
o 1 1 1 2 2 2
~˙ · L
Next we derive R ~˙ 1 , R
~˙ · L
~˙ 2 and L
~˙ 1 · L
~˙ 2 . Using Eqs. (2.119), we can
write
~˙ · L
R ~˙ 1 = (~ ~ · (~
ωo × R) ~ 1 ) = ωo ω1 RL1 (ĵo · ĵ1 )
ω1 × L (2.125)
Similarly, we can derive
~˙ · L
R ~˙ 2 = (~ ~ · (~
ωo × R) ~ 2 ) = ωo ω2 RL2 (ĵo · ĵ2 )
ω2 × L (2.126)
~˙ 1 · L
L ~˙ 2 = (~ ~ 1 ) · (~
ω1 × L ~ 2 ) = ω1 ω2 L1 L2 (ĵ1 · ĵ2 )
ω2 × L (2.127)

îo ĵo k̂o and S − î1 ĵ1 k̂1 , and between the coordinate frames S − îo ĵo k̂o
and S − î2 ĵ2 k̂2 , we have
ĵo · ĵ1 = cosβ1 , ĵo · ĵ2 = cosβ2 , ĵ1 · ĵ2 = cos(β2 − β1 ) (2.128)
~˙ · L
Thus, we can express R ~˙ 1 , R
~˙ · L
~˙ 2 , and L
~˙ 1 · L
~˙ 2 as
R~˙ · L
~˙ 1 = ωo ω1 RL1 cosβ1 (2.129)
R~˙ · L
~˙ 2 = ωo ω2 RL2 cosβ2 (2.130)
~˙ 1 · L
L ~˙ 2 = ω1 ω2 L1 L2 cos(β2 − β1 ) (2.131)
Substituting the expressions for R ~˙ 2 , L

~˙ 21 , and L ~˙ 22 from Eqs. (2.124) and
the expressions for R~˙ · L
~˙ 1 , R
~˙ · L
~˙ 2 , and L ~˙ 1 · L
~˙ 2 from Eqs. (2.131) into
Eqs. (2.113)-(2.114), we finally obtain the magnitudes of the inertial
velocity vectors for spacecraft m1 , m2 , and m3 as
V1 = ωo R (2.132)
V2 = [ωo2 R2 + ω12 L21 + 2ωo ω1 RL1 cosβ1 ]1/2 (2.133)
V3 = [V22 + ω22 L22 + 2ωo ω2 RL2 cosβ2 + 2ω1 ω2 L1 L2 cos(β2 − β1 )]1/2
(2.134)
The inertial acceleration vectors for the spacecraft m1 , m2 , and m3 are

written using Eqs. (2.110)-(2.111) for their velocity vectors, as
˙ ~¨
~a1 = V~1 = R (2.135)
˙ ~¨ + L
~¨ 1
~a2 = V~2 = R (2.136)
˙ ~¨ + L
~¨ 1 + L
~¨ 2
~a3 = V~3 = R (2.137)
~¨ L
Here R, ~¨ 1 , and L
~¨ 2 can be expressed as
~¨ = R
R ~¨ xo yo zo + 2(~ ~˙ xo yo zo ) + ω
ωo × R ~ o × (~
ω × R)~ +ω ~˙ o × R
~ (2.138)

~¨ 1 = L ~¨ 1 ~˙ 1

L +2 ω ~1 × L +ω~ 1 × (~
ω1 × L ~˙ 1 × L
~ 1) + ω ~1
x1 y 1 z1 x1 y 1 z1
(2.139)

~¨ 2
~¨ 2 = L ~˙ 2

L ~2 × L
+2 ω +ω
~ 2 × (~
ω2 × L ~˙ 2 × L
~ 2) + ω ~2
x2 y 2 z2 x2 y 2 z2
(2.140)
the two spacecraft is constant, i.e.,
~˙ xo yo zo = R
~¨ xo yo zo = 0, ω ~¨ 1 ~¨ 2

R ~˙ o = 0, L = 0, L =0
x1 y 1 z1 x2 y 2 z2
(2.141)
and writing all vectors in terms of the unit vectors along the respective
coordinate frames, we obtain
~¨ = −ω 2 Rîo
R (2.142)
o
¨
~ 1 = −ω12 L1 î1 + β̈1 L1 ĵ1
L (2.143)
Similarly,
~¨ 2 = −ω22 L2 î2 + β̈2 L2 ĵ2

L (2.144)
15
Substituting the preceding relations in Eqs. (2.135)-(2.137), we have
~a1 = −ωo2 Rîo (2.145)

~a2 = −ωo2 Rîo − ω12 L1 î1 + β̈1 L1 ĵ1 (2.146)
~¨ 2 = ~a2 − ω22 L2 î2 + β̈2 L2 ĵ2
~a3 = ~a2 + L (2.147)
The corresponding magnitude for spacecraft m2 can be expressed as

n o1/2
a2 = (ωo2 R)2 + ω14 L21 + β̈12 L21 + 2ωo2 ω12 RL1 (îo · î1 ) − 2ωo2 β̈1 L1 R(îo · ĵ1 )
(2.148)
h i1/2
a3 = a22 + ω24 L22 + β̈22 L22 + 2L2~a2 · (−ω22 î2 + β̈2 ĵ2 )
n
= a22 + ω24 L22 + β̈22 L22 + 2ωo2 ω22 RL2 (îo · î2 ) − 2ωo2 β̈2 RL2 (îo · ĵ2 )
+ 2ω12 ω22 L1 L2 (î1 · î2 ) − 2ω12 β̈2 L1 L2 (î1 · ĵ2 ) − 2ω22 L1 L2 (ĵ1 · î2 )
+ 2β̈1 β̈2 L1 L2 (ĵ1 · ĵ2 )}1/2 (2.149)

îo ĵo k̂o and S − î1 ĵ1 k̂1 , we get
îo · î1 = cosβ1 , îo · ĵ1 = cos(90 + β1 ) = −sinβ1 , îo · î2 = cosβ2 ,
îo · ĵ2 = cos(90 + β2 ) = −sinβ2 , î1 · î2 = cos(β2 − β1 ),
î1 · ĵ2 = cos(90 + β2 − β1 ) = −sin(β2 − β1 ),
ĵ1 · î2 = cos(90 − (β2 − β1 )) = sin(β2 − β1 ), ĵ1 · ĵ2 = cos(β2 − β1 )
(2.150)
Using the preceding relations into Eqs. (2.148), we obtain the acceler-
ations as
n o1/2
a2 = (ωo2 R)2 + ω14 L21 + β̈12 L21 + 2ωo2 ω12 RL1 cosβ1 + 2ωo2 β̈1 L1 Rsinβ1
(2.151)
n
a3 = a22 + ω24 L22 + β̈22 L22 + 2ωo2 ω22 RL2 cosβ2 − 2ωo2 β̈2 RL2 sinβ2
+ 2ω12 ω22 L1 L2 cos(β2 − β1 ) + 2ω12 β̈2 L1 L2 sin(β2 − β1 )
+ 2ω22 β̈1 L1 L2 sin(β2 − β1 ) + 2β̈1 β̈2 L1 L2 cos(β2 − β1 )}1/2
(2.152)
2.6 Let ~r1 , ~r2 , and ~r3 denote the position vectors of m1 , m2 , and m3 ,
respectively. We can write the center of mass relation as
m1~r1 + m2~r2 + m3~r3 = 0 (2.153)

Knowing
~ 1,
~r2 = ~r1 + L ~2
~r3 = ~r2 + L (2.154)
we have
~r1 = −γ1 L1 î1 − γ2 L2 î2 (2.155)

~r2 = (1 − γ1 )L1 î1 − γ2 L2 î2 (2.156)
~r3 = (1 − γ1 )L1 î1 + (1 − γ2 )L2 î2 (2.157)
where
m2 + m3
γ1 =
M
m3
γ2 =
M
M = m1 + m2 + m3
2.13 The inertial position of body m1 is

~1 = R
R ~ + ~r1 (2.158)
The corresponding inertial acceleration is
~¨ 1 = R
R ~¨ + ~r¨1 (2.159)
~¨ and ~x¨ are derived next.

where R
From the center of mass relation, we can write
!

~x
~ − ~x
L
m1~r1 + m2~r2 + ρx ~r1 − + ρ(L − x) ~r1 + = 0 (2.160)
2 2
~ − ~x, we solve for ~r1 and obtain

Knowing ~r2 = ~r1 + L
1 h mL ~ i
~r1 = − m2 + L − (m2 + mL )~x (2.161)
M 2
~ = ρL~x/2 as L
Here mL = ρL. Note ρxL/2 ~ k ~x.
Taking γ1 = −(m2 + mL /2)/M and γ2 = (m2 + mL )/M , we can rewrite
~r1 as
~ + γ2 ~x
~r1 = γ1 L (2.162)
Differentiating twice and applying the relation for inertial acceleration,
~r¨XY Z = ~r¨xyz + 2(~

ω × ~r˙xyz ) + ω
~ × (~ ~˙ × ~rxyz
ω × ~rxyz ) + ω
17
we obtain
~¨ + γ2 ~x¨
~r¨1 = γ1 L
= γ1 [−ω 2 Lî + β̈Lĵ] + γ2 [ẍî + 2ω ẋĵ − ω 2 xî + β̈xĵ]
= [−γ1 ω 2 L + γ2 ẍ − γ2 ω 2 x]î + [γ1 β̈L + 2γ2 ω ẋ + γ2 β̈x]ĵ (2.163)
where ω ~˙ = β̈ as θ̈ = 0.
~ = (θ̇ + β̇)k̂ and ω
We can further express ~r¨1 as
~r¨1 = Aî + B ĵ (2.164)
where A = [−γ1 ω 2 L + γ2 ẍ − γ2 ω 2 x] and B = [γ1 β̈L + 2γ2 ω ẋ + γ2 β̈x].

~¨ can be expressed as
The term R
~¨ = −Rθ̇2 îo = C îo

R (2.165)
where C = −Rθ̇2 .
Substituting Eqs. (2.164) and (2.165) into Eq. (2.159), we obtain the
inertial acceleration of m1 as
~¨ 1 = C îo + Aî + B ĵ
R (2.166)
The corresponding magnitude is

i1/2
~¨ 1 | = C 2 + A2 + B 2 + 2CA(îo · î) + 2CB(îo · ĵ) + 2AB(î · ĵ)
h
a1 = |R
(2.167)
Using coordinate transformation between S − îo ĵo k̂o and S − îĵ k̂:
(îo · î) = cosβ (2.168)

(îo · ĵ) = −sinβ (2.169)
and knowing (î · ĵ) = 0, we have

1/2
a1 = C 2 + A2 + B 2 + 2CAcosβ − 2CBsinβ

(2.170)
If m1 m2 , then mass ratios γ1 and γ2 reduce to
γ1 = −1, γ2 = 1 (2.171)
Applying these values, A and B can be rewritten as
A = ω 2 (L − x) + ẍ, B = −β̈(L − x) + 2ω ẋ (2.172)

Substituting these expressions in Eq. (2.170), we can obtain the inertial

acceleration of m1 when m1 m2 .
Considering the case of m1 m2 , and assuming β̈ = ẍ = ẋ = 0, we
have
A = ω 2 (L − x), B=0 (2.173)
and the corresponding inertial acceleration becomes

1/2
a1 = C 2 + A2 + B 2 + 2CAcosβ

(2.174)
From the preceding equation, the acceleration has maximum and min-
imum values at β = 0 and β = π, respectively. However, in the case
of librating system with β ≤ π/2, the minimum acceleration occurs at
β = π/2.
2.14 The linear momentum of the system is
~˙ = M ωo R
p~ = (m1 + m2 + mL )R ~ (2.175)
where M = m1 + m2 + mL and mL = ρL.

The angular momentum of the system is given by
~ =(m1 + m2 + mL )(R
H ~˙ + m2 (~r2 × ~r˙2 )
~ × R)
+ mL (~rL × ~r˙L ) + I~
ω + IL ω
~L (2.176)
~ and ~rL = ~a + L/2.

where ~r2 = ~a + L ~
We can further write the angular momentum of the system as
~ =(m1 + m2 + mL )R2 ω
H ~ o + (mL + m2 )[a2 ω
~ + a(L/2)cos(α − β)~
ωL ]
+ (mL /2 + m2 ){aLcos(α − β)~
ω + aLcos(α − β)~ ωL }
+ (mL /4 + m2 )L2 ω
~ L + (Iω + IL ωL )k̂ (2.177)
where
ωo = θ̇, ω = θ̇ + α̇, ωL = θ̇ + β̇
1
IL = mL L 2
12
2.15 The potential energy U of the system is sum of the potential energy due
to the spacecraft m1 , U1 and the potential energy due to the spacecraft
m2 , U2 , i.e.,
U = U1 + U2 (2.178)
19
The potential energies due to the spacecraft m1 and m2 are

" #
µm1 R~ · ~r1 1 r12 ~ · ~r1 )2
3 (R
U1 = − 1− − + (2.179)
R R2 2 R2 2 R4
" #
µm2 R~ · ~r2 1 r22 ~ · ~r2 )2
3 (R
U2 = − 1− − + (2.180)
R R2 2 R2 2 R4
Thus, we can write the system potential energy U as per Eq.(2.178)

using Eqs.(2.179-2.180) as
"
µ ~ · ~r1 ) + m2 (R
m1 (R ~ · ~r2 ) 1 m1 r2 + m2 r2
1 2
U =− (m1 + m2 ) − 2
−
R R 2 R2
#
~ · ~r1 )2 + m2 (R
3 m1 (R ~ · ~r2 )2
+ (2.181)
2 R4
As the center of mass lies at S, we get
m1~r1 + m2~r2 = 0 (2.182)
Let us consider the distance between m1 and m2 be L. Then

~ = ~r2 − ~r1
L (2.183)
~ as
Using Eqs. (2.182-2.183), we can write ~r1 and ~r2 in terms of L
m2 ~
~r1 = − L (2.184)
m1 + m2
m1 ~
~r2 = L (2.185)
m1 + m2
Now, we define R ~ and L

~ with respect to the orbital coordinate frame
S−xo yo zo and the dumbbell fixed coordinate frame S−xyz, respectively
as
~ = Rîo ;
R ~ = Lî
L (2.186)
Applying Eq. (2.182) and Eqs. (2.184-2.185) into Eq.(2.181), we have
µM µ
U =− + Me [1 − 3(~io · ~i)2 ]L2 (2.187)
R 2R3
where M and Me denote system mass and equivalent system mass,

respectively. They are
M = m1 + m2 (2.188)
m1 m2
Me = (2.189)
m1 + m2
The transformation from the frame S − xo yo zo to the frame S − xyz is
obtained by a rotation of β about xo -axis. We have
   
 î   î 
 o

 
 
 

  
ĵ = Rz y(β, η) ĵo (2.190)

 
 
 

 k̂ 
   k̂
 

o
where Rzy (β, η) is

  
cosη 0 −sinη cosβ sinβ 0
  
Rzy (β, η) = Rz (η)Rz (β) =  0 1 0  −sinβ cosβ 0
  
  
sinη 0 cosη 0 0 1
 
 
=  −sinβ cosβ 0  (2.191)
 
 
Using Eq.(2.190), we can write î as

Thus, we obtain (îo · î) as

îo · î = cosβcosη (2.193)
and substituting it in Eq. (2.187), we get the system potential energy
µM µ
U =− + Me (1 − 3cos2 βcos2 η)L2 (2.194)
R 2R3
To obtain the maximum and minimum values of the system potential
energy, we differentiate the preceding relation and equate it to zero as
follows:
dU
=0
dβ
6µ
⇒ − 3 (Me cosβsinβcos2 η)L2 = 0 (2.195)
2R
21
or
cosβsinβcos2 η = 0 (2.196)
Knowing η = 0, we have
sin2β = 0 (2.197)
so,
2β = 0, π, 2π, 3π, · · ·
π 3π
⇒ β = 0, , π, ,··· (2.198)
2 2
Substituting β = 0 in the potential energy expression (2.194), we obtain
µM µ
Uβ=0 = − + Me (1 − 3cos2 η)L2 (2.199)
R 2R3
The above result remains same for β = π, 2π, 3π, · · · .
In the case of β = π/2, the potential energy is
µM µ
Uβ=π/2 = − + Me L2 (2.200)
R 2R3
The preceding result remains same for β = (3/2)π, (5/2)π, · · · .
Comparing Eqs. (2.199) and (2.200), we find
Uβ=π/2 > Uβ=0 (2.201)
Thus, the system potential energy is minimum at β = 0, π, 2π, 3π, · · ·

and maximum at β = (1/2)π, (3/2)π, (5/2)π, · · · .
2.16 Using Summary Sheet (System: Three Point Masses), we can write the
kinetic and potential energies of the system (N = 3) as
3 3
1X ~˙ 2 + 1 mi~r˙i2
X
T = mi R (2.202)
2 i=1 2 i=1
3 3
µX µ X
U =− mi + mi ri2
R i=1 2R3 i=1
3
3µ X ~ · ~ri )2
− mi (R (2.203)
2R5 i=1
The position vectors of the masses and the corresponding velocity vec-
tors are
~ 1 − γ2 L
~r1 = −γ1 L ~ 2 , ~r2 = (1 − γ1 )L
~ 1 − γ2 L
~2
~ 1 + (1 − γ2 )L
~r3 = (1 − γ1 )L ~2 (2.204)
~˙ 1 − γ2 L
~r˙1 = −γ1 L ~˙ 2 , ~r˙2 = (1 − γ1 )L
~˙ 1 − γ2 L
~˙ 2
~r˙3 = (1 − γ1 )L~˙ 1 + (1 − γ2 )L ~˙ 2 (2.205)
where γ1 =(m2 + m3 )/M , γ2 =m3 /M and M = m1 + m2 + m3 . Squaring

the preceding equations we have
~˙ 2
~˙ 2 + γ 2 L ~˙ ~˙

~r˙12 = γ12 L 1 2 2 + 2γ1 γ2 L1 · L2 (2.206)
~˙ 2
~˙ 2 + γ 2 L ~˙ ~˙

~r˙22 = (1 − γ1 )2 L 1 2 2 − 2(1 − γ1 )γ2 L1 · L2 (2.207)
~˙ 2 + (1 − γ2 )2 L~˙ 2 + 2(1 − γ1 )(1 − γ2 ) L~˙ 1 · L
~˙ 2 (2.208)

~r˙32 = (1 − γ1 )2 L 1 2
Knowing
~˙ 1 =~
L ~ 1 = ω1 k̂1 × L1 î1 = ω1 L1 ĵ1
ω1 × L (2.209)
~˙ 2 =~
L ~ 2 = ω2 k̂2 × L2 î2 = ω2 L2 ĵ2
ω2 × L (2.210)
we have
~r˙12 = γ12 ω12 L21 + γ22 ω22 L22 + 2γ1 γ2 ω1 ω2 L1 L2 cos(β1 − β2 ) (2.211)
~r˙22 = (1 − γ1 )2 ω12 L21 + γ22 ω22 L22 − 2(1 − γ1 )γ2 ω1 ω2 L1 L2 cos(β1 − β2 )
(2.212)
˙~r2 = (1 − γ1 )2 ω 2 L2 + (1 − γ2 )2 ω 2 L2 + 2(1 − γ1 )(1 − γ2 )
3 1 1 2 2
× ω1 ω2 L1 L2 cos(β1 − β2 ) (2.213)
~ = Rîo , we write (îo · ~rj ), j = 1, 2, 3 as

Taking R
(îo · ~r1 ) = [−γ1 L1 î1 − γ2 L2 î2 ] = −γ1 L1 cosβ1 − γ2 L2 cosβ2

(2.214)
(îo · ~r2 ) = [(1 − γ1 )L1 î1 − γ2 L2 î2 ] = (1 − γ1 )L1 cosβ1 − γ2 L2 cosβ2
(2.215)
(îo · ~r3 ) = [(1 − γ1 )L1 î1 + (1 − γ2 )L2 î2 ] = (1 − γ1 )L1 cosβ1 + (1 − γ2 )L2 cosβ2
(2.216)
23
Substituting the preceding relations into Eqs. (2.202)-(2.203) yield the

kinetic and potential energies of the system as
1 ~˙ 2 1
T = MR + [m1 γ12 + m2 (1 − γ1 )2 + m3 (1 − γ1 )2 ]ω12 L21
2 2
1
+ [m1 γ2 + m2 γ22 + m3 (1 − γ2 )2 ]ω22 L22
2
2
+ [m1 γ1 γ2 − m2 (1 − γ1 )γ2 + m3 (1 − γ1 )(1 − γ2 )]ω1 ω2 L1 L2 cos(β1 − β2 )
(2.217)
(
µM µ
U =− + [m1 γ12 + m2 (1 − γ1 )2 + m3 (1 − γ1 )2 ]L21
R 2R3
+ [m1 γ22 + m2 γ22 + m3 (1 − γ2 )2 ]L22
)
+ 2[m1 γ1 γ2 − m2 (1 − γ1 )γ2 + m3 (1 − γ1 )(1 − γ2 )]L1 L2 cos(β1 − β2 )
(
3µ
− [m1 γ12 + m2 (1 − γ1 )2 + m3 (1 − γ1 )2 ]L21 cos2 β1
2R3
+ [m1 γ22 + m2 γ22 + m3 (1 − γ2 )2 ]L22 cos2 β2
)
+ 2[m1 γ1 γ2 − m2 (1 − γ1 )γ22 + m3 (1 − γ1 )(1 − γ2 )]L1 L2 cosβ1 cosβ2
(2.218)
Taking
Mt1 =m1 γ12 + m2 (1 − γ1 )2 + m3 (1 − γ1 )2 (2.219)

Mt2 =m1 γ22 + m2 γ22 + m3 (1 − γ2 )2
(2.220)
Mt3 =m1 γ1 γ2 − m2 (1 − γ1 )γ2 + m3 (1 − γ1 )(1 − γ2 ) (2.221)
the kinetic and potential energies of the system are
1 ~˙ 2 1 1
T = MR + Mt1 ω12 L21 + Mt2 ω22 L22 + Mt3 ω1 ω2 L1 L2 cos(β1 − β2 )
2 2 2
(2.222)
( )
µM µ
U =− + Mt1 L21 + Mt2 L22 + 2Mt3 L1 L2 cos(β1 − β2 )
R 2R3
( )
3µ 2 2 2 2
− Mt1 L1 cos β1 + Mt2 L2 cos β2 + 2Mt3 L1 L2 cosβ1 cosβ2
2R3
(2.223)
2.17 The kinetic energy of the system (taking ~r1 = 0) is
1 ~˙ 2 + 1 m2~r˙ 2 + 1 m3~r˙ 2 + 1 Iz ω 2
T~ = (m1 + m2 + m3 )R 2 3
2 2 2 2
˙ ˙ ~˙
where ~r˙2 = d~ and ~r˙3 = d~ + L + ~x˙ . The nomenclature d,
~ L,
~ and ~x are
expressed with respect to coordinate frames as
d~ = aî + bĵ, ~x = x~jc = x[sinβ î − cosβ ĵ], ~ = Lĵ

L (2.224)
(Note ~jc is unit vector along cable) and their derivatives with respect
to time are obtained as
˙
d~ =ȧî + ω
~ × dˆ = (ȧ − ωb)î + ωaĵ (2.225)
~˙ =~
L ω×L ~ = ω k̂ × Lĵ = −ωLî (2.226)
~x˙ =ωc x[cosβ î + sinβ ĵ] (2.227)
Here ωc = θ̇ + α̇ + β̇. We obtain the system kinetic energy as
1 1 1 n o
T = M ωo2 R2 + Iz ω 2 + (m2 + m3 ) (ȧ − ωb)2 + ω 2 a2
2 2 2
1 n 2 2 2 2
+ m3 ω L + x ωc − 2ωL(ȧ − ωb)
2 o
+ 2ωc x[(ȧ − ωb)cosβ + ωasinβ] − 2ωωc Lxcosβ (2.228)
where M = m1 + m2 + m3 and ω = θ̇ + α̇.

The system potential energy is
"
µ 1 m1 r12 + m2 r22 + m3 r32
U =− (m1 + m2 + m3 ) −
R 2 R2
#
~ · ~r1 )2 + m2 (R
3 m1 (R ~ · ~r2 )2 + m3 (R
~ · ~r3 )2
+
2 R4
µ n o
+ 3
(Ix + Iy + Iz ) − 3[Iz + (Iy − Ix )cos2α]
4R
Knowing
~r1 =0 (2.229)
~r2 =d~ = aî + bĵ (2.230)
~r3 =d~ + L
~ + ~x = (a + xsinβ)î + (b + L − xcosβ)ĵ (2.231)
25
we have the system potential energy as

(
µ(m1 + m2 + m3 ) µ
U =− + m2 (a2 + b2 ) + m3 [a2 + (b + L)2 + x2
R 2R3
) (
3µ
+ 2axsinβ − 2(b + L)xcosβ] − m2 [acosα − bsinα]2
2R3
)
+ m3 [acosα − (b + L)sinα + xsin(α + β)]2
( )
µ
+ (Ix + Iy + Iz ) − 3[Iz + (Iy − Ix )cos2α] (2.232)
4R3
2.18 For a 1-3-2 Euler angle rotation sequence, we obtain the rotation ma-
trix, R132 (α, φ, γ) as
R132 (α, φ, γ) =R2 (γ)R3 (φ)R1 (α)

 
cosφcosγ cosαsinφcosγ + sinαsinγ sinαsinφcosγ − cosαsinγ
 
=  −sinφ cosαcosφ sinαcosφ
 

 
cosφsinγ cosαsinφsinγ − sinαcosγ sinαsinφsinγ + cosαcosγ
(2.233)
Thus, the transformation from the frame S − io jo ko to the body fixed

frame S − ijk using 1-3-2 Euler angle rotation sequence is
   


 î 

 

 ˆ
io 


   
ĵ = R132 (α, φ, γ) ˆ
jo (2.234)
   
ˆ
   
 k̂ 
  
 k 

o
We can obtain the rotation matrix R231 by taking the inverse of the
−1
transformation R132 . However, from the properties of a rotation matrix
−1 T
explained earlier, R132 is the transpose of R132 (i.e., R132 ). Thus, we
find R231 as
 
cosφcosγ −sinφ cosφsinγ
 
R231 (−γ, −φ, −α) = cosαsinφcosγ + sinαsinγ cosαcosφ cosαsinφsinγ − sinαcosγ 
 
 
sinαsinφcosγ − cosαsinγ sinαcosφ sinαsinφsinγ + cosαcosγ
(2.235)
and thus, the transformation from the frame S − ijk to the body fixed
frame S − io jo ko is
   
 î   î 
 o

 
 
 

  
ĵo = R231 ĵ (2.236)

 
 
 

 k̂ 
   k̂ 
 
o
Apart from these rotation matrices, we require angular velocity ω ~ of

the spacecraft as well. The angular velocity ω
~ of the spacecraft can be
expressed as
~ = ωx î + ωy ĵ + ωz k̂ = α̇îo + φ̇k̂1 + γ̇ ĵ
ω (2.237)
Applying a transformation matrix for io and k1 , we get
ωx =α̇cosφ cos γ − φ̇sinγ

ωy = − α̇sinφ + γ̇ (2.238)
ωz =α̇cosφ sin γ + φ̇cosγ
(2.239)
or, we can write
   
 ω cosφ cos γ
 −sinγ 0  α̇ 
 x

 
  
  

ωy =  −sinφ 0 1 φ̇ (2.240)
 

 
   

 ω 
  cosφ sin γ cosγ 0  γ̇ 
 
z
It is to be noted that using a 1-3-2 Euler angle sequence and considering

α, φ, γ to be the successive rotation angles, the singularity occurs at
φ = ±π/2.
2.19 (a) The rotation matrix for γ about the y-axis is

 
cosγ 0 −sinγ
 
R2 (γ) =  0 1 0 
 
 
sinγ 0 cosγ
27
The rotation matrix for φ about the z-axis is

 
cosφ sinφ 0
 
R3 (φ) = −sinφ cosφ 0
 
 
0 0 1
The rotation matrix for α about the x-axis is

 
1 0 0
 
R1 (α) = 0 cosα sinα
 
 
0 −sinα cosα
(b) The rotation matrix R231 (γ, φ, α) is derived as
R231 =R1 (α)R3 (φ)R2 (γ)
 
cosφcosγ sinφ −cosφsinγ
 
= −cosαsinφcosγ + sinαsinγ cosαcosφ cosαsinφsinγ + sinαcosγ 
 
 
sinαsinφcosγ + cosαsinγ −sinαcosφ sinαsinφsinγ + cosαcosγ
(c) The rotation matrix R132 (α, φ, γ) is obtained
T
R132 =R2 (γ)R3 (φ)R1 (α) = R231 (−γ, −φ, −α)
 
cosφcosγ cosαsinφcosγ + sinαsinγ sinαsinφcosγ − cosαsinγ
 
=  −sinφ cosαcosφ sinαcosφ
 

 
cosφsinγ cosαsinφsinγ − sinαcosγ sinαsinφsinγ + cosαcosγ
If α, φ and γ are assumed to be very small i.e., cosα = cosφ=1,

sinα=α, sinφ=φ, and αφ=0, then R132 and R31 are
 
1 φ −γ
 
R231 = −φ 1 α  R132
 
 
γ −α 1
Thus, the order of rotation does not matter if α, φ and γ are very
small.
2.20 (a) Either 3 Euler angles plus the defined sequence or 4 Euler param-
eters (q1 ,q2 ,q3 ,q4 ).
(b) Yes. The Euler’s equations of motion of a torque-free body are
I1 ω̇1 − (I2 − I3 )ω2 ω3 = 0

I2 ω̇2 − (I3 − I1 )ω3 ω1 = 0
I3 ω̇3 − (I1 − I2 )ω1 ω2 = 0
For the conditions of ω1 = ω0 , ω2 = ω3 = 0, and ω̇1 =0, we have

the Euler’s equations of motion
I1 × 0 = 0
I2 ω̇2 = 0
I3 ω̇3 = 0
Thus, ω2 =constant=0, and ω3 =constant=0.

(c) Using the Euler rotations the orientation of an aircraft can be
specified completely by a sequence of three consecutive rotations
about different aircraft body axes. The first and the last rotations
about the same body axes are possible and thus, we have 12 such
combinations i.e., 1-2-3, 1-3-2, 2-1-3, 2-3-1, 3-1-2, 3-2-1, 2-1-2, 3-
1-3, 1-2-1, 3-2-3, 1-3-1, and 2-3-2. Here, 1, 2, and 3 corresponds
to x, y, and z axes, respectively. The rotation matrix about x, y,
and z, are obtained as
 
1 0 0
 
R1 = 0 cosθ sinθ (2.241)
 
 
0 −sinθ cosθ
 
cosθ 0 −sinθ
 
R2 =  0 1 0 (2.242)
 

 
sinθ 0 cosθ
 
cosθ sinθ 0
 
R3 = −sinθ cosθ 0 (2.243)
 
 
0 0 1
29
Considering 3-2-1 (ψ − θ − φ) Euler angle rotation sequence with

transformation (S − if jf kf →S − i1 j1 k1 →S − i2 j2 k2 →S − ijk), the
aircraft angular velocity ω
~ can be written in the body-fixed frame
ω
~ = pî + q ĵ + rk̂ (2.244)
and in the intermediate reference frame
ω
~ = ψ̇ k̂f + θ̇ĵ1 + φ̇î2 = ψ̇ k̂1 + θ̇ĵ2 + φ̇î (2.245)
We have the following transformations:
k̂1 = −(sinθ)î2 + (cosθ)k̂2
      
 î   î  1 0 0  î 
 2

 
 
 
 
 

     
−1
ĵ2 = R1 ĵ = 0 cosφ −sinφ ĵ
 

 
 
 
   

 k̂
 
  k̂ 
 
0 sinθ cosθ  k̂ 
 
2
where R1−1 is the transpose of R1 .

Using these transformations, the angular velocity ω
~ can be written
ω
~ = (−ψ̇sinθ + φ̇)î + (ψ̇cosθsinφ + θ̇cosφ)ĵ + (ψ̇cosθcosφ)k̂
(2.246)
or
p = − ψ̇sinθ + φ̇
q = − ψ̇cosθsinφ + θ̇cosφ (2.247)
r =ψ̇cosθ cos φ − θ̇sinφ
(2.248)
or
    


 p 

 1 0 −sinθ  φ̇
 

    

q = 0 cosφ cosθsinφ θ̇ (2.249)
 

 
   

 r 
  0 −sinφ cosθcosφ

 ψ̇


We solve the above equations for φ, θ, and ψ in terms of the Euler

angles and rotational components. The determinant of the matrix
on the right hand side is

1 0 −sinθ

0 cosφ cosθsinφ = cosθcos2 φ + cosθsin2 φ = cosθ

0 −sinφ cosθcosφ

(2.250)
The inverse of the above matrix does not exist if θ = ±90 deg
or we can say singularity occurs at θ = ±90 deg. Using Euler
angle sequences (1-3-2), (3-1-3), (3-1-2) the singularities occur at
θ = ±π/2, θ=0 or π, and θ = ±π/2, respectively. In fact, the
determinant of the matrix (Eq. 2.250) may always involve sine or
cosine terms of the the angle of the second rotation and therefore
as sine or cosine angle becomes zero when the angle is 0 or π (sine
angle) or ±π/2 (cosine angle), the inverse of the determinant will
have singularity. Therefore, no matter what sequence is taken for
the Euler angle rotations, the angle of the second rotation displays
a similar singularity at either zero or ±90 deg.
To avoid the singularity problem, direction cosines or Euler pa-
rameters or quaternions are used to define the orientation of the
spacecraft.
(d) Yes, it is possible to have the first and the last rotations about the
same body axes in the Euler angle rotations?
2.21 The kinetic and potential energies of a rigid satellite are given by
1 1
T = m(Ṙ2 + θ̇2 R2 ) + [Ix ωx2 + Iy ωy2 + Iz ωz2 ] (2.251)
2 2
(
µm µ
U =− − (Iyy + Izz − Ixx )[3(cosαsinφcosγ + sinαsinγ)2 − 1]
R 4R3
+ (Izz + Ixx − Iyy )[3(cosαcosφ)2 − 1]
)
2
+ (Ixx + Iyy − Izz )[3(cosαsinφsinγ − sinαcosγ) − 1]
(2.252)
31
2.23
1 ~˙ 1
T = MR + (ω 2 cos2 η + η̇ 2 )Me L2 (2.253)
2 2
µM µ
U =− + Me (1 − 3cos2 βcos2 η)L2 (2.254)
R 2R3
m1 (m2 + mL /2)2 m2 (m1 + mL )2 mL (m1 + mL /2)2

Me = + +
M2 M2 M2
mL (m1 + mL ) mL
− + (2.255)
M 3
where mL = ρL0 , M = m1 + m2 + mL , and ω = θ̇ + β̇.

2.24
1 ~˙ 1
T = MR + Me [u̇2 + (L0 + u)2 ω 2 ] (2.256)
2 2
1 EA 2
Ue = u (2.257)
2 L0
m1 (m2 + mL /2)2 m2 (m1 + mL )2 mL (m1 + mL /2)2

Me = + +
M2 M2 M2
mL (m1 + mL ) mL
− + (2.258)
M 3
where mL = ρL0 , M = m1 + m2 + mL , and ω = θ̇ + β̇.

Chapter 3
Forces and Torques
Problem Set 3
3.1 The gravitational perturbation force due to a planet on the satellite-

Earth two body system (Fig. 3.1) is

~rps ~rp
F~d = F~ps − F~p = Gmmp 3
− 3 (3.1)
rps rp
where m is the mass of the satellite, mp is the mass of the planet, and
G is the universal gravitational constant.
Planet
Inertial Fps
Reference
Frame rp rps Satellite
O Fp
Fe
R Satellite
−Fe
Re r
Earth
Earth Free−Body Diagrams
Figure 3.1: Planetary Gravitational Perturbation.
Knowing ~rps = ~rp −~r, the gravitational perturbation acceleration (F~d /m)
34 CHAPTER 3. FORCES AND TORQUES
can be written as

~rp − ~r ~rp
f~d =µp 3
− 3
|~rp − ~r| rp
!
~rp − ~r ~rp
=µp 2 2 3/2
− 3 (3.2)
[rp − 2(~rp · ~r) + r ] rp
where µp = Gmp is the gravitational parameter of the planetary body.

Considering the fact r rp , we can approximate f~d by carrying out
Binomial series expansion till O(1/rp2 ) as
( )
2 −3/2

~
rp − ~
r (~
rp · ~
r ) r ~
rp
f~d = µp 1−2 + 2 − 3
rp3 rp2 rp rp

µp (~rp · ~r) 1
= 3 (~rp − ~r) 1 + 3 + O( 2 ) − ~rp (3.3)
rp rp2 rp
or

µp (~rp · ~r)
f~d = 3 −~r + 3 ~rp (3.4)
rp rp2
Writing ~r and ~rp in terms of unit vectors ( ~r = rî and ~rp = rp îp ) leads
to
µp h i
f~d = 3 r 3(î · îp )îp − î (3.5)
rp
We express the perturbation force f~d along orbital reference frame îĵ k̂
as
µp r h i
fx = f~p · î = 3 3(î · îp )(îp · î) − 1 (3.6)
rp
3µp r
fy = f~p · ĵ = 3 (î · îp )(îp · ĵ) (3.7)
rp
3µp r
fz = f~p · k̂ = 3 (î · îp )(îp · k̂) (3.8)
rp
3.2 Aerodynamic drag on a satellite assuming it is a point mass (m), is

given by
1 ~
2 Vrel
F~d = − CD ρAVrel (3.9)
2 Vrel
where CD is the drag coefficient, A is the area of the satellite surface
~rel , Vrel is the velocity of the satellite relative to the
perpendicular to V
atmosphere, and ρ is the density of the atmosphere.
35
Assuming the atmosphere is stationary, V ~rel equals to the satellite ve-

locity ~v . In order to find the effect of the aerodynamic drag on the
satellite orbital parameters, we will use Lagrange planetary equations
of motion. We are required to find the components of the aerodynamic
drag along î, ĵ, and k̂ (orthogonal right-handed unit vectors along r
(orbital radius), θ (true anomaly), and z directions). The velocity of
the satellite ~v can be expressed as
~v = ṙ î + rθ̇ ĵ (3.10)
√
Using the orbital motion relations h = µp and r = p/(1 + ecosθ), we
get
hesinθ
ṙ = (3.11)
p
h
θ̇ = 2 (3.12)
r
where h is the orbital angular momentum per unit mass of the satellite,
e is the orbital eccentricity, and p is the semi-latus rectum.
Substituting the values of ṙ and θ̇ from Eqs. (3.11-3.12) into Eq.(3.10)
and applying the orbital motion relations, we get
µ
v 2 = ṙ2 + r2 θ̇2 = (1 + e2 + 2ecosθ) (3.13)
p
Using Eqs. (3.10-3.13), the aerodynamic drag as per Eq. (3.9) can be
written along î, ĵ, and k̂ as follows:
1 esinθ
fx = − CD ρAv 2 (3.14)
2m (1 + e + 2ecosθ)1/2
2
1 1 + ecosθ
fy = − CD ρAv 2 (3.15)
2m (1 + e2 + 2ecosθ)1/2
fz = 0 (3.16)
3.4 The solar radiation force on a highly reflective surface (i.e., ρa ≈ 0 and
ρd ≈ 0) is
F~ =2ρs pAH(cosζ)(ŝ · n̂)2 n̂ = 2ρs pA|ŝ · n̂|(ŝ · n̂)n̂

=2ρs pA|cosζ|cosζ n̂ (3.17)
Here (ŝ·n̂) = cosζ. The expression for ŝ in terms of Iˆn -Jˆn -K̂n coordinate
frame (where Iˆn in the direction towards the ascending node; K̂n is
perpendicular to the orbit plane along ~h, and K̂n × Iˆn =Jˆn ) as
ŝ = −cos(ψ − Ω)Iˆn − sin(ψ − Ω)cos(i − )Jˆn + sin(ψ − Ω)sin(i − )K̂n
(3.18)
where ψ is the Sun angle with respect to the Vernal equinox, and is
the angle between the equatorial and the ecliptic plane (=± 23 deg
27 min). The Iˆn , Jˆn , and K̂n vectors can be expressed in terms of the
satellite coordinates i, j and k as
    
 Iˆ  cos(ω + θ) −sin(ω + θ) 0  î 

 n 

   

   
ˆ
Jn = sin(ω + θ) cos(ω + θ) 0
 
ĵ (3.19)

 
   

 K̂ 
 
0 0 1  k̂ 
 
n
The unit vector n̂ is with respect to the satellite body fixed frame.
3.6 The Earth’s magnetic field with respect to the orbital reference frame
is
 


 cosim 


~ µ f
 
B= 3 −2sin(ω + θ)sinim (3.20)
R   

 cos(ω + θ)sini
 

m
For a satellite in equatorial orbit (i.e., îm ≈ 0), the Earth’s magnetic
field simplifies to
 
 1 

 
µ   
~ f
B= 3 0 (3.21)
R   

 0 
 
or
µf
B= (3.22)
R3
For a satellite in polar orbit (i.e., îm ≈ 0), the Earth’s magnetic field
reduces to
 


 0 


~ = µf
  µf
B −2sin(ω + θ) = îo (3.23)
R3 
 
 R3
cos(ω + θ)

 

or
µf p
B= [4sin2 (ω + θ) + cos2 (ω + θ)] (3.24)
R3
Approximating the term inside the square root by taking the average,
Z 2π
1 5
4sin2 (ω + θ) + cos2 (ω + θ) d(ω + θ) =

(3.25)
2π 0 2
37
leads to the Earth’s magnetic field as

1.581µf 2µf
B= ≈ 3 (3.26)
R3 R
3.7 The Earth’s magnetic field is
~ = µf [3(îm · îR )îR − îm ]

B (3.27)
R3
For a satellite in a circular orbit, we have
k̂o = îR × îV (3.28)
where îR and îV are unit vectors along the satellite position and velocity
vectors R~ and V ~ , respectively.
The the components of B ~ along the pitch z-axis can be expressed as
~ · k̂o = µf [3(îm · îR )îR · (îR × îV ) − îm · (îR × îV )]

Bz = B (3.29)
R3
Applying the property of triple product of three vectors, ~a.(~b×~c)=~a.(~b×

~c), we can write
îR · (îR × îV ) = (îR × îR ) · îV = 0 (3.30)
Substituting this in Eq. (3.29), we get
µf
Bz = − [îm · (îR × îV )] (3.31)
R3
Since the angular momentum of the orbit given by ~h = R ~ ×V ~ =

RV (îR ×îV ) is constant, and the direction of the magnetic dipole vector,
îm is nearly constant, Bz is nearly constant. Thus, the components of
B~ along the pitch axis remain constant when the satellite is in a circular
orbit.
Chapter 4
Dynamics I
Problem Set 4
4.1 Given.
At time t=0,
a=46800 km
e=0.85
θ=52 deg
Find.
t − tp
Solution.
Consider Kepler’s time equation,
M = n(t − tp ) = E − esinE
To find t − tp we need to determine an Eccentric anomaly E and mean

angular velocity n as follows:
"r #
−1 1−e θ
E = 2tan tan
1+e 2
"r #
1 − 0.85 52deg
= 2tan−1 tan = 0.2759rad
1 + 0.85 2
40 CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS I
r r
µ 3.986 × 105
n= = = 6.2359 × 10−5 rad/s
a3 468003
Thus, the time that has elapsed since the satellite passed through pe-
riapsis can be obtained as
E − esinE
t − tp =
n
0.2759 − 0.85sin(0.2759)
0 − tp = = 711.5sec
6.2359 × 10−5 rad/s
The spacecraft passed through periapsis 711.2 sec before t=0.
4.2
"r #
1−e θ
E = 2tan−1 tan
1+e 2
"r #
−1 1 − 0.85 297deg
= 2tan tan = −19.8deg
1 + 0.85 2
Since the spacecraft θ at a later time,

E=-19.8 deg + 360 deg=340.2 deg= 5.938 rad
Now apply Kepler’s equation, this time with known t0 =-711.2 sec:
5.938rad − 0.85sin(5.938rad)
t = t0 +
6.231 × 10−5 sec−1
or
5.938rad − 0.85sin(5.938rad)
t = −711.2sec + = 99122sec
6.231 × 10−5 sec−1
4.3
vr
φ = tan−1
vθ

−3.475
= tan1 = −30.3deg
5.940
41
Note φ is negative because vr is negative.

b) Orbital period
µ v2 µ v 2 + vθ2
E=− + =− + r
r 2 r 2
= −7.969 km2 /s2
µ
a=− = 25009.411 km
2E
2πa3/2
T = = 39361 sec
µ
c) eccentricity
The momentum is
~h = ~r × ~v
= rvsin(90o − φ)k̂ = rvcosφk̂
= rvθ k̂ = 74819.646 km2 /s
h2
p= = 14044 km
µ
Using p = a(1 − e2 ), we solve for e as
p
e= 1 − p/a = 0.6621
d) true anomaly
p
r=
1 + ecosθ
1 p
cosθ = − 1 = 0.1736
e r
θ = ±cos−1 (0.1736)
Use − sign because φ < 0, so
θ = −80 deg
4.4
v02 µ −µ
E= − =
2 r0 2a
h = r0 v0 cosβ0
h2 (r0 v0 cosβ0 )2
p= =
µ µ
h2 (r0 v0 cosβ0 )2
a(1 − e2 ) = =
µ µ
s
(r0 v0 cosβ0 )2 (v02 − 2µ/r0 )
e= 1+
µ2
4.5 The orbital position is given by
~r = rcosθîe + rsinθîp
Differentiating with respect to time and considering dîe /dt = dîp /dt =
0), we have
~r˙ = [ṙcosθ + rtasinθ]

˙ îe + [ṙsinθ + rθ̇cosθ]îp
Here r, ṙ, and θ̇ are obtained as described next.
p
r=
1 + ecosθ
~h = ~r × ~v = r2 θ̇
43

dr d p peθ̇sinθ
ṙ = = =
dt dt 1 + ecosθ (1 + ecosθ)2
r2 eθ̇sinθ h µ
= = esinθ = esinθ
p p h
h h(1 + ecosθ)2 µ2 (1 + ecosθ)2

θ̇ = = =
r2 p2 h3
µ µ
~v = − sinθîe + (e + cosθ)îp
h h
4.6 Part I.
The J2 -perturbation affects (on average) the Longitude of the ascending
node, Ω, the Argument of the periapsis, ω, and the Mean anomaly. The
effects on orbital elements are as follows:
Constant (on average): a, e, i
Changing (on average): ω, Ω, M
Part II.
Given.
a=7000 km
e=0.08
i=28.5 deg
Find.

dΩ
dt avg
Solution.
The average rate of change of the longitude of the ascending node is
−3J2 Re2 n

dΩ
= cosi
dt avg 2p2
p
Using the relations n = µ/a3 and p = a(1 − e2 ), and substituting
J2 =1.0826× 10−3 , Re =6378 km, and µ = 3.986 × 105 km3 /s2 , we have
−3J2 Re2 µ1/2 cosi

dΩ
=
dt avg 2a7/2 (1 − e2 )2
−3(1.0826 × 10−3 )(6378 km)2 (3.986 × 105 km3 /s2 )1/2 cos(28.5o)
=
2(7000 km)7/2 [1 − (0.08)2 ]2
= −1.294 × 10−6 rad/sec = −6.4o /day
Chapter 5
Dynamics II
Problem Set 5
5.1 Newton Method

The attitude equation of motion of the dumbbell system is given by
~˙
T~ = H (5.1)
where the attitude angular momentum of the system H ~ is

h i
H~ = Me L2 η̇ ĵ + (θ̇ + β̇)cosη k̂ (5.2)
Note, the above expression can be easily derived using the rigid body
analogy where the attitude angular momentum of the rigid satellite
about the principal moments of inertia axes is given by
~ = Ix ωx î + Iy ωy ĵ + Iz ωz k̂
H (5.3)
For the dumbbell system, Ix =0 and Iy =Iz =Me L2 with Me =(m1 m2 )/(m1 +
m2 ). The angular velocity vector is
~ = ωx î + ωy ĵ + ωz k̂
ω (5.4)
where
ωx = −(θ̇ + β̇)sinη, ωy = η̇, ωz = (θ̇ + β̇)cosη
Substituting Ik , k = x, y, z and ωk , k = x, y, z=0 into Eq. (5.3) result

in the angular momentum of the dumbbell system given by Eq. (5.2).
46 CHAPTER 5. DYNAMICS II
Differentiating Eq. (5.2) with respect to time and assuming the system
is in a circular orbit (i.e., θ̈ = 0) yield the rate of change of the system
angular momentum as
~˙ =H
H ~˙ xyz + ω
~ ×H~
n h i o
=Me L2 η̈ ĵ + (θ̈ + β̈)cosη − (θ̇ + β̇)η̇sinη k̂
h i
+ Me L2 ω ~ × η̇ ĵ + +(θ̈ + β̈)cosη k̂
h i
=Me L2 η̈ + (θ̇ + β̇)2 sinηcosη ĵ + Me L2 [β̈cosη − 2(θ̇ + β̇)η̇sinη]k̂
(5.5)
Next we derive the external toque T~ due to gravitational force. The

gravitational force exerted on mass m1 at a distance of R1 from the
center of Earth is given by
~1
µm1 R
F~1 = − 3 (5.6)
R1
Thus, the torque exerted on a mass of m1 is
~1
R
T~1 = m1~r1 × F~ = −µm1~r1 × 3 (5.7)
R1
~1 = R
Here R ~ + ~r1 . Substituting |R
~ 1 | in Eq.(5.7), we get
~ + ~r1 )
(R
T~1 = − µm1~r1 ×
~ · ~r1 + ~r2 )3/2
(R2 + 2R 1
" #−3/2
µm1 2 R~ · ~r1 r 2
~ 1+
= − 3 (~r1 × R) + 2 1
(5.8)
R R2 R
Applying Binomial series expansion for the term inside the bracket, we
get
" #
µm1 ~ · ~r1 ) 3 r2
3(R ~ · ~r1 )2
15 (R
~ ~
T1 = − 3 (~r1 × R) 1 − − 1
+ + ···
R R2 2 R2 2 R4
(5.9)
Now, considering the fact r1 R and carrying out expansion untill

47
O(1/R3 ), we get
" #
µm1 3(R ~ · ~r1 ) 1
~ ~
T1 = − 3 (~r1 × R) 1 − + O( 3 )
R R 2 R
" #
~
µR 3(R~ · ~r1 )~r1
= 3 × m1~r1 − m1 (5.10)
R R2
Similarly, the torque exerted on mass m2 can be obtained as

" #
µ ~
R 3(R~ · ~r2 )~r2
T~2 = 3 × m2~r2 − m2 (5.11)
R R2
Thus, the total torque exerted on the system is the sum of the torques
exerted on mass m1 and m2 . Adding T1 and T2 , we obtain the total
torque
~ n
µR 3 o
T~ = 3 × m1~r1 + m2~r2 − 2 [m1 (R
~ · ~r1 )~r1 + m2 (R
~ · ~r2 )~r2 ] (5.12)
R R
Knowing
m2 ~
~r1 = − L
m1 + m2
m1 ~
~r2 = L
m1 + m2
and
m1~r1 + m2~r2 = 0
the preceding equation simplifies to
3µ
T~ = − 3 Me L2 (îo · î)(îo × î) (5.13)
R
Knowing
îo = cosβcosη î − sinβ ĵ + cosβsinη k̂
we have
3µ h i
T~ = − 3 Me L2 sinηcosηcos2 β ĵ + sinβcosβcosη k̂ (5.14)
R
Using the preceding equation and Eqs. (5.1) and (5.5) as well as rear-
ranging the terms, we obtain equations of motion of the system as
3
β̈ − 2(θ̇ + β̇)η̇tanη + θ̇2 sin2β = 0 (5.15)
2
1 3 2
η̈ + (θ̇ + β̇) sin2η + θ̇ sin2ηcos2 β = 0
2
(5.16)
2 2
p
where θ̇ = µ/R3 .
Lagrange Method
The equations of motion of the system with generalized coordinates
q1 = β and q2 = η are given by

d ∂T ∂T ∂U
− + = 0, k = 1, 2 (5.17)
dt ∂ q̇k ∂qk ∂qk
The potential and kinetic energies of the system are

µM µ
U =− + Me (1 − 3cos2 βcos2 η)L2 (5.18)
R 2R3
1 1
T = M (Ṙ2 + θ̇2 R2 ) + Me [(θ̇ + β̇)2 cos2 η + η̇ 2 ]L2 (5.19)
2 2
where M = m1 + m2 and Me = m1 m2 /(m1 + m2 ).
Using the preceding relations, the equations of motion of the system
are derived as follows:
β-equation

d ∂T ∂T ∂U
− + =0 (5.20)
dt ∂ β̇ ∂β ∂β
Here
∂T
=Me L2 (θ̇ + β̇)cos2 η (5.21)
∂ β̇

d ∂T
⇒ =Me L2 [β̈cos2 η − 2(θ̇ + β̇)cosηsinη] (5.22)
dt ∂ β̇
∂T
=0 (5.23)
∂β
∂U 3µ
= Me L2 cosβsinβcos2 η (5.24)
∂β R3
Thus, β-equation of motion is

3µ
Me L2 [β̈cos2 η − 2(θ̇ + β̇)η̇cosηsinη] + Me L2 cosβsinβcos2 η = 0
R3
(5.25)
η-equation

d ∂T ∂T ∂U
− + =0 (5.26)
dt ∂ η̇ ∂η ∂η
49
Here
∂T
=Me η̇L2 (5.27)
∂ η̇

d ∂T
⇒ =Me η̈L2 (5.28)
dt ∂ η̇
∂T
= − Me L2 (θ̇ + β̇)2 cosηsinη (5.29)
∂η
∂U 3µ
= Me L2 cosηsinηcos2 β (5.30)
∂η R3
Thus, η-equation of motion is

3µ
Me L2 η̈ + Me L2 (θ̇ + β̇)2 cosηsinη + Me L2 cosηsinηcos2 β = 0
R3
(5.31)
Thus, the equations of motion of the system can be rewritten as

3
β̈ − 2(θ̇ + β̇)η̇tanη + θ̇2 sin2β = 0 (5.32)
2
1 3
η̈ + (θ̇ + β̇)2 sin2η + θ̇2 sin2ηcos2 β = 0 (5.33)
2 2
p
where θ̇ = µ/R3 .
Remarks. 1. In the above derivations leading to the attitude equations
of motion of the system assume that the orbital motion of the system
does not affect the system attitude motion.
2. In this example problem we have derived three-dimensional attitude
equations of motion of the system using the Euler’s method as well
as the Lagrange method. However, these equations of motion are dif-
ferent before final simplifications. These can be explained by deriving
generalized forces Qk , k = β, η using virtual work method. The virtual
angular displacement λ of the system is given by
~λ = β k̂o + η ĵ (5.34)
The generalized forces Qk , k = β, η are given by
∂~λ ∂~λ
Qβ = T~ · , Qη = T~ · (5.35)
∂β ∂η
Using the relation (5.34) yields
Qβ = T~ · k̂o , Qη = T~ · ĵ (5.36)
Knowing
T~ =Tη ĵ + Tβ k̂
and
k̂o = − sinη î + cosη k̂
we have
Qβ = Tβ cosη (5.37)
Qη = T η (5.38)
Thus, we can write the Lagrange equations of motion (Lk , k = β, η)

which are related to the Euler’s equations of motion (Ek , k = β, η) as
Lβ = Eβ cosη (5.39)
Lη = Eη (5.40)
5.2 The kinetic and potential energies of the system are

1 ~˙ 2 1 1
T = MR + Mt1 ω12 L21 + Mt2 ω22 L22 + Mt3 ω1 ω2 L1 L2 cos(β1 − β2 )
2 2 2
(5.41)
( )
µM µ
U =− + Mt1 L21 + Mt2 L22 + 2Mt3 L1 L2 cos(β1 − β2 )
R 2R3
( )
3µ 2 2 2 2
− Mt1 L1 cos β1 + Mt2 L2 cos β2 + 2Mt3 L1 L2 cosβ1 cosβ2
2R3
(5.42)
where M = m1 + m2 + m3 , ω1 =θ̇ + β̇1 , ω2 =θ̇ + β̇2 , and
Mt1 =m1 γ12 + m2 (1 − γ1 )2 + m3 (1 − γ1 )2

Mt2 =m1 γ22 + m2 γ22 + m3 (1 − γ2 )2
Mt3 =m1 γ1 γ2 − m2 (1 − γ1 )γ2 + m3 (1 − γ1 )(1 − γ2 )
with γ1 =(m2 + m3 )/M and γ2 =m3 /M .

Using the above relations for T and U , the equations of motion of the
system are derived as follows:
β1 -equation

d ∂T ∂T ∂U
− + =0 (5.43)
dt ∂ β̇1 ∂β1 ∂β1
51
Here
∂T
=Mt1 ω1 L21 + Mt3 ω2 L1 L2 cos(β1 − β2 )
∂ β̇1

d ∂T
⇒ = Mt1 ω̇1 L21 + Mt3 ω̇2 L1 L2 cos(β1 − β2 )
dt ∂ β̇1
− Mt3 ω2 L1 L2 (β̇1 − β̇2 )sin(β1 − β2 ) (5.44)
∂T
= − Mt3 ω1 ω2 L1 L2 sin(β1 − β2 ) (5.45)
∂β1
∂U µ
= − 3 Mt3 L1 L2 sin(β1 − β2 )
∂β1 R
( )
3µ 2
+ 3 Mt1 L1 cosβ1 sinβ1 + Mt3 L1 L2 sinβ1 cosβ2 (5.46)
R
The β1 -equation of motion is

h
Mt1 ω̇1 L21 + Mt3 ω̇2 L1 L2 cos(β1 − β2 ) + Mt3 ω2 L1 L2 sin(β1 − β2 ) − (β̇1 − β̇2 )
(
i µ 3µ
+ ω1 − 3 Mt3 L1 L2 sin(β1 − β2 ) + 3 Mt1 L21 cosβ1 sinβ1
R R
)
+ Mt3 L1 L2 sinβ1 cosβ2 =0 (5.47)
Dividing by Mt1 L21 and taking Mp1 = Mt3 /Mt1 = m3 /(m2 + m3 ) and
knowing
ωk =θ̇ + β̇k , k = 1, 2ω̇k = θ̈ + β̈k = β̈k , k = 1, 2 as θ̈ = 0 for circular orbit
we have

L2 L2
β̈1 + Mp1 cos(β1 − β2 )β̈2 + Mp1sin(β1 − β2 )
L1 L1

n o µ L2
× − ω2 (β̇1 − β̇2 ) + ω1 ω2 − 3 Mp1 sin(β1 − β2 )
R L1
( )
3µ L2
+ 3 cosβ1 sinβ1 + Mp1 sinβ1 cosβ2 = 0 (5.48)
R L1
Knowing µ/R3 = θ̇2 and writing the derivative with respect to θ

(i.e., ()0 = d()/dθ; ()00 = d2 ()/dθ2 . Here θ denotes an angle with re-
spect to a reference line), the preceding equation can be written as

n
L2 L2
β100 + Mp1 cos(β1 − β2 )β200 + Mp1 β20 (2 + β20 )sin(β1 − β2 )
L1 L1
o
+ 3sinβ1 cosβ2 + 3sinβ1 cosβ1 = 0
(5.49)
β2 -equation

d ∂T ∂T ∂U
− + =0 (5.50)
dt ∂ β̇2 ∂β2 ∂β2
Here
∂T
=Mt2 ω2 L22 + Mt3 ω1 L1 L2 cos(β1 − β2 )
∂ β̇2

d ∂T
⇒ = Mt2 ω̇2 L22 + Mt3 ω̇1 L1 L2 cos(β1 − β2 )
dt ∂ β̇2
− Mt3 ω1 L1 L2 (β̇2 − β̇1 )sin(β2 − β1 ) (5.51)
∂T
= − Mt3 ω1 ω2 L1 L2 sin(β2 − β1 ) (5.52)
∂β2
∂U µ
= − 3 Mt3 L1 L2 sin(β2 − β1 )
∂β2 R
( )
3µ 2
+ 3 Mt2 L2 cosβ2 sinβ2 + Mt3 L1 L2 sinβ2 cosβ1 (5.53)
R
The β2 -equation of motion is

h
Mt2 ω̇2 L22 + Mt3 ω̇1 L1 L2 cos(β1 − β2 ) + Mt3 ω1 L1 L2 sin(β2 − β1 ) − (β̇2 − β̇1 )
(
i µ 3µ
+ ω2 − 3 Mt3 L1 L2 sin(β2 − β1 ) + 3 Mt2 L22 cosβ2 sinβ2
R R
)
+ Mt3 L1 L2 sinβ2 cosβ1 =0 (5.54)
Dividing by Mt2 L22 and taking Mp2 = Mt3 /Mt2 = m1 /(m1 + m2 ) and
knowing
ωk =θ̇ + β̇k , k = 1, 2ω̇k = θ̈ + β̈k = β̈k , k = 1, 2 as θ̈ = 0 for circular orbit

53
we have

L1 L1
β̈2 + Mp2 cos(β1 − β2 )β̈1 + Mp2
sin(β2 − β1 )
L2 L2

n o µ L1
× − ω1 (β̇2 − β̇1 ) + ω1 ω2 − 3 Mp2 sin(β2 − β1 )
R L2
( )
3µ L1
+ 3 cosβ2 sinβ2 + Mp2 sinβ2 cosβ1 = 0 (5.55)
R L2
Knowing Rµ3 = θ̇2 and writing the derivative with respect to θ (i.e., ()0 =
d()/dθ; ()00 = d2 ()/dθ2 . Here θ denotes an angle with respect to a
reference line), the preceding equation can be written as
n
L1 L1
L2 L2
o
(5.56)
5. The system comprised of a satellite (m1 ) and movable attached mass

m2 (see Fig. 5.1). The position of m2 is defined with respect to the
frame S1 − xyz as L~ = xî + y ĵ + z k̂, where î, ĵ, and k̂ are unit vectors
along the respective axes of the frame S1 − xyz. Determine the angu-
lar momentum of the system orbiting in a circular orbit. Express the
answer with respect to the frame S1 − xyz.
Solution.
The given system is comprised of a rigid body (satellite; M = 1) and a
point mass (N = 1). Referring to Section 2.5: Summary (Kinematics:
Rigid Body), the system angular momentum can be written as
~ =(m1 + m2 )(R
H ~ × R)~˙ + m1 (~r1 × ~r˙1 )
+ m2 (~r2 × ~r˙2 ) + Ix ωx î + Iy ωy ĵ + Iz ωz k̂ (5.57)
The first term corresponds to the orbital angular momentum Ho and

it can be expressed as
~ o = (m1 + m2 )(R
H ~˙ = M [Rîo × (θ̇Rĵo )] = M θ̇2 Rk̂o
~ × R) (5.58)
where M = m1 + m2 . The other terms in Eq. (5.57) correspond to the
attitude angular momentum Hb and these can be expressed using the
following relations:
~
~r1 = − γ L, ~
~r2 = (1 − γ)L (5.59)
~˙ xyz + ω
~r˙1 = − γ(L ~
~ × L), ~˙ xyz + ω
~r˙2 = (1 − γ)(L ~
~ × L) (5.60)
Figure 5.1: Satellite (m1 ) with attached mass (m2 ).
and
~r1 × ~r˙1 =γ 2 (L ~˙ xyz + L

~ ×L ~ ×ω ~
~ × L) (5.61)
~r2 × ~r˙2 =(1 − γ)2 (L~˙ xyz × L
~ +ω
~ ×L ~ × L)
~ (5.62)
Knowing ω ~ = xî + y ĵ + z k̂, we have

~ = ωx î + ωy ĵ + ωz k̂ and L
L ~˙ xyz =(y ż + ẏz)î + (z ẋ − xż)ĵ + (xẏ − y ẋ)k̂

~ ×L (5.63)
~ ×ω
L ~ ×L ~ =L2 ω~ − (L ~ ·ω ~
~ )L (5.64)
=L ω2 ~
~ − (xωx + yωy + zωz )L (5.65)
Thus, we can write the system angular momentum as

~ =H
H ~o + H
~b (5.66)
where
~ o = M θ̇2 Rk̂o ,
H ~ b = Hx î + Hy ĵ + Hz k̂
H (5.67)
Hx = Ix ωx + Me (y + z 2 )ωx − (xyωy + xzωz ) + y ż − ẏz
2
(5.68)
Hy = Iy ωy + Me (z 2 + x2 )ωy − (yzωz + yxωx ) + z ẋ − ẋz

(5.69)
Hz = Iz ωz + Me (x2 + y 2 )ωz − (zxωx + zyωy ) + xẏ − ẋy

(5.70)
with
m1 m2
Me = (5.71)
m1 + m2
55
5.1 Derive the 3-dimensional attitude equations of motion of a dumbbell

system as described in Example 5.2 using Euler’s method and Lagrange
method.
Newton’s Method
The translational and rotational equations of the motion are given by
d~
p
F~ = (5.72)
dt
dH~
T~ = (5.73)
dt
where F~ and T~ denote total external force and torque acting at the
center of mass of the system. The nomenclature p ~ and H ~ specify the
system linear (orbital) momentum and angular (attitude) momentum ,
given by
~˙
h i
p~ = M R, ~ = Me L2 η̇ ĵ + (θ̇ + β̇)cosη k̂
H (5.74)
where M = m1 + m2 and Me = m1 m2 /(m1 + m2 ). Differentiating with

respect to time and knowing
~¨ = R̈ − Rθ̇2 îo + Rθ̈ + 2Ṙθ̇ ĵo

R
ω
~ =[−(θ̇ + β̇)sinη]î + η̇ ĵ + [(θ̇ + β̇)cosη]k̂
we get
d~
p
=M R̈ − Rθ̇2 îo + M Rθ̈ + 2Ṙθ̇ ĵo (5.75)
dt
dH~ h i
=Me L2 η̈ + (θ̇ + β̇)2 sinηcosη ĵ
dt
+ Me L2 [(θ̈ + β̈)cosη − 2(θ̇ + β̇)η̇sinη]k̂ (5.76)
Refer to the solution of Problem set 5.1 for the complete derivation of
~˙
H.
Next we derive the external force and torque acting on the system. The
external force vector is the sum of the gravitational forces acting on m1
(F~1 ) and m2 (F~2 ), given as
F~ = F~1 + F~2 (5.77)
where F~1 is
~ + ~r1 )
(R
F~1 = − µm1
~ · ~r1 + ~r2 )3/2
(R2 + 2R 1
" #−3/2
µm1 2 ~
R · ~
r1 r 2
~ 1+
= − 3 (~r1 × R) 1
+ 2 (5.78)
R R2 R
Applying Binomial series expansion for the term inside the bracket, we
get
" #
µm 3(R~ · ~r1 ) 3 r12 15 (R~ · ~r1 )2
F~1 = − 3 (R
1 ~ + ~r1 ) 1 − − + + ···
R R2 2 R2 2 R4
(5.79)
or
(
µm ~ ~ ~ 2
1
F~1 = − 3 R ~ + ~r1 − 3(R + ~r1 )(R · ~r1 ) − 3 (R + ~r1 )r1
R R2 2 R2
)
~ + ~r1 )(R
15 (R ~ · ~r1 )2
+ 4
+ ··· (5.80)
2 R
Now, considering the fact r1 R and carrying out expansion upto

O(1/R4 ) yields
(
µm ~ ~ ~ ~ 2
F~1 = − 3 R
1 ~ + ~r1 − 3R(R · ~r1 ) − 3~r1 (R · ~r1 ) − 3 Rr1
R R 2 R 2 2 R2
)
~ R
15 R( ~ · ~r1 )2
+ (5.81)
2 R4
Similarly, the external force acting on mass m2 is derived as

(
µm2 ~ ~ R
3R( ~ · ~r2 ) 3~r2 (R
~ · ~r2 ) 3 Rr
~ 2
~
F2 = − 3 R + ~r2 − − − 2
R R2 R2 2 R2
)
~ R
15 R( ~ · ~r2 )2
+ (5.82)
2 R4
Thus, the total external force acting on the system is

(
µ ~ ~
F~ = − 3 (m1 + m2 )R ~ + (m1~r1 + m2~r2 ) − 3R[R · (m1~r1 + m2~r2 )]
R R2
~ · ~r1 ) + m2~r2 (R
3[m1~r1 (R ~ · ~r2 )] 3 R(m~ 1 r 2 + m2 r 2 )
1 2
− −
R2 )2 R 2
~ 1 (R
15 R[m ~ · ~r1 )2 + m2 (R~ · ~r2 )2 ]
+ (5.83)
2 R4
Knowing
m1~r1 + m2~r2 = 0 (5.84)

57
and
~
~r1 = −γ L, ~
~r2 = (1 − γ)L, ~ = Lî,
L ~ = Rîo
R (5.85)
we write
m1 r12 + m2 r22 = Me L2 (5.86)
where Me = m1 m2 /(m1 + m2 ). Using the preceding relation in Eq.

(5.83) results in
( )
µ 3
F~ = − 3 M R ~− 2 2
Me L [2(îo · î)î − 5(îo · î) îo + îo ] (5.87)
R 2R
where M = m1 + m2 .
For this problem of three-dimensional motion of the system, the unit
vector î in the body-fixed rotating frame Sxyz is related to the unit
vectors in the orbital reference frame Sxo yo zo as follows
Applying the above relation, we have the resultant force vector on the
system as
µ 3
F~ = − 3 M Rîo − Me L2 − [3cos2 βcos2 η]îo + [sin2βcos2 η]ĵo

R 2R
!

+ îo − [cosβsin2η]k̂o (5.89)
Alternatively, the force F~ can derived from the system potential energy.
It is the gradient of potential energy U , given by
F~ = −∇U (5.90)
where ∇ denotes gradient. The gradient of a function f is defined

mathematically as
∂f ∂ ∂U
∇f (x, y, z) = î + ĵ + k̂ (5.91)
∂x ∂y ∂z
where x, y, z are the components along unit vectors î, ĵ, and k̂, respec-
tively. These unit vectors represent axes of a right-handed orthogonal
coordinate frame. Note the variable f is the function of x, y, and z,
only.
The gradient of the potential energy U can be written as

∂U ∂U ∂U
∇U = î + ĵ + k̂ (5.92)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Here î, ĵ, and k̂ are the unit vectors of the body-fixed coordinate frame
S − xyz. We write R ~ as
~ = Rîo
R (5.93)
Expressing îo in terms of unit vectors in the body-fixed coordinate

frame S − xyz using the the transformation matrix
   
 î 

 



 îo 


   
ĵ = Rzy (β, η) ĵo (5.94)

 
 
 

 k̂ 
   k̂ 
 
o
Sxyz Sxo yo zo
with Rzy (β, η) given by

 
 
Rzy (β, η) = Rz (η)Rz (β) =  −sinβ cosβ 0 (5.95)
 

 
we have
~ = Rcosβcosη î − Rsinβ ĵ + Rcosβsinη k̂
R (5.96)
Thus, we write
x = Rcosβcosη, y = −Rsinβ, z = Rcosβsinη (5.97)
As we are required to derive the force F~ along unit vectors îo , ĵo , and
k̂o in the local-vertical coordinate frame S − xo yo zo , we express Eq.
(5.92) in terms of unit vectors îo , ĵo , and k̂o

∂U ∂U ∂U
∇U = cosβcosη − sinβ + cosβsinη îo
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂U ∂U ∂U
+ sinβcosη + cosβ + sinβsinη ĵo
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂U ∂U
+ − sinη + cosη k̂o (5.98)
∂x ∂z
59
From the potential energy expression,

U = f (R, β, η) (5.99)
So, we have to express ∇U with respect to R, β, and η.
∂U ∂U ∂x ∂U ∂y ∂U ∂z
= + +
∂R ∂x ∂R ∂y ∂R ∂z ∂R

∂U ∂U ∂U
=−R cosβcosη − sinβ + cosβsinη (5.100)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂U ∂U ∂x ∂U ∂y ∂U ∂z
= + +
∂β ∂x ∂β ∂y ∂β ∂z ∂β

∂U ∂U ∂U
=−R sinβcosη + cosη + sinβsinη (5.101)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂U ∂U ∂x ∂U ∂y ∂U ∂z
= + +
∂η ∂x ∂η ∂y ∂η ∂z ∂η

∂U ∂U
=Rcosβ sinη + cosη (5.102)
∂x ∂z
Thus, we obtain
∂U 1 ∂U 1 ∂U
∇U = îo − ĵo + k̂o (5.103)
∂R R ∂β Rcosβ ∂η
Alternatively, we can obtain the same equation for ∇U by first deriving
∂U ∂U ∂R ∂U ∂β ∂U ∂η
= + + , X = x, y, z (5.104)
∂X ∂R ∂X ∂β ∂X ∂η ∂X
and substitute these derivatives in Eq. (5.98).
Knowing
µM µ
U =− + Me (1 − 3cos2 βcos2 η)L2
R 2R3
the force F~ is obtained as

µ 3 µ
F~ = −∇U = − M − M e (1 − 3cos 2
βcos 2
η)L 2
îo
R2 2 R4

3 µ 2 2 3 µ 2
− M e L sin2βcos η ĵo − M e L sin2ηcosβ k̂o
2 R4 2 R4
(5.105)
Referring to the solution of Problem set 5.1, the external torque due to
gravitational force acting on the system is derived as
3µ h i
T~ = − 3 Me L2 sinηcosηcos2 β ĵ + sinβcosβcosη k̂ (5.106)
R
Using the preceding equations for d~ ~

p/dt, dH/dt, F~ and T~ into Eqs.
(5.72)-(5.73), the equations of motion of the system are obtained as
µM 3µ
M (R̈ − Rθ̇2 ) = − 2
+ Me L2 [1 − 3cos2 βcos2 η] (5.107)
R 2R4
3µ
M (Rθ̈ + 2Ṙθ̇) = Me L2 sin2βcos2 ηMe L2 (5.108)
2R4
3µ
Me L2 [(θ̈ + β̈)cosη − 2(θ̇ + β̇)η̇sinη] = − 3 Me L2 sinβcosβcosη
R
(5.109)
h i 3µ
Me L2 η̈ + (θ̇ + β̇)2 sinηcosη = − 3 Me L2 sinηcosηcos2 β (5.110)
R
or
µ 3µ Me L2
R̈ − Rθ̇2 + − [1 − 3cos2 βcos2 η] = 0 (5.111)
R2 2R2 M R2
Ṙ 3µ Me L2
θ̈ + 2 θ̇) − sin2βcos2 η = 0 (5.112)
R 2R3 M R2
Me L2

Ṙ 3 µ
β̈ − θ̇ − 2(θ̇ + β̇)η̇tanη + 3
sin2β + sin2βcos2 η = 0
R 2R M R2
(5.113)
1 3 µ
η̈ + (θ̇ + β̇)2 sin2η + sin2ηcos2 β = 0 (5.114)
2 2 R3
Lagrange Method
The equations of motion of the system with generalized coordinates
q1 = R, q2 = θ, q3 = β, and q4 = η are given by

d ∂T ∂T ∂U
− + = 0, k = 1, 2, 3, 4 (5.115)
dt ∂ q̇k ∂qk ∂qk
The potential and kinetic energies of the system are

µM µ
U =− + Me (1 − 3cos2 βcos2 η)L2 (5.116)
R 2R3
1 1
T = M (Ṙ2 + θ̇2 R2 ) + Me [(θ̇ + β̇)2 cos2 η + η̇ 2 ]L2 (5.117)
2 2
Using the preceding equations, the equations of motion of the system
are derived as follows:
R-equation

d ∂T ∂T ∂U
− + =0 (5.118)
dt ∂ Ṙ ∂R ∂R
61
Here

∂T d ∂T
=M Ṙ, ⇒ = M R̈ (5.119)
∂ Ṙ dt ∂ Ṙ
∂T
=M θ̇2 R (5.120)
∂R
∂U µM 3µ
= 2 − Me (1 − 3cos2 βcos2 η)L2 (5.121)
∂R R 2R4
Thus, the R-equation of motion is
µM 3µ
M R̈ − M θ̇2 R + − Me (1 − 3cos2 βcos2 η)L2 = 0 (5.122)
R2 2R4
θ-equation

d ∂T ∂T ∂U
− + =0 (5.123)
dt ∂ θ̇ ∂θ ∂θ
Here
∂T
=M θ̇R2 + Me L2 (θ̇ + β̇)cos2 η (5.124)
∂ θ̇

d ∂T
⇒ =M θ̈R2 + 2M θ̇RṘ + Me L2 [(θ̈ + β̈)cos2 η − (θ̇ + β̇)η̇sin2η]
dt ∂ θ̇
(5.125)
∂T ∂U
=0, =0 (5.126)
∂θ ∂θ
Thus, the θ-equation of motion is
M θ̈R2 + 2M θ̇RṘ + Me L2 [(θ̈ + β̈)cos2 η − (θ̇ + β̇)η̇sin2η] = 0 (5.127)
β-equation

d ∂T ∂T ∂U
− + =0 (5.128)
dt ∂ β̇ ∂β ∂β
Here
∂T
=Me L2 (θ̇ + β̇)cos2 η (5.129)
∂ β̇

d ∂T
⇒ =Me L2 [(θ̈ + β̈)cos2 η − (θ̇ + β̇)η̇sin2η] (5.130)
dt ∂ β̇
∂T
=0 (5.131)
∂β
∂U 3µ
= Me L2 cosβsinβcos2 η (5.132)
∂β R3
Thus, the β-equation of motion is
3µ
Me L2 [(θ̈ + β̈)cos2 η − (θ̇ + β̇)η̇sin2η] + Me L2 cosβsinβcos2 η = 0
R3
(5.133)
η-equation

d ∂T ∂T ∂U
− + =0 (5.134)
dt ∂ η̇ ∂η ∂η
Here
∂T
=Me η̇L2 (5.135)
∂ η̇

d ∂T
⇒ =Me η̈L2 (5.136)
dt ∂ η̇
∂T
= − Me L2 (θ̇ + β̇)2 cosηsinη (5.137)
∂η
∂U 3µ
= Me L2 cosηsinηcos2 β (5.138)
∂η R3
Thus, the η-equation of motion is
3µ
Me L2 η̈ + Me L2 (θ̇ + β̇)2 cosηsinη + Me L2 cosηsinηcos2 β = 0
R3
(5.139)
Thus, the equations of motion of the system are
µM 3µ
M R̈ − M θ̇2 R + − Me (1 − 3cos2 βcos2 η)L2 = 0 (5.140)
R2 2R4
M θ̈R2 + 2M θ̇RṘ + Me L2 [(θ̈ + β̈)cos2 η − (θ̇ + β̇)η̇sin2η] = 0 (5.141)
3µ
Me L2 [(θ̈ + β̈)cos2 η − (θ̇ + β̇)η̇sin2η] + 3 Me L2 cosβsinβcos2 η = 0
R
(5.142)
3µ
Me L2 η̈ + Me L2 (θ̇ + β̇)2 cosηsinη + 3 Me L2 cosηsinηcos2 β = 0
R
(5.143)
63
or
µ 3µ Me L2
R̈ − Rθ̇2 + 2
− [1 − 3cos2 βcos2 η] = 0 (5.144)
R 2R2 M R2
Ṙ 3µ Me L2
θ̈ + 2 θ̇) − sin2βcos2 η = 0 (5.145)
R 2R3 M R2
Me L2

Ṙ 3 µ
β̈ − θ̇ − 2(θ̇ + β̇)η̇tanη + sin2β + sin2βcos2 η = 0
R 2 R3 M R2
(5.146)
1 3 µ
η̈ + (θ̇ + β̇)2 sin2η + sin2ηcos2 β = 0 (5.147)
2 2 R3
Chapter 6
Mathematical and
Numerical Simulation
Problem Set 6
6.1 The linear equations of motion of the system are obtained as
δβ 00 + 3δβ = 0 (6.1)
δη 00 + 4δη = 0 (6.2)
6.2 The linear equations of motion of the system are obtained as
(M + m)ẍ − mlθ̈ = −cẋ + u (6.3)

2
mlẍ − (J + ml )θ̈ = mglθ (6.4)
or in state space form:
Ẋ = AX + Bu (6.5)
66 CHAPTER 6. MATHEMATICAL AND NUMERICAL SIMULATION
where
   
x 0 0 1 0
gm2 l2 −(J + ml2 )b
   
0 0
 
 ẋ 
 
X= , A = 
 J(M + m) + M ml2 J(M + m) + M ml2 ,

 θ 
  0
 0 0 1

 
θ̇
 mgl(M + m) −mlb

0 0
J(M + m) + M ml2 J(M + m) + M ml2
 
0
J + ml2
 
 
2
 J(M + m) + M ml 

B= 

 0 

ml
 
2
J(M + m) + M ml
6.3 The characteristic equation of the given system
α̈ + 5α̇ + 25α = 0 (6.6)
is
λ2 + 5λ + 25 = 0 (6.7)
Here λ corresponds to the characteristic root or eigenvalue of the sys-

tem.
The preceding equation is compared with the standard second-order
system:
ẍ + 2ζωn ẋ + ωn2 x = 0 (6.8)
and its characteristic equation given as
λ2 + 2ζωn λ + ωn2 = 0 (6.9)
where ωn is the undamped natural frequency and ζ is the damping

ratio.
Comparing Eqs. (6.9) and (6.7), we can write
67
2ζωn = 5 (6.10)
ωn2 = 25 (6.11)
Solving Eqs. (6.11), we get
ωn = 5 rad/s (6.12)
5 5
ζ= = = 0.5 (6.13)
2ωn 10
The roots of the characteristic Eq. (6.9) are
p
λ1,2 = −ζωn ± jωn 1 − ζ2
= −ζωn ± jωd (6.14)
p
Here ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2 is called damped natural frequency of the system.
So, ωd for the given system of Eq. (6.6) is
p p
ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2 = 5 × 1 − 0.52 = 4.33 rad/s (6.15)
Thus, we have the following answers:

(a) ωn = 5 rad/s
(b) ζ = 0.5
(c) ωd = 4.33 rad/s
6.4 Given the second-order differential equation
θ̈ + 2θ̇ + 5θ = −δ
we can write as first-order differential equations
ẋ1 = x2
ẋ2 = −2x2 − 5x1 − δ
where x1 = θ, and x2 = θ̇.

In state space form:
      
 ẋ  0 1  x1  0
1
=  +  δ
 ẋ2  −5 −2  x2  −1
where
 
0 1
A= 
−5 −2
 
0
B =  δ
−1
The eigenvalues of the system can be determined by solving the equa-

tion
|A − λI| = 0
where I is the identity matrix. Substituting the A matrix into the

preceding equation yields
       
0 1 1 0 0 1 λ 0

  − λ  =  −  = 0
−5 −2 0 1 −5 −2 0 λ

or

−λ 1

=0
−5 −2 − λ

Expanding the determinant yields the characteristic equation
λ(λ + 2) + 5 = 0
or
λ2 + 2λ + 5 = 0
The characteristic equation can be solved for the eigenvalues for the
system.
69
The eigenvalues for this particular characteristic equation are
λ1,2 = −1 ± 2j
The eigenvalues are complex and the real part of the root is negative.
This means that the system is dynamically stable. If the system were
given an initial disturbance, the motion would decay sinusoidally and
the frequency of the oscillation would be governed by the imaginary
part of the complex eigenvalues.
6.7 Solving the differential equations for the highest order derivative yield
ẋ1 = −0.5x1 + 10x2 − δ

ẋ2 = −x1 + x2 + 2δ
or in matrix form
      
 ẋ  −0.5 10  x1  −1
1
=  +  δ
 ẋ  −1.0 1.0  x2  2
2
which is the state space formulation
ẋ = Ax + Bu
where
 
−0.5 10
A= 
−1.0 1.0
 
−1
B =  δ
2

tion
|λI − A| = 0

   
1 0 −0.5 10

λ  −  = 0
0 1 −1.0 1.0

   
λ 0 −0.5 10

 −  = 0
0 λ −1.0 1.0

λ + 0.5 −10

=0
1.0 λ − 1.0

(λ + 0.5)(λ − 1.0) + 10 = 0
or
λ2 − 0.5λ + 9.5 = 0
system.
λ1,2 = 0.25 ± 3.07j
The eigenvalues are complex and the real part of the root is positive.
This means that the system is dynamically unstable. If the system were
given an initial disturbance, the motion would grow sinusoidally and
the frequency of the oscillation would be governed by the imaginary
part of the complex eigenvalues.
6.8 Given the differential equation
...
x + ẍ − 4ẋ + 6x = r
we can write the first-order differential equations as

71
ẋ1 = x2
ẋ2 = x3
ẋ3 = r − 6x1 + 4x2 − x3
where x1 = x, x2 = ẋ, and x3 = ẍ.

In state space form:
      
 ẋ  0 1 0  x1 
 0
 1 

   

     
ẋ2 = 0 0 1 x2 + 0 r
   

 
   
  
 ẋ 
 
−6 4 −1  x3 
 
1
3
where
 
0 1 0
 
A= 0 0 1 
 
 
−6 4 −1
 
0
 
B = 0 r
 
 
1

tion
|A − λI| = 0

       
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 λ 0 0

       
 0 0 1  − λ 0 1 0 =  0 0 1  − 0 λ 0  = 0
       
       
−6 4 −1 0 0 1 −6 4 −1 0 0 λ

or

−λ 1 0

0 −λ 1 =0

−6 4 −1 − λ

−λ[−λ(−1 − λ) − 4] − 1[0 + 6] = 0
or
λ3 + λ2 − 4λ + 6 = 0
system.
λ1 = −3
λ2,3 = 1 ± j
As the real part of one of the eigenvalues is positive, the system is

dynamically unstable. If the system were given an initial disturbance,
the motion would grow sinusoidally and the frequency of the oscillation
would be governed by the imaginary part of the complex eigenvalues.
6.9 For the given linear equations of motion of a system
ẋ = Ax + Bu (6.16)
the general solution is given by
x = x0 eλt (6.17)
where x0 =initial state x at t = 0. λ=eigenvalue or root of the charac-

teristic equation of the system and it comprises of a real part η and an
imaginary part ω as
73
λ = η + jω (6.18)
The real part η states about the magnitude of x whereas the imaginary
part ω says about an oscillatory motion of x. As we are interested in
magnitude of x, we take only the real part, i.e.,
λ=η (6.19)
Putting λ in Eq. (6.17), and solving for time t by taking logarithm

with base e both sides
x
ln = ηt
x0
or
1 x
t= ln (6.20)
η x0
As per Eqs. (6.17) and (6.19), the magnitude of x will increase if η is

positive. Thus, substituting x = 2x0 in Eq. (6.20) for doubling of the
amplitude with positive η, the corresponding time t2 can be written as
1 2x0 1 0.693
t2 = ln = ln2 = (6.21)
η x0 η η
Similarly, the magnitude of x will decrease if η is negative as per Eqs.

(6.17) and (6.19), Thus, for having of the amplitude we substitute x =
x0 /2 in Eq. (6.20) and the corresponding time t1/2 is
1 x0 /2 1 0.693
t1/2 = ln = − ln2 = − (6.22)
η x0 η η
Here η will have negative value as explained earlier.
Thus, from Eqs. (6.21) and (6.22) we conclude that the time for dou-
bling or halving of the amplitude is
0.693
t2 or t1/2 = (6.23)
|η|
The corresponding number of cycles N2 and N1/2 can be given by
t2
N (cycles)2 =
T
t1/2
N (cycles)1/2 = (6.24)
T
where
2π
T = time period = (6.25)
ω
Using Eqs. (6.23) and (6.25), Eqs. (6.24) can be rewritten as
0.693|ω| |ω|
N (cycles)2 or N (cycles)1/2 = = 0.110 (6.26)
|η|2π |η|
6.10 For a given characteristic equation of the system, the eigenvalues ob-
tained are
λ1,2 = −0.0171 ± j0.213
λ3,4 = −2.5 ± j2.59
the system is dynamically stable as all real parts of the roots are neg-
ative.
For the given system, T (period), t1/2 (time to half amplitude), and
N1/2 (number of cycles to half amplitude) corresponding to λ1,2 and
λ3,4 are tabulated below.
λ1,2 λ3,4
η = −ζωn = −0.0171 η = −2.5
ω = 0.213 rad/s ω = 2.59 rad/s
T = 2π 2π
ω = 0.213 T = 2π 2π
ω = 2.59
T = 29.5 s T = 2.42 s
t1/2 = 0.693 = 0.0171
0.693 t1/2 = 0.693 = 0.693
2.5
|η| |η|
t1/2 = 40.3 s t1/2 = 0.28 s
t1/2 t
N1/2 = T = 0.11ω N1/2 = 1/2T = |η|
0.11ω
|η|
N1/2 = 0.11 × 0.213 = 1.37 cycles N
0.0171 1/2 =
0.11 × 2.59 = 0.11 cycles
2.5
75
6.13 We consider the characteristic equation in the form
λn + an−1 λn−1 + · · · + a1 λ + a0 = 0 (6.27)
where aj , j = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1 are constant coefficients.

For n=2, we write the characteristic equation
λ2 + a1 λ + a0 = 0 (6.28)
and its solution is

p
a1 a21 − 4a0
λ1,2 =− ± (6.29)
2 2
The sum of the roots can be written as
λ1 + λ2 = −a1
or
a1 = −(λ1 + λ2 ) (6.30)
Thus, the coefficient of λ1 is the negative of the sum of all the real parts
as well as imaginary parts of the roots.
For n=3, the characteristic equation is written as
λ3 + a2 λ2 + a1 λ + a0 = 0 (6.31)
Let the roots be
λ = η + jω (6.32)
where η=vector of real parts of the roots; ω=vector of imaginary parts

of the roots.
As n=3, there would be 3 roots and thus the vector η can be considered
as
 
 η 
 1 

 

η= η2 (6.33)

 

 η 
 
3
Substituting η in Eq. (6.31), we can write in matrix form
 
  1 

η3 η12 η1 1 
 

 1
 
 a 
 
2
=0 (6.34)
 3
η2 η22 η2 1

  a1 

η33 η32 η3 1 

 


 a 
 
0
Applying (Row 2 - Row 1) and (Row 3 - Row 1), we get
 
  1 
η13 η12 η1 1 
 

 
 a2 
  
=0 (6.35)
 3
η2 − η13 η22 − η12 η2 − η1 0

  a1 

η33 − η13 η32 − η12 η3 − η1 0 
 

 
a 

 
0
Using the relation a3 − b3 = (a − b){(a − b)2 + 3ab}, The preceding

equation simplifies to
 
η13 η12 η1 1  
 
 1 
(η2 − η1 )2 η1 + η2 1 0 
  

 
 a2 
  
(η2 − η1 )(η3 − η1 )  +3η1 η2 = 0 (6.36)
 

 
 a1 

(η3 − η1 )2 η1 + η3 1 0 
  

 
 a0 
  
+3η1 η3
Applying (Row 2 - Row 3), we get

77
  
η13 η12 η1 1 
 1 

  
 
η1 + η2 + η2 1 1 0 a2 
 
 
(η2 − η1 )(η3 − η1 )(η2 − η3 )   =0
 (η3 − η1 )2 η1 + η3 1 0  a1 
 

 

  

+3η1 η3  a 
 
0
(6.37)
As η1 6= η2 6= η3 , we can write
  
η13 η12 η1 1  1 
  

 
η1 + η2 + η3 1 1 0  a2 
  
  =0 (6.38)
 (η3 − η1 )2 η1 + η3 1 0  a1 
 

 

  

+3η1 η3 a 

 
0
Thus, from Row 2 we can write
η1 + η2 + η3 + a2 = 0
or
a2 = −(η1 + η2 + η3 ) (6.39)
Thus, a2 the coefficient of λ2 is the negative of the sum of the real parts
of all the roots.
6.14 The equations of motion of the given system can be written as
−a12 a21 α + a11 a22 β̇1

α̈ =
a21 − a11
a12 α − a22 β̇1
β¨1 = (6.40)
a21 − a11
We can rewrite the system equations of motion in a general form as
ẋ = Ax (6.41)
where
x = state vector = [α, α̇, β1 , β̇1 ]T
 
0 1 0 0
 
 −a12 a21 0 0 a11 a22
 
1 
A=  
a21 − a11 
 0 0 0 1


 
a12 0 0 −a22
As there are four state variables, the order of the characteristic equation
is four. However, all elements in the third column of A (corresponding
to β1 ) are zero. It implies that the state variable β1 is not involved in
the system equations of motion and the corresponding eigenvalue would
be zero. So, the system state variables are reduced to x = [α, α̇, β̇1 ]T
and thus, the order of the characteristic equation is three.
6.15 We can write the system equations of motion in a general form as
ẋ = Ax (6.42)
where
x = state vector = [φ, φ̇, γ, γ̇, β2 , β̇2 , β3 , β̇3 ]T
As there are eight state variables, the order of the characteristic equa-
tion is eight. However, all elements in the fifth and seventh columns of
A (corresponding to β2 and be3 ) would be zero. It implies that the state
variables β2 and β3 are not involved in the system equations of motion
and corresponding two eigenvalues would be zero. So, the system state
variables are reduced to x = [φ, φ̇, γ, γ̇, β̇2 , β̇3 ]T and thus, the order
of the characteristic equation is six.
6.17 Define the state variables as
x1 = r, x2 = ṙ, x3 = θ, x4 = θ̇
then
ẋ1 = x2 , ẋ3 = x4
79
Substituting these in the equations of motion, we can write the first-

order equations of motion of the spacecraft as
ẋ1 = x2
ẋ3 = x4
µ
ẋ2 = x1 x24 − + ar
x21
x2 x4 aθ
ẋ4 = −2 +
x1 x1
6.18 The state vectors of the system are expressed in terms of xi , i =

1, 2, . . . , 6: X = [R, Ṙ, θ, θ̇, β, β̇] = [x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , x6 ]. The Maple
program is shown in Fig. 6.1. Note Eq1 , Eq2 , and Eq3 represent the
equations of motion for R, θ, and β degrees of freedom, respectively.
6.19 The state vectors of the system are expressed in terms of xi , i =
1, 2, . . . , 6: X = [R, Ṙ, θ, θ̇, β, β̇, u, u̇] = [x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , x6 , x7 , x8 ].
The Maple program is shown in Figs. 6.2-6.5. Note Eq1 , Eq2 , Eq3 ,
and Eq4 represent the equations of motion for R, θ, β, and u degrees
of freedom, respectively. Nomenclature for mass moment of inertia Ij ,
j = x, y, z is replaced by Jj , j = x, y, z since I is a reserved notation in
Maple.
0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 0 11
0 0 11
0 0 11
0 1 0 1
0 1
04 5 1
0 1 0 1
0 0 11
0 1
0 1
0 1
04 5 1
0 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1
0 1
04 5 1
0 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 1
Figure 6.1: Maple program for Problem 6.18.

81
§
0 1 ©
§
© 0 1 0 1 ¶¸¶¸
0 1 0 0 0 1
0 111
0
0 1 0 0 1 0 11 1 0 0
0 1 0 111
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 11 1
0 0 1 0 11
0 1 0 0 0 1
0 111
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 11 1
0 0 1 0 11
04 5 1
0 1 00 1 0 1 0
10 0 1 0 1 0 111 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 11 1
0 0 1 0 11
Figure 6.2: Maple program for Problem 6.19 (contd.).

4
5 1
0 1 0 1
0 1
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 11 1
0 0 1 0 11
0 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 11 0 1 0 11 0 1
0
4
5 1
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 11 0
1 0 11 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 1
0 1
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 11 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 11 0 1
0 1

83
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 111 0 1
0
4
5 1
0 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 111 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 111 0
1 0 10 0 1 0 1 0 11
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 11 0 11
0 1 0 1
0 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 11
0
4
5 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 11
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 11 0 10 0 1

0 1 0 11
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 11 0 11
0 1
0 0 1 0 11
0
4
5 1
0 0 1 0 11
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 11
Figure 6.5: Maple program for Problem 6.19.
Chapter 7
Control System
Problem Set 7
7.1
(a) The system is defined by the equation
I θ̈ = T (7.1)
Applying Laplace Transform, we get

I s2 θ(s) − sθ0 − θ̇0 = T (s) (7.2)
Rewriting the preceding equation with output as θ(s),
1 1 1
θ(s) = T (s) + θ0 + 2 θ̇0 (7.3)
Is2 s s
Thus, the open-loop transfer function of the given system with input
as T (s) and output as θ(s) is
θ(s) 1
G(s) = = 2 (7.4)
T (s) Is
The characteristic equation of the open-loop system is

86 CHAPTER 7. CONTROL SYSTEM
Is2 = 0 (7.5)
The roots of the characteristic equation are
s1,2 = 0 (7.6)
This open-loop system is neutral stable (i.e., θ remains constant) if

input T=0 and θ̇0 =0 as the system response is θ(t) = θ0 + θ̇0 t = θ0 .
However, with the step input of T , the system would be unstable as the
roots are zero. (Note. Please find the solution in this case, and verify
the system stability.)
(b) Referring to the system defined by Eq. (7.1), the corresponding solution
with initial attitude angle θ0 and rate θ̇0 is
θ(t) = θ0 + θ̇0 t (7.7)
(c) As the gas jet provides a constant thrust, the input is a step input.
(d)
(d.1) The characteristic equation of the closed loop system with a propor-
tional controller is
1 + Gc (s)G(s) = 0 (7.8)
where Gc (s) is the controller transfer function given as Gc (s) = kp .

The term kp is the proportional gain.
Substituting G(s) from Eq.(7.4) into Eq. (7.8), we get
Is2 + kp = 0 (7.9)
r r
kp kp
s1,2 = ±j = ±j (7.10)
I 100
As the roots of the characteristic equation of the closed loop system lie
on the imaginary axis, the closed loop system is marginally stable with
a proportional controller.
87
For the system stability, the roots in Eq. (7.10) should not have positive
real parts, i.e.,
kp > 0 ⇒ kp ∈ (0, ∞) (7.11)
The system equation of motion with a proportional controller is given

by
I θ̈ = kp (θr − θ) (7.12)
or
I θ̈ + kp θ = kp θr (7.13)
where θr is the reference angle.

The solution of Eq. (7.13) with the initial attitude error θ0 is
r
kp
θ(t) = θr + (θ0 − θr )cos t (7.14)
I
(d.2) The final value of theorem of Laplace Transform can not be applied
here to find the steady state error as the system is not asymptotically
stable.
(d.3) The characteristic equation of the closed loop system with a derivative
controller is
1 + Gc (s)G(s) = 0 (7.15)
where Gc (s) is the controller transfer function given as Gc (s) = skd .

The term kd is the derivative gain.
Is2 + kd s = 0 (7.16)
kd
s1 = 0, s2 = − =0 (7.17)
I
This open-loop system is asymptotically stable (i.e., θ diminishes and

reaches to steady state value) if input T=0. With the step input of T ,
the system would be still remain stable as the pole s1 = 0 gets cancelled
out with the zero s = 0 at numerator.
For the system stability, the roots in Eq. (7.17) should not have positive
real parts, i.e.,
kd > 0 ⇒ kd ∈ (0, ∞) (7.18)
The system equation of motion with a derivative controller is given by
I θ̈ = kd (θ̇r − θ̇) (7.19)
or
I θ̈ + kd θ̇ = kd θ̇r (7.20)
Applying Laplace Transform with initial conditions as null, we get
(Is2 θ(s) + kd sθ(s)) = kd sθr (s) (7.21)
Rewriting the preceding equation with output as θ(s)
kd sθr (s)
θ(s) = (7.22)
Is2 + kd s
Taking Laplace inverse transform,
 

kd sθr (s) 1 1 
θ(t) = L−1 = L−1 sθr (s)  − (7.23)
Is2 + kd s s s + kd
I
The solution of Eq. (7.23) assuming a step input θr (s) is
k
!
− dt
θ(t) = θr 1 − e I (7.24)
The final value of theorem of Laplace Transform can be applied here to

find the steady state error as the system is asymptotically stable.
89
The steady state value is
kd t
θ(∞) = lim θr [1 − e I ] = θr (7.25)
t→∞
Thus, the steady state error is
ess = θr − θ(∞) = θr − θr = 0 (7.26)
(d.4) The characteristic equation of the closed loop system with a proportional-
derivative (PD) controller is
1 + Gc (s)G(s) = 0 (7.27)
where Gc (s) is the controller transfer function given as Gc (s) = kp +skd .

The terms kp and kd are the proportional and derivative gains.
Is2 + kd s + kp = 0 (7.28)
p
−kd ± kd2 − 4kp I
s1,2 = (7.29)
2I
Apply the Routh-Hurwitz criterion to the characteristic Eq. (7.16), we

get the stability conditions as
kp > 0 ⇒ kp ∈ (0, ∞)
kd > 0 ⇒ kd ∈ (0, ∞) (7.30)
(d.5) The system equation of motion with a proportional-derivative controller

is given as
I θ̈ = kp (θr − θ) + kd (θ̇r − θ̇) (7.31)

or
I θ̈ + kd θ̇ + kp θ = kp θr + kd θ̇r (7.32)
The corresponding characteristic equation of the given system is
Is2 + kd s + kp = 0 (7.33)
Rewriting Eq. (7.33)
kd kp
s2 + s+ =0 (7.34)
I I
Comparing the preceding characteristic Eq. (7.34) with the charac-

teristic equation of a standard second-order system (where ωn is the
undamped natural frequency and ζ is the damping ratio):
s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2 = 0 (7.35)
we get
kd
= 2ζωn (7.36)
I
kp
= ωn2 (7.37)
I
The natural frequency ωn is
2πf
ωn = p
1 − ζ2
So,
2π × 0.25
kd = 2Iζωn = 2 × 100 × 0.5 × √ = 181.4 (7.38)
1 − 0.52
2
2π × 0.25
kp = Iωn2 = 100 × √ = 284.91 (7.39)
1 − 0.52
91
7.2 Given.
θ̇r =30 /s; I=20 kg-m2 ; c=5 N-sec/m;
ess ≤ 0.1o ; τ ≤ 0.5 sec
The system equation of motion with a proportional-derivative controller
is
I θ̈ + cθ̇ = kp (θr − θ) + kd (θ̇r − θ̇) (7.40)
or
I θ̈ + (c + kd )θ̇ + kp θ = kp θr + kd θ̇r (7.41)
Is2 + (c + kd )s + kp = 0 (7.42)
Rewriting Eq. (7.42)
c + kd kp
s2 + s+ =0 (7.43)
I I
Comparing the preceding characteristic Eq. (7.43) with the charac-

teristic equation of a standard second-order system (where ωn is the
undamped natural frequency and ζ is the damping ratio):
s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2 = 0 (7.44)
we get
c + kd
= 2ζωn (7.45)
I
kp
= ωn2 (7.46)
I
The time constant τ is
1
τ= (7.47)
ζωn
Substituting for the term ζωn from Eq. (7.46) into Eq. (7.47),
2I
τ= ≤ 0.5
c + kd
or
c + kd 5 + kd
≥2 ⇒ ≥2
2I 2 × 20
Solving we get
kd ≥ 75 (7.48)
The closed-loop transfer function of the system given by Eq. (7.41) can
be expressed as
θ(s) kp + skd
M (s) = = 2 (7.49)
θr (s) Is + (c + kd )s + kp
The steady-state error is

ess = lim sE(s) = lim s[θr (s) − θ(s)] = lim sθr (s)[1 − M (s)] (7.50)
s→0 s→0 s→0
Here the input is ramp input. Substituting M (s) from Eq. (7.49) into
the preceding Eq. (7.50), we have
θ̇r Is2 + cs
ess = lim s (7.51)
s→0 s2 Is2 + (c + kd )s + kp
Is + c c
= lim θ̇r 2 = θ̇r (7.52)
s→0 Is + (c + kd )s + kp kp
Thus,
c
θ̇r
≤ 0.1deg
kp
5N-m-sec/rad
3deg/sec ≤ 0.1deg
kp
or
15
kp ≥ = 150N-m/rad (7.53)
0.1
(c) No, the desired performance can not be met.
93
7.3 Given.
θ̇r =30 /s;
m=20 kg; k=1 N/s; c=4 N-sec/m;
ts ≤ 1sec; Mp ≤ 0.2
Considering settling time (to within 5% of the final value),
3
ts = ≤1 (7.54)
ζωn
3×2
≤1 ⇒ 6 ≤ 4 + kd (7.55)
c + kd
or
kd ≥ 2 (7.56)
If we take settling time (to within 1% of the final value),
4.6
ts = ≤1 (7.57)
ζωn
4.6 × 2
≤1 ⇒ 9.2 ≤ 4 + kd (7.58)
c + kd
or
kd ≥ 5.2 (7.59)
For maximum overshoot,
s
(lnMp /π)2
ζ≥
1 + (lnMp /π)2
s
(ln0.2/π)2
≥ = 0.4559 (7.60)
1 + (ln0.2/π)2
or
c + kd c + kd
≥ 0.4559 ⇒ p ≥ 0.4559
2mωn 2 (k + kp )m
or
4 + kd p
≥ 1 + kp ⇒ kp ≤ 1.2025(4 + kd )2 − 1 (7.61)
2 × 0.4559
7.4 The pitch equation of motion of the spacecraft is
I θ̈ + cθ̇ = Td (7.62)
Applying Laplace Transform with initial conditions θ = θ0 =0 and θ =

θ̇0 , we get
I(sθ̇(s) − θ̇0 ) + cθ̇(s) = 1 (7.63)
I(s2 θ(s) − θ̇0 ) + csθ(s) = 1 (7.64)
1 + I θ̇0
θ(s) = (7.65)
Is2 + cs
1 + I θ̇0
θ(s) = (7.66)
Is2 + cs
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
" # " #
−1 1 + I θ̇0 −1 1 + I θ̇0 1 1
θ(t) = L =L − (7.67)
Is2 + cs c s s+ c
I
The solution of Eq. (7.67) is
1 + I θ̇0 −ct
θ(t) = (1 − e I ) (7.68)
c
or
1 + 100θ̇0 − 10 t
θ(t) = (1 − e 100 )
10
= (0.1 + 10θ̇0 )(1 − e−0.1t ) (7.69)
So, differentiating Eq. (7.69), we obtain θ̇(t) as
θ̇(t) = (0.01 + θ̇0 )e−0.1t (7.70)

95
The final value of θ(t) as t tends to ∞ is
θ(t = ∞) = lim (0.1 + 10θ̇0 )(1 − e−0.1t ) = 0.1 + 10θ̇0 (7.71)

t→∞
The open-loop transfer function of the system
1
G(s) = (7.72)
Is2 + cs
The characteristic equation of the uncontrolled system,
Is2 + cs = 0 (7.73)
Thus, the eigenvalues are
c 10
s = 0; s= = = 0.1 (7.74)
I 100
Applying a proportional controller, the characteristic equation of the
controlled system is
1 + Gc (s)G(s) = 0 (7.75)
where Gc (s) is the controller transfer function given as Gc (s) = kp .
The term kp is the proportional gain.
Thus, the characteristic equation of the controlled system
Is2 + cs + kp = 0 (7.76)
The eigenvalues are
p p
−c ± c2 − 4Ikp −10 ± 100 − 4 × 100kp
s1,2 = = (7.77)
2I 200
For kp = 50, the eigenvalues are
√
−10 ± 100 − 4 × 100 × 50
s1,2 = = −0.05 ± j0.7053 (7.78)
200
The closed-loop system will be asymptotically stable.
7.5 (a) The open-loop transfer function of the system is

θ(s) 1.151s + 0.1774
G(s) = = 3 (7.79)
δe (s) s + 0.739s2 + 0.921s
The characteristic equation is
s3 + 0.739s2 + 0.921s = 0 (7.80)
The roots of the characteristic equation are
s1 = 0, s1,2 = −0.3695 ± j0.866 (7.81)
In the case, the input is zero. The system response is asymptoti-

cally stable with response as
θ = c1 + c2 e−0.3695t sin(0.866t + c3 ) (7.82)
where cj , j = 1, 2, 3 are constants depending upon the initial con-

ditions.
When the step input of δe is applied, the steady-state θ (t = ∞),
applying final value theorem, is
θ(t → ∞) = lim sθ(s) = lim sG(s)δe (s)

s→0 s→0

1.151s + 0.1774 θr
= lim s 3 =∞ (7.83)
s→0 s + 0.739s2 + 0.921s s
Thus, the system is unstable. In fact, in case one of the roots

(i.e., s1 ) is zero, and we apply step input, the system would be
unstable if this pole does not get cancelled out by zero at the
numerator.
(b) Applying proportional control, the closed-loop transfer function of
the system is
(kp )G(s)
M (s) =
1 + kp G(s)
1.151kps + 0.1774kp
= (7.84)
s3 + 0.739s2 + (0.921 + 1.151kp )s + 0.1774kp

97
s3 + 0.739s2 + (0.921 + 1.151kp )s + 0.1774kp = 0 (7.85)
The Routh array is as follows
s3 1 0.921 + 1.151kp
2
s 0.739 0.1774kp
(7.86)
0.1774kp
s1 0.921 + 1.151kp − 0.739 0
s0 0.1774kp
Applying the Routh-Hurwitz conditions of absolute stability,

(a) All coefficients in the characteristic equations should be posi-
tive, i.e.,
0.921 + 1.151kp > 0, 0.1774kp > 0
(b) All elements in the first column of the Routh array should be
positive, i.e.,
0.1774kp
0.921 + 1.151kp − , 0.1774kp > 0
0.739
Thus, we can write the conditions of the system stability as
kp > −1.011 and kp > 0 ⇒ kp > 0 (7.87)
The final value of X for a unit step input is
X(∞) = lim sM (s)F (s)

s→0

1.151kps + 0.1774kp 1
= lim s 3
s→0 s + 0.739s2 + (0.921 + 1.151kp )s + 0.1774kp s
=1 (7.88)
The steady state error ess is
ess = 1 − X(∞) = 1 − 1 = 0 (7.89)

(c) Applying proportional-plus-derivative control, the closed-loop trans-

fer function of the system is
(kp + kd s)G(s)
M (s) =
1 + (kp + kd s)G(s)
1.151kds2 + (1.151kp + 0.1774kd)s + 0.1774kp
=
s3 + (0.739 + 1.151kd)s2 + (0.921 + 1.151kp + 0.1774kd)s + 0.1774kp
(7.90)
s3 + (0.739 + 1.151kd)s2 + (0.921 + 1.151kp + 0.1774kd)s + 0.1774kp = 0

(7.91)
s3 1 0.921 + 1.151kp + 0.1774kd

s2 0.739 + 1.151kd 0.1774kp
1 0.1774kp
s 0.921 + 1.151kp + 0.1774kd − 0.739 0
s0 0.1774kp
(7.92)

tive, i.e.,
0.921 + 1.151kp > 0, 0.1774kp > 0
positive, i.e.,
0.1774kp
0.921 + 1.151kp − , 0.1774kp > 0
0.739
kp > −1.011 and kp > 0 ⇒ kp > 0 (7.93)
For Kp =9 and Kd =8, the characteristic equation is

99
s3 + 9.947s2 + 12.7s + 1.597 = 0 (7.94)
s3 1 12.70
2
s 0.947 1.597
(7.95)
s1 11.47 0
s0 1.597
Applying the Routh-Hurwitz conditions of absolute stability, we

can say the system is stable.
(d) Applying proportional-integral-derivative control, the closed-loop
transfer function of the system is
ki
(kp + s + kd s)G(s)
M (s) =
1 + (kp + + ksi + kd s)G(s)
1.151kds2 + (1.151kp + 0.1774kd)s + 0.1774kp
=
s3 + (0.739 + 1.151kd)s2 + (0.921 + 1.151kp + 0.1774kd)s + 0.1774kp
(7.96)
For Kp =2, Ki =4, and Kd =3, the characteristic equation is
s4 + 4.192s3 + 3.755s2 + 4.959s + 0.710 = 0 (7.97)
s4 1 3.76 0.71
s3 4.19 4.96 0
s 2
2.58 0.71 0 (7.98)
s1 3.81 0
0
s 0.71
Applying the Routh-Hurwitz conditions of absolute stability, we

can say that the system is stable.
4.6 (a)
−p
πζ
Mp = e 1 − ζ2 = 0 ⇒ζ=1 (7.99)
1.8 1.8
tr = ≤ 0.8 ⇒ ωn ≥ = 2.25 (7.100)
ωn 0.8
Thus, the characteristic equation should be
s2 + 2ζωn s + ω 2 = 0
or
s2 + 2 × 2.25s + 2.252 = 0 ⇒ s2 + 4.5s + 5.0625 = 0
We place the last pole far enough from the first and the second
poles which determine the response of the system. Let us take
s3 =-20. Then, the desired characteristic equation is
(s + 20)(s2 + 4.5s + 5.06) = s3 + 24.5s2 + 95.06s + 101.25 = 0
Applying proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control, the closed-

loop transfer function of the system is
ki
[kp + s + skd ]G(s)
M (s) = ki
1 + [kp + s + skd ]G(s)
ki + kp s + kd s2
= (7.101)
s3 + (10 + kd )s2 + (20 + kp )s + ki
s3 + (10 + kd )s2 + (20 + kp )s + ki = 0 (7.102)
Comparing the two equations,
ki = 101.25, kp = 75.06, kd = 14.5

101
(b) The open-loop transfer function of the system is
X(s) 1
G(s) = = 2 (7.103)
F (s) s + 10s + 20
The characteristic equation of the open-loop system is
s2 + 10s + 20 = 0 (7.104)
Thus, the roots of the characteristic equation are
s1 = −4.2361, s2 = −2.7639 (7.105)
As the two roots are in the left half s-plane, the open-loop system
is stable.
The final value of X for the unit step input is
1 1
X(∞) = lim sG(s)F (s) = lim s ×
s→0 s→0 s s2 + 10s + 20
1
= (7.106)
20
The steady-state error ess is
1 19
ess = 1 − X(∞) = 1 − = = 0.95 (7.107)
20 20
As ess is quite large, we need to apply a suitable controller.
(c) Applying proportional control, the closed-loop transfer function of
the system is
kp G(s) kp
M (s) = = 2 (7.108)
1 + kp G(s) s + 10s + 20 + kp
s2 + 10s + 20 + kp = 0 (7.109)
Applying the Routh-Hurwitz criterion, the stability condition is
kp > −20 ⇒ kp ∈ (20, ∞) (7.110)

(d) Applying proportional-plus-derivative control, the closed-loop trans-

fer function of the system is
(kp + skd )G(s) kp + skd

M (s) = = 2
1 + (kp + skd )G(s) s + (10 + kd )s + 20 + kp
(7.111)
s2 + (10 + kd )s + 20 + kp = 0 (7.112)
s2 1 20 + kp
s 1
10 + kd 0 (7.113)
s0 20 + kp

tive, i.e., 10 + kd > 0, 20 + kp > 0
positive, i.e., 10 + kd > 0, 20 + kp
kp > −20
kd > −10 (7.114)

kp + kd s 1
X(∞) = lim sM (s)F (s) = lim s
s→0 s→0 s2 + (10 + kd )s + 20 + kp s
kp
= (7.115)
20 + kp
kp 20
ess = 1 − X(∞) = 1 − = (7.116)
20 + kp 20 + kp
103
If kp is very large, then ess would be zero. Thus, with proportional-

plus-derivative control the steady-state error would be present.
For the given gains kp =300 and kd =10, the characteristic equation
is
s2 + 20s + 320 = 0 (7.117)
The characteristic roots are
r
400
s1,2 = −10 ± − 320 = −10 ± 14.832 (7.118)
4
As all the roots are in the left half s-plane, the closed-loop system
would be stable.
(e) Applying proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control, the closed-
loop transfer function of the system is
ki
[kp + s + skd ]G(s)
M (s) = ki
1 + [kp + s + skd ]G(s)
ki + kp s + kd s2
= (7.119)
s3 + (10 + kd )s2 + (20 + kp )s + ki
s3 + (10 + kd )s2 + (20 + kp )s + ki = 0 (7.120)
s3 1 20 + kp
s2 10 + kd ki
(7.121)
1 ki
s 20 + kp − 10+kd 0
s0 ki

tive, i.e.,
10 + kd > 0, 20 + kp > 0, ki > 0

positive, i.e.,
ki
10 + kd > 0, 20 + kp − > 0, ki > 0
10 + kd
ki
kp > − 20
10 + kd
ki > 0 (7.122)
kd > −10
ki + kp s + kd s2

1
X(∞) = lim sM (s)F (s) = lim s
s→0 s→0 s3 + (10 + kd )s2 + (20 + kp )s + ki s
ki
= =1 (7.123)
ki
ess = 1 − X(∞) = 1 − 1 = 0 (7.124)
For the given gains kp =350, ki =300, and kd =50, the characteristic
equation is
s3 + 60s2 + 370s + 300 = 0 (7.125)
Using Matlab function “roots”, we find the characteristic roots as
s1 = −53.144, s2 = −5.899, s3 = −0.957 (7.126)
would be stable.
(f ) Applying proportional-plus-integral (PI) control, the closed-loop
transfer function of the system is
ki
[kp + s ]G(s)
M (s) =
1+ [kp + ksi ]G(s)
ki + kp s
= (7.127)
s3 + 10s2 + (20 + kp )s + ki
105
s3 + 10s2 + (20 + kp )s + ki = 0 (7.128)
s3 1 20 + kp
2
s 10 ki
(7.129)
ki
s1 20 + kp − 10 0
s0 ki

tive, i.e.,
20 + kp > 0, ki > 0
positive, i.e.,
ki
20 + kp − > 0, ki > 0
10
ki
kp > − 20
10
ki > 0 (7.130)

ki + kp s 1
X(∞) = lim sM (s)F (s) = lim s 3
s→0 s→0 s + 10s2 + (20 + kp )s + ki s
ki
= =1 (7.131)
ki
ess = 1 − X(∞) = 1 − 1 = 0 (7.132)

For the given gains kp =30 and ki =70, the characteristic equation
is
s3 + 10s2 + 50s + 70 = 0 (7.133)
Using Matlab function “roots”, we find the characteristic roots as
s1,2 = −3.954 ± 4.222, s3 = −2.092 (7.134)
would be stable.
7.9 (a) The closed-loop transfer function is
G(s) 4500K
M (s) = = 2
1 + G(s) s + 361.2s + 4500K
s2 + 361.2s + 4500K = 0
The preceding equation is compared with the characteristic equation of

a standard second-order system:
s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2 = 0
where ωn is the undamped natural frequency and ζ is the damping

ratio.
Thus, we can write
2ζωn = 361.2
ωn2 = 4500K
Further simplifying,
√ √
ωn = 4500K = 64.082 K rad/s
361.2 361.2 2.692
ζ= = √ = √
2ωn 2 × 64.082 K K
107
(b)
The characteristic equation of the closed-loop second-order system is
obtained as
s2 + 361.2s + 4500K = 0
The Routh array is
s2 1 4500K
s1 361.2 0
0
s 4500K
Applying the Routh-Hurwitz criterion of absolute stability,

All elements in the first column of the Routh array should be positive,
i.e.,
4500K > 0 ⇒ K > 0
K ∈ (0, ∞)
The characteristic equation of the closed-loop second-order system is

obtained as
s3 + 3408.3s2 + 1, 204, 000s + 1.5 × 107 K = 0
The Routh array is
s3 1 1, 204, 000
s2 3408.3 1.5 × 107
1.5×107
s1 1, 204, 000 − 3408.3 0
s0 1.5 × 107 K

All elements in the first column of the Routh array should be positive,
i.e.,
1.5 × 107
1, 204, 000 − > 0 ⇒ 273.573 > K; 1.5 × 107 K > 0 ⇒ K > 0
3408.3
0 < K < 273.573
Thus, the second-order approximation is only valid for K range 0 <

K < 273.573.
(c)
The dominant roots are s1 = 186.53 + j192 and s2 = 186.53 − j192.
The corresponding equivalent damping ratio is 0.694.
7.10 The equations of motion for the system are obtained as follows:
System: β1
n
L2 L2
L1 L1
o
(7.135)
System: β2
n
L1 L1
L2 L2
o
(7.136)
where
m3 m1
Mp1 = , Mp2 = (7.137)
m2 + m3 m1 + m2
and ()0 = d()/dθ; ()00 = d2 ()/dθ2 . θ is the angle with respect to a

reference line.
109
Solving β100 and β200 using Eqs. (7.135) and (7.136), we obtain
n
[1 − Mp1 Mp2 cos2 (β1 − β2 )]β100 − Mp1 Mp2 cos(β1 − β2 ) β10 (2 + β10 )sin(β2 − β1 )
n
o L2 o
+ 3sinβ2 cosβ1 + Mp1 β20 (2 + β20 )sin(β1 − β2 ) + 3sinβ1 cosβ2
L1

L2
− 3Mp1 cos(β1 − β2 )sinβ2 cosβ2 + 3sinβ1 cosβ1 = 0 (7.138)
L1
n
n
o L1 o
L2

L1
− 3Mp2 cos(β2 − β1 )sinβ1 cosβ1 + 3sinβ2 cosβ2 = 0 (7.139)
L2
To design a linear controller for the system, we linearize the preceding

equations with respect to null reference state and we have the resulting
linear equations with control inputs u1 and u2 as

00 L2 L2
[1 − Mp1 Mp2 ]δβ1 − 3Mp1 [Mp2 + ]δβ2 + 3[1 + Mp1 ]δβ1 = u1
L1 L1
(7.140)

L 1 L 1
[1 − Mp1 Mp2 ]δβ200 − 3Mp2 [Mp1 + ]δβ1 + 3[1 + Mp2 ]δβ2 = u2
L2 L2
(7.141)
Comparing these equations with the desired performance specified by

the second order linear system with the given closed-loop damping ratio
and frequency:
δβ100 + 2ζ1 ω1 δβ10 + ω12 δβ1 = 0 (7.142)

δβ200 + 2ζ2 ω2 δβ20 + ω22 δβ2 =0 (7.143)
we obtain the following control laws

L2
u1 = − [1 − Mp1 Mp2 ][2ζ1 ω1 δβ10 + ω12 δβ1 ] − 3Mp1 [Mp2 + ]δβ2
L1

L2
+ 3[1 + Mp1 ]δβ1 (7.144)
L1

L1
u2 = − [1 − Mp1 Mp2 ][2ζ2 ω2 δβ20 + ω12 δβ2 ] − 3Mp2 [Mp1 + ]δβ1
L2

L1
+ 3[1 + Mp2 ]δβ2 (7.145)
L2
To design PD controllers to stabilize the system along local vertical

(β1 = β2 = 0) within ±0.01o in half an orbit, we specify the desired
damping ratio and frequency as follows:
Maximum overshoot: Mp = 0.01 × π/180 = 1.7453 × 10−4 rad.
Settling time (θ): tds = π rad.
s
(lnMp /π)2
ζ≥ = 0.9948 (7.146)
1 + (lnMp /π)2
4.6
ts = ≤tds 1% settling time
ζω
4.6
≤ω
0.9948π
⇒ ω ≥1.4719 (7.147)
Thus,
ω1 = ω2 = 1.5, ζ1 = ζ2 = 1 (7.148)
Next we apply the control laws in the nonlinear system defined by Eqs.
(7.138) and (7.139) as follows:
n
n
o L2 o
L1

L2
− 3Mp1 cos(β1 − β2 )sinβ2 cosβ2 + 3sinβ1 cosβ1 = u1 (7.149)
L1
n
n
o L1 o
L2

L1
− 3Mp2 cos(β2 − β1 )sinβ1 cosβ1 + 3sinβ2 cosβ1 = u2 (7.150)
L2
The following date has been considered for system masses:

m1 m2 , m3 and m2 = m3 leading to Mp1 = 0.5 and Mp2 = 1.
(a) linear equations of motion, 5o initial attitude error in β1 , no dis-

turbance
111
6 1
4 0.5
β1 (deg)
β2 (deg)
2 0
0 −0.5
−2 −1
0 1 2 0 1 2
Orbits Orbits
Control Input u1
Control Input u2
0.3 0.5
0.2
0
0.1
−0.5
0
−0.1 −1
0 1 2 0 1 2
Orbits Orbits
Figure 7.1: System Response
(b) linear equations of motion, 5o initial attitude error in β2 , no dis-

turbance
1 6
0.5 4
β1 (deg)
β2 (deg)
0 2
−0.5 0
−1 −2
0 1 2 0 1 2
Orbits Orbits
Control Input u1
Control Input u2
0.2 1
0.1
0.5
0
0
−0.1
−0.2 −0.5
0 1 2 0 1 2
Orbits Orbits
(c) nonlinear equations of motion, 5o initial attitude errors in β1 and

β2
6 6
4 4
β1 (deg)
β2 (deg)
2 2
0 0
−2 −2
0 1 2 0 1 2
Orbits Orbits
Control Input u1
Control Input u2
0.1 0.1
0.05 0.05
0 0
−0.05 −0.05
0 1 2 0 1 2
Orbits Orbits
(d) nonlinear equations of motion, 135o initial attitude errors in β1

and β2 , 1 Nm disturbance torques along β1 and β2
6000 6000
β1 (deg)
β2 (deg)
4000 4000
2000 2000
0 0
0 1 2 0 1 2
Orbits Orbits
Control Input u1
Control Input u2
2 2
1 1
0 0
−1 −1
−2 −2
0 1 2 0 1 2
Orbits Orbits

113
7.12 The pitch equation motion of the spacecraft is

k2 − k1
δα00 − 3 δα = uα = −kpα δα − kdα δα0 (7.151)
1 − k1 k2
The closed-loop pitch characteristic equation is derived as

k2 − k1
s2 + kdα s + 3 + kpα = 0 (7.152)
1 − k1 k2
Based on the preceding characteristic equation, the controller gains for

the stable response of the system should be
kdα > 0 (7.153)

k1 − k2
kpα > (7.154)
1 − k1 k2
The roll and yaw equations motion of the spacecraft are
δφ00 + (1 − k1 )δγ 0 + 4k1 δφ = uφ = −kpφ δφ − kdφ δφ0
δγ 00 + (k3 − 1)δφ0 + k3 δγ = uγ = −kpγ δγ − kdγ δγ 0 (7.155)
We write the Eqs.(7.155) in the form
X 0 = AX (7.156)
where X is a state vector given by
 


 δφ  


 

 δφ0 
 
X= (7.157)
 δγ 

 


 

0 
δγ

 
and matrix A is
 
0 1 0 0
 
−4k1 − kpφ −kdφ 0 k1 − 1
 
A=  (7.158)
0 0 0 1 
 

 
0 1 − k3 −k3 − kpγ −kdγ
To obtain the eigenvalues, we write

−s 1 0 0

−4k1 −s 0 k1 − 1

|A − sI| = =0 (7.159)
0 0 −s 1

0 1 − k2 −k2 −s

The closed-loop characteristic equation we obtain is
s4 + (kdφ + kdφ )s3 + (1 + 3k1 + k1 k3 + −kpφ + kpγ + kdφ kdγ )s2

+ [kdφ (k3 + kpγ ) + kdγ (4k1 + kpφ )]s + (4k1 + kpφ )(k3 + kpγ ) = 0
(7.160)
Chapter 8
Formation Flying
Problem Set 8
8.1 (I) For the given system

 
0 1 0 0
 
 2
 3θ̇ 0 0 2θ̇ 

A= 
 0 0 0 1 
 
 
0 −2θ̇ kp 0
s4 + (θ̇2 − kp )s2 + 3θ̇2 kp = 0 (8.1)
s4 1 θ̇2 − kp 3θ̇2 kp
s3 0 0 0
We can not proceed further as all elements in the s3 -row are zero. So,
we construct auxiliary function A1 (s) using the elements in the s4 -row
as
A1 (s) = s4 + (θ̇2 − kp )s2 + 3θ̇2 kp (8.2)

116 CHAPTER 8. FORMATION FLYING
Next, we differentiate the preceding equation with respect to s
dA(s)
= 4s3 + 2(θ̇2 − kp )s (8.3)
ds
The elements of the s3 -row of the above Routh array are taken from
the coefficients in Eq. (8.3) and thus, the Routh array is
s4 1 θ̇2 − kp 3θ̇2 kp
s3 4 2(θ̇2 − kp ) 0
θ̇2 − kp
2 3θ̇2 kp 0 (8.4)
2[(θ̇ − kp )2 − 12θ̇2 kp ]
2
s1 0
θ̇2 − kp
s0 3θ̇2 kp
(a) All coefficients in the characteristic equations should be positive,

i.e.,
θ̇2 − kp > 0 ⇒ kp < θ̇2 ; 3θ̇2 kp > 0 ⇒ kp > 0
positive, i.e.,
θ̇2 − kp > 0 ⇒ kp < θ̇2 ,
and
(θ̇2 − kp )2 − 12θ̇2 kp > 0 ⇒ kp2 − 14θ̇2 kp + θ̇2 > 0
⇒ (kp − 13.928θ̇2 )(kp − 0.0718θ̇2) > 0

⇒ kp > 13.928θ̇2 or kp < 0.0718θ̇2
0 < kp < 0.0718θ̇2 (8.5)
(II) The characteristic equation of the given system is obtained as
s4 − kd s3 + (θ̇2 − kp )s2 + (3θ̇2 kd )s + 3θ̇2 kp = 0 (8.6)

117
The Routh array is
s4 1 θ̇2 − kp 3θ̇2 kp
s3 −kd 3θ2 kd 0
2 2 2
s 4θ̇ − kp 3θ̇ kp 0 (8.7)
s 1 12θ̇4 kd 0 0
4θ̇2 − kp
s0 3θ̇2 kp

i.e.,
−kd > 0 ⇒ −kd > 0; θ2 −kp > 0 ⇒ kp < θ̇2 ; (3θ̇2 kd ) > 0 ⇒ kd > 0
and
3θ̇2 kp > 0 ⇒ kp > 0
positive, i.e.,
−kd > 0 ⇒ kd < 0; 4θ̇2 − kp > 0 ⇒ kp < 4θ̇2 ; 12θ̇4 kd > 0 ⇒ kd > 0
and
3θ̇2 kp > 0 ⇒ kp > 0
0 < kp < θ̇2 ; kd < 0, kd > 0 (8.8)
Thus, the system will be unstable for any values of kd .

(III) The characteristic equation of the given system is obtained as
s4 − kd2 s3 + (θ̇2 − kp2 − 2θ̇kd1 )s2 + (3θ̇2 kd2 − 2θ̇kp1 )s + 3θ̇2 kp2 = 0
(8.9)
Taking kd3 = −kd2 , the Routh array is

s4 1 θ̇2 + kp2 − 2θ̇kd1 3θ̇2 kp2

s3 kd3 −3θ̇2 kd3 − 2θ̇kp1 0
s3 4θ̇2 − kp2 − 2θ̇kd1 3θ̇2 kp2 0
2θ̇kp1
+
kd3
s1 −3θ̇2 kd3 − 2θ̇kp1 0 0

3θ̇kp2 kd3
− 2
4θ̇ − kp2 − 2θ̇kd1 + 2θ̇kp1 /kd3
s0 3θ̇2 kp2
(8.10)

i.e.,
kd3 > 0;
θ̇2 − kp2
θ̇2 − kp2 − 2θ̇kd1 > 0 ⇒ kd1 < ;
2θ̇
−3θ̇2 kd3
−3θ̇2 kd3 − 2θ̇kp1 > 0 ⇒ kp1 <
2θ̇
and
3θ̇2 kp2 > 0 ⇒ kp2 > 0
positive, i.e.,
kd3 > 0;
2θ̇kp1 kd3
4θ̇2 −kp2 −2θ̇kd1 + > 0 ⇒ kp1 > −4θ̇2 + kp2 + 2θ̇kd1 ;
kd3 2θ̇
3θ̇kp2 kd3
−3θ̇2 kd3 − 2θ̇kp1 − >0
2 2θ̇kp1
4θ̇ − kp2 − 2θ̇kd1 +
kd3
119
!
1 2θ̇kp1 3θ̇2 kp2 kd3
⇒ kd1 < 4θ̇2 − kp2 + +
θ̇ kd3 3θ̇2 kd3 + 2θ̇kp1
and
3θ̇2 kp2 > 0 ⇒ kp2 > 0
−3θ̇2 kd3 kd3

> kp1 > −4θ̇2 + kp2 + 2θ̇kd1
2θ̇ 2θ̇
−3θ̇2 kd3 kd3

⇒ > −4θ̇2 + kp2 + 2θ̇kd1
2θ̇ 2θ̇
⇒ kp2 > θ̇2 − 2θ̇kd1
We also have
0 < kp2 < θ̇2 − 2θ̇kd1
!
1 2θ̇kp1 3θ̇2 kp2 kd3 θ̇2 − kp2
kd1 < 4θ̇2 − kp2 + + and kd1 <
dsθ̇ kd3 3θ̇2 kd3 + 2θ̇kp1 2θ̇
Thus, the system will be unstable for any values of kd .

Index
Formation flying, 115
Virtual work, 49
121

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Fundamentals of Dynamics

and Control of Space

Dr. Krishna. D. Kumar

Cover page: Full view of the International Space Station as photographed

Krishna Dev Kumar

This Solution Manual is prepared to accompany and supplement the author’s

September 3, 2012 Krishna Kumar

2 Kinematics, Momentum and Energy 1

3 Forces and Torques 33

6 Mathematical and Numerical Simulation 65

8 Formation Flying 115

2.1 The coordinate frames used in studying the dynamics of a spacecraft

to derive the equation of motion of a system, the velocity V ~ and the

The corresponding error in considering an Earth-fixed frame as an in-

The Earth’s spin rate ω is

where γ = m2 /(m1 + m2 ). The corresponding magnitudes are

where L = L0 + vt. The nomenclature Lo defines the initial length of

Figure 2.1: A dumbbell satellite system undergoing in-plane libration.

Applying the transformation between coordinate frames S −xo yo zo and

îo · î = cosβ (2.10)

R1 = [R2 + γ 2 L2 − 2γRLcosβ]1/2 (2.11)

The inertial velocity vectors for spacecraft m1 and m2 are

The corresponding magnitudes are

~ Substituting the above relations in

Inserting these expressions into Eqs. (2.22)-(2.23) and solving, we have

From the coordinate transformation between the coordinate frame S −

Substituting the expressions for R ~˙ 2 and L

The centripetal acceleration components ω ~ o × (~ ~ and ω

Note the terms ω ~ = 0 and (~

Substituting the above relations in Eqs. (2.33)-(2.34), we have the

The corresponding magnitude for spacecraft m1 can be expressed using

From the coordinate transformation between the coordinate frames S −

îo · î = cosβ, îo · ĵ = cos(90 + β) = −sinβ (2.45)

Using these relations, the corresponding magnitude for spacecraft m1

Similarly, the acceleration of spacecraft m2 can be obtained as

Note the preceding expression can be derived simply by replacing re-

2.4 The inertial position vectors for spacecraft m1 and m2 are

where γ = m2 /(m1 + m2 ). The corresponding magnitudes are

To express î in terms of unit vectors in the frame S−xo yo zo , we consider

where Rzy (β, η) is

Using Eq. (2.52), we can write î as

î = cosβcosη îo + sinβcosη ĵo − sinη k̂o (2.55)

R1 = [R2 + γ 2 L2 − 2γRLcosβcosη]1/2 (2.56)

The inertial velocity vectors for spacecraft m1 and m2 are

The corresponding magnitudes are

Knowing the system is orbiting in a circular orbit (i.e., Ṙ = 0), and

Substituting the above relations in Eqs. (2.62)-(2.63), we obtain

From the coordinate transformation between the coordinate frame S −

k̂o = −sinη î + cosη k̂ (2.70)

Using the preceding equation, we write ω

ωx = −(θ̇ + β̇)sinη, ωy = η̇, ωz = (θ̇ + β̇)cosη (2.72)

From the coordinate transformation between the coordinate frame S −

ĵo · ĵ = cosβ, ĵo · k̂ = sinβsinη (2.76)

V1 ={θ̇2 R2 + γ 2 {L̇2 + [(θ̇ + β̇)2 + η̇ 2 ]L2 }

and derive the following terms for L̈ using ω

ω̇y = η̈, ω̇z = [β̈cosη − (θ̇ + β̇)η̇sinη] (2.89)

So, the term L̈ can be expressed as

~¨ = aLx î + aLy ĵ + aLz k̂

Substituting the above relations for R̈ and L̈ in Eqs. (2.80)-(2.81), we

~a1 = −θ̇2 Rîo − γ[aLx î + aLy ĵ + aLy k̂] (2.92)

The corresponding magnitude for spacecraft m1 can be expressed as

− 2θ̇2 Rγ[aLx îo · î + aLy îo · ĵ + aLz îo · k̂]}1/2 (2.94)

From the coordinate transformation between the coordinate frame S −

If m1 m2 , then mass ratios γ1 and γ2 reduce to