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SEAMANSHIP
(AUXSEA)
COMDTPUB P16794.42
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COMDTPUB
PL6794.42
I 5 APR1992
C O M M A N D A NPTU B L I C A T I O N P 1 6 7 9 4 . 4 2
2. DIRECTIVES AFFECT_E_D_.
The Auxiliary Operational Specialty
Course, Student Workbook, CG AUX 498-2(74), is canceled.
D I S T R I B U T I O- N5 P 1 P e . 1 3 0
a b d e o h J K m n o p q u w x v z
A
B
D
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u
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NON-SrANDARDDlsrRlBUTlo : page 2.
ee
COMDTPUP
BL67694.42
19sZ
15 APR
4. ACTION. District Commanders shall insure that this
publication is used as a resource for Auxiliary training and
that all Auxiliary instructors and teaching assistants are
aware of this publication and become thoroughly familiar
with its contents.
/QA,rx
W. J. ECKER
Chief, 0ffjce of NavlgailonSafety
ir :C IjltCr ' ,r ,,e1,
Scr vices
Nonstandard Distribution
Pago
TNTRODUCTION iv
INTRODUCTION.......... .,.........
l-l
FIBERGLASS
BOATS.... 1-l
...,......
wooDBoATs ...................., ............,............
t-5
ALUMINUM ,.......1.7
FABRIC0nflatables) ................
l-8
TypEs oF STEERINC $YSTEMS l-8
.......,.......
CHAPM.ANPiloting Seamanship andSmallBoatHandling
EdyEditions onNauticalTerms
;....................Chap1er
Iater Editions...SectionI ChapterI andAbbreviationsandAcronyms;Section8, Appcndices
STUDYQUESfiONS
cH2
CHAPTER 4 * MARLINSPIIG SEAMANSHIP
INTRODUCTION 5.I
STUDYOUTLINE 5-I
BasicPrinciplesof Boat Handling CHAPMANPiloting
Dock Lines and Their Use Searnanship and Small
Landing at aPier BoatHandling
GettingClear of a Berth Eatly Editiom, Chapteron
Manzuverat Slips in tigbt Quarters Power Cruiscr Seamanship
Handling Twin ScrewBoats Iator EditionsnSection3, Chapte{9
STUDYQUESTTONS 54
INTRODUCTION 6.I
wrNDwAy8s.................... 6.r
STORMTIDEWAVES 63
SEISMICWAVES G4
TIDALWAVE$ 64
SWELLS 6.4
suRF............ M
WAKES 65
cRosssEAs............ 6s
TI{BETFECTOFWINDANDCURRENT ONMANEUVERING................... 65
HEAVYWEATIIEROPERATION 6.8
TrrESEAANCHOR(DROGUE)..................... 69
6ll
CIIAPMAN Piloting Searnanship and Small Boat Handling
Early Editions ....,..Sectionon Boat HandlingUnder Adverse Conditions
Later .,..,-:..".:-::::1"
Editions ::.T.:13::::.T:1::g#ffiHHJ1T
STUDYQT]ESTIONS GI3
cH2
CIIAFTER 7 - ASSISTANCETO BOATSIN DISTRESSAND DAMAGD CONTROL
INTRODUCTrON....,..... 7.1
RIGIITINGA CAPSIZEDSAILBOA.T 7.1
REFLOATINGASTRANDEDVESSEL 7A
APPROACHINGABURNINGVESSEL 7.5
FrREFIGInING............. 7.5
PLUGGINGAI{DPATCHING ....,.I".r....r.,... 7.6
D8WAT8RrNG................. ?-10
CHAPMANPiloting,Seamanship andSmallBoatHandling
EarlyEditions sn Stranding,
,.....Section AssistingandTowingandonEmergency
LaterEditions................-:.:::::::.T.::::::.:.:.:::::::.:::::.::5ffiJfffiff
srIJDy QUESTIONS.................. .............r!.,.... 7-13
INTRODUCTION 8.1
STUDYOUTLINE 8-1
NAVIGATION RULES: LIGHTS AND DAY SHAPES
ThoU. S' InlandRrltt CHAPMANPilotingSeamanship
Intehationil Rulesof the Road ondSmallBoatllandling
EarlyEdritions,
ChaptoronNavigationRules
LaterEditioq$!Section3, Chapters
7 andI
STUDYQUESTTONS
CHAPTER9- AIICEORING
CHAPTERTO-DUTIESAI\IDMAI\INERS
INTRODUCTION l0-l
DUTIES lG.l
MANNERS l0-3
POLLUTION 104
COURTESY
BOARDINGA COASTGUARDVESSEL lc.5
STUDYQUESTIONS 10{
llt
cH2
This Page Left Intentionally Blank
You don't need the desire to be a boat builder to learn more about boat
building. The more you know about how boats are built and what
materials are used to build them' the bet,ter you will be able to sel-ect
a boat and then to maintain her year after year. This lesson will
introduce you to sofite of the boat building materlals In use today and
w111 explain the, steering systems you will find in nearly aL1
powerboats.
cH2
The word fiberglassdoesn'treally define the material. It is more exactly plastic reinforcedwith
fiberglass.The British use a more accuratedescription- CRP, which standsfor glassreinforced
plastic. A fiberglasshull, then, is composedof shandsand layers of fiberglasssaturaledwith
iesin. This constuction can be comparedwith that of reinforcedconcrete.The fiberglassstrartds
sompareto the steelrods andthe resin comparesto ttre cement.
Just as with any other kind of boat building material, there ate good fiberglassboats and bad
fiberglass boats. There are ilulny ways to use fiberglassin building a boat and, predictably,
thereare firrr supportersof eachof these,
,fr?5Ry}\rU
It is alsousedto reinforcejoints andto
providea waterproofbanier.Fiberglass iW
-/4ti{t*-o
cloth is just whatthe rurme implies.it is -qlfililh'
t-2
There are many substances conmonly actded to boat building resi-ns.
Some are used to harden the resin. Others are used to control the
curing tirne of the resins. Stift others are used to make the resin
fire retardant since untreated fiberglass laninates are extremely
flanmable. Resins that have additives to rnake thern fire retardant
will discolor, smoke, and char in the presence of heato but will
not break into flame.
l--3
S t i l l a n o th e r co n stru cti o n nethod is called sandwich constr uction.
r t c o n s i s ts o f a co re n a te rial, usuar ly wood, such as balsa, th at
i s s a n d w i ch e d o n e i th e r si de by layer s of fiber glass inpr egnated
-used
with resin. ottrer core materials that are soietirnes are
foaned plastics or plywood. Sandwich construction provides a boat
tfat_ is very strong and buoyant. There is one diawback though.
Should the laninate become cracked, noisture can enter and stirt
dry rot in the wooden core. This can cause a najor problern. (see
figure t-2.)
BArSA n63rerA55
OR oTt-lE< tAh,{lNAIE
@MATE€IAU
Figurc 1-2.-Srndwich construction. Thc fiberglrs lamina& can bc madc up of rny combinrtion of mrt. doth,
or roving. Ulrally only the cutsidc of thc hoctformed in thir manncr'u finichcd with gcl coal
L-4
Another disadvantage of fiberglass boats is that they are usually
very heavy. In fiberglass, strength and weight are related.
Though it is hard to mal<e a general rule, strong fiberglass boats
are usually heavy fiberglass boats-Iight ones night or night not be
strong ones. There is much research and developnent going on these
days to cut down on the weight of fiberglass laminates while at the
same tirne increasing their strength.
t-5
l{AROWOOO
Tvpr
ot Wood Ogrlitig Ur
The principal considerations in
Arh HrarV, hrrd, Mortly fo? orr selecting wood for boat building
..rd ttiff are strength, decay resistance,
Gr-nharn Orcry cisttnt Grnrnl
and availability. The
secondary,but still important,
LignumVitrr Vrry hrrd rnd Prop.l|lr dlaft b..ringr
voy hcary
properties of woods that affect
their selection for buitding are
Africrn Hrrd rnd drcry Furnitun, fLntrrr and
Mrhognny f.drtlnt htrrion
workabi I ity and witer
absorption.
Mrhogrny Hervy nd hrrd, Furniirn, {|rrurra.
low dr?ink g. imrrian rnd
Dl.nkirre
One of the biggest
considerations of wood for boat
Ork H.rvy, hrrd, niff, Fnmrr rrd othrr
frd nroag ttructu?rl m.'nban
building is how it wiII endure.
The effect of decay, marine
Philigprinr Modarrtaly d.crf lntl?io.r
Mthogany ratinrnt Jrd
borers, weathering, heat, etc.,
modantrly h.rw makes the difference between
good wood and bad wood. How
Tcrk Strong, hirly hrrd, Hull rnd d.ck plrnking,
altaly workcd, nrlingt and oth.r
t'rood stands up to decay is an
vary dccay finirrgr important factor. Decay-causing
rc3rtttnt fungus plants gradually reduce
Bltk Walnut Hclrry, hrrd. Intlriorr wood to a punky or crunbling
nrong, rriff. mass.
retirtlnt to
d.cay
Fungi that cause decay thrive in
danp conditions caused by fresh
soFTvrrooo
brater rather than salt water.
Tvx Wood used in boats, that is not
Ourliticr Ur properly
of Wood ventilated, allowing
the danpness to evaporate, wiII
Cyprur Modcrrt.ly lighr Goml almost surely be attacked by
rnd modarrtcly
ttroog
decay. More on this in lesson
two.
Alaskr Ccdar ModGrrt!ty lighr Gmrnl
rrd rnodaEtrly
lo! in rtra?rgth. Softwood of all wood species is
Hrt axcll|!nt Iow in decay resistance.
waking rnd Hardwood varies considerably in
finirhing
proPCnt6
decay resistance according to
the type of wood. Only a few
Cadar Light, nEdcr.taly Pbnking types of wood are rated high in
nrong. hahly
rdinant to
this property. Hardwood of such
dccry species as douglas fir, cedar,
rnahogany, southern yellow pine,
O o u g l a sF i r Strong. moderrtaly Gcncnl
hrrd, hrany, rnd western larch, and white oak, is
modcrataly dccay usually classified as moderate
ncrrtt!nl in decay resistance and
Eancrn Modrntaly Jror\g K|!at generally gives good service
Lrrctl under nold conditions of decay.
(H!ck-
mrtackl
1-6
STEEL. There are two metals that are most cornmonly used to build
boats, steel and aluminurn. Steel has been used in the past, and in
the present, too, for that matter, for fairly large boats and
yachts, while aluminum has been used for large and small craft.
For instance, aluminum accounts for the najority of canoes and john
boats b u i l t t o d a y .
L-7
one disadvantage of aruminum is that it is a very good heat
conductor. Aluninum hulls tend to sweat considerably because of
this. Another disadvantage is that alurninum has a fairly low
nelting point. rn the presence of a fire with intense heat,
aluminum will mert more readily than will steel. Another
disadvantage is that it is noisy. rt is so noisy that if the hull
of an aluminurn boat is not specially treated against noise, it will
conduct sounds unheard of in boats built of other materials. To
sit in an outboard-motor-powered, non-sound-darnpened alurninum boat
being operated at high speed can be deafening.
These boats have a wide range of uses frorn the light single p1y for
play to the many layered laminates used for running rapids and
heavy ocean use.
There are several advantages of fabric boats over other boats. One
is the ease of transport both in the deflated and inflated
condition. fnflations may be accomplished by CO, bottles, but
generally is done with an air punp. The materiars are tough and
with reasonable care these boats wirr rast a rong time. They do
not rust, blister, or have dry-rot, and storage and haul out can be
easier than boats made of other materials.
1-8
Tillers are predorninantly used
in sailboats. The nain Tru.ER
disadvantage of a tiller is that
it takes up too much room in the
cockpit of a boat. And, of
course, a tiller in a large boat
has very Iittle mechanical
advantage. (See fig. 1-3.)
l_-9
at the other end to the rudder assembly. There is no need for
pulleys in this system and the cabre Can go up, down, and around
according to the layout of the boat" when the pinion gear turns
and engages the rack, the cabre is pushed or pulled, ac6ordinq io
which way the steering wheel is turned. The cable iransmits €fris
push or pull to the rudder assenbly, which in turn translates it
into right or left rudder.
The gear and shaft steering systern is seldom found on small boats.
rt is found more often on large craft, usually commercial boats.
At the end of the steerinq wheel i-s a bevel driving gear, which
engages another gear that is connected to a shaft. The shaft,
sornetimes utilizing universal joints, travels from the steering
wheel to the rudder, where its notion is transrated by a worm gear,
a bevef gear, or cables and purreys, to reft or righl rudder:
Hydraulic steering systems are sinilar to automotive power
steering. This type of system is being found on an increlsing
number of recreational vessels. They use hydraulic fluid that i;
purnped through a system to actuate the rudder. The steering wheel
is connected to a pump with valves. l{hen the wheel is turn6d, the
pump pushes fluid through the appropriate valves into hydraulic
lines that carry the fluid to the actuating cylinder. rn the
cylinder, the motion of the fluid is translatea into teft or right
rudder by a linkage to the rudder head.
1-L 0
STUDY QUESTIONS
t -LL
12. List the disadvantages of fiberglass-built boats.
17. Why rnust you put a layer of nonmetallic paint between the
hult of an aluminum boat and a layer of copper bottom paint?
1.
2.
3.
4.
6.
t-L2
21. Thesimpleststeeringsystemis the
22. The cuve or sweepof the deckof a vesselwhe.nviewedfrom the side is tlre
23, Theoutwardcruvatureof the sidesof the boatnearthe bow that is usedto keep
thedeckdrieris calledthe
25. andplaninghuln
Whatis thediftrence betweena displacement
29. The use of two or more materials in the hull of a vessel is known as
cons8uction.
r-13
cH2
31, The spokeof a steeringwheel that is vertical when the rudder is exacfly centered
is the _spoke.
32. Theverticaldistancebetweeuthewaterlineandgunwaleis _.
33. of thefollowiugsailboatqpes:
Desctibethecharacteristics
Catboat
Sloop
Ketch
Yawl
l-14
cH2
CHAPTER 2
BOAT IIAII'TENAIICE
HAULfNG OtIf. Hauling out tine is one of the nost important tines
to ensure the proper maintenance of your boat. To most boaters,
however, hauling out signals the end of the boating Season, and
maintenance is put aside until the fittj"ng out period just before
the boat is launched in the spring. That attitude is dangerous,
since it can mean more work later. Many of the maintenance chores
you night face in the spring can be handled when the boat is hauled
out, or can even be prevented if the job is handled correctly at
the beginning. What you do when you haul your boat, and how you go
about Aoing it, can mean the difference between a well-naintained
boat and a poorly rnaintained boat, regardless of your intentions.
When you haul your boat, whether the job is done by you or at a
yard, the first thing to consider is the proper blocking of the
hull. Boats should be stored upright, though dinghies, canoes, and
other small craft can be stored upside down provided they are
covered adequately. Upright boats must be blocked correctly. The
weight of the boat should rest on the keel, which should itself
rest on blocks to allow ventilation of the bottom of the keel.
Blocks should be spaced about every five feet along the keel and
should be high enough so that you can get to the bottom of the keel
to p e r f o r m y o u r m a i n t e n a n c e c h o r e s . W h e n y o u blocl. tp your boat,
try to g e t t h e w a t e r l i n e a s l e v e l a s p o s s i b l e ; this will prevent
the boat f r o m b e i n g s u b j e c t e d t o s t r a i n s s h e h t a s n o t d e s i g ned to
handle. Do n o t a l l o w t h e w e i g h t o f t h e b o a t t o r e s t o n t h e s horing
that y o u wiII h a v e t o u s e t o h o l d t h e b o a t u p r i g h t ; t h i s s h o r i ng is
inten-ded only a s l a t e r a l s u p p o r t s , s i n c e e x c e s s i v e s t r a i n s o n the
sides and bottom of the hull could do severe damage to the
structural strength o f t h e b o a t .
After the boat is blocked up, the real laying-up procedure begins.
It is here boats are neglected. Too many boat onners see their
boats hauled up on shore at this stage a n d a s s u m e that all work on
her has ceased until the following spring.
2-1,
rmnediatery after the boat is haured, crean the botton of arl
growths and narine life. rf you wait to do the job, all that
growth on the bottorn will dry up and harden like cement. In short
order, it will seem as if that ness has become a permanent part of
the hull. At the same time, wash the entire hull down witn fresh
water, including decks and superstructure. This is especially
important if you are going to store the boat under cover, u" tha
fall and winter rains will then have no chance to wash away all the
saltwater that can becorne crusted on every surface.
LAYING ttP. When laying up the boat, there are several inportant
steps that must be taken.
FilI the fuel tanks and use a fueL stabilizing compound. This wiII
prevent the formation of varnish in the fuel system and aid in
reducing water condensation in the tanks.
Drain the bitge. Leave the drain prug out, but stow it where you
can find it before launching. rf you don,t have a drain in tne
bottom of your boat, pump out as much as you can and then sponge
dry the rest.
change the engine oil and filter and then lay up the engine
according to the specifications of the particulai engine that you
are using; each manufacturer has instructions that upply to it=
machinery. This usually involves a ttfoggingrr procedure-wnich coats
the cylinder walls with oil to prevent corroJion.
Go through the entire boat and remove arr the perishables you can
find. Don't be faced with returning t o y o u r b o a t i n t h e s p r i n g and
discovering a lingering odor that wiII not go away,
rf you have a holding tank, flush it out with fresh water a n d add
appropriate non-toxic RV antifreeze. Remove alr liquids i n the
boat that might freeze.
Take out everything that is movable, including aIl those itens that
are likery aspects for theft, such as the compass, navigation
tools, radiotelephone, oars, etc.
After all of this gear is out of the boat, wash down the interior,
including the cockpit area, lockers, and forepeak. Remove the
fLoor-boards and leave them off to allow the bilge to ventilate.
If the boat is to be covered, leave the engine cover off.
2-2
Your boat is now ready to be covered. ff you are going to keep the
boat in a shed, so much the better. But if not, the best bet is to
cover the boat with a t a r p o r p l a s t i c . Whatever you use, be sure
that the boat is ventilated. Leave spaces around the covering to
allow air to circulate. This w i I I p r e v e n t c o ndensation, which will
result in dry rot andr/or a foul sroell. It night be a good idea to
build a liqht framework over the boat, i f i t i s l arge, to support
the covering. PVC pipe makes an easily constructed framework.
Now check over the covering for security. Make certain that it is
on tiqhtly and that aII tie-downs are knotted securely. Go over
each itress point, and if there is any doubt i n y o u r m i n d about
whether it will hold, then it will not. Check for p l a c e s w here
chafe night occur, and put chafing gear in p l a c e s w h e r e i t is
called for. Bungee cords are good for maintaining t e n s i o n o n t h e
cover.
Marine growth takes two forms: vegetable and animal Life. Though
both types can b e f o u n d o v e r a l l p a r t s o f a b o a t ' s h u l l , the
generai tendency is for vegetable growths to congregate around the
waterline and anirnal g r o w t h s t o s p r e a d o v e r t h e l - o w e r p a r t s o f the
huII. Vegetable g r o w t n i n c l u d e s w e e d s , a l g a e , a n d f u n g i . A n i m al
growths iriclude barnacles, m i n u t e s h e l l f i s h , a n d w o r m s ( i n t r o p i c a l
climates).
Boats of materials other than wood are not threatened by borers and
worms; fiberglass, ferro-cement, aluminum, a n d s t e e l boats are
k e dgrowth.
- i t t a cof
irnpervious to tnis type But contrary to sorne beliefs,
thly can still be by vegetable g r o w t h a n d must be
protected as carefully as wooden hulIs.
2-3
rn years past, the sorution to the probrem was to sheath hurl
bottoms with copper. Sailors discovered that, although copper does
not corrode much in the presence of sea water, it constantly gives
off soluble poisonous salts when inmersed in salt water. ihese
sarts, dS they wash off the surface of the copper, effectively
prevent the adhesion of weeds, sherlfish, and worms to the hurr.
Today, boaters use modern bottom paints that perform the same
function as copper sheathing. These paints kilI marine growths in
their early stages, preventing a build-up of vegetation ind aninal
life on the bottour. The principle of these paints is the same as
for the copper sheathing-a constant solution of poisonous matters
(prinarily copper and mercury) is given off by the paint. ilarine
growths are thus discouraged by what is in effect an antiseptic
filrn on the bottom of the boat.
DRY ROT. Dry rot is one of the evils that face owners of wooden
boats. It is always Iurking about, ready to strike when and where
you least expect it. ff you have it and cure it, it often
reappears just after you have convinced yourself that it is qone
for good.
2-4
Dry rot is a nisnomer, as this type of rot only can take hold in
the presence of wetness or dampness. It is caused by a fungrus that
thrives on fresh water. Saltwater seems to discourage dry rot,
though it, wiII not necessarily cure it once it has taken hold.
After you have found dry rot, it nust be renoved. The fungus will
spread like wildfire if it is not checked, and merely soaking it
witn a preservative, o! something you think night kill it, is not
eneugh. Cut out the affected wood innediat€IY, and.get as nuch on
either side of the rot as you can. By cutting back into good wood,
you are providing for a margin of error. There is no way to tell
if tne fungus has spread from the obviously rotten section or not.
2-5
The rnost effective way to lick the dry rot problem is to prevent it
from gettin.g in your boat in the first place. The best way of
doing this is to keep fresh water out and stop it from collecting.
This neans naking sure that hatches are tight, decks are well
caurked, fittings are bedded in conpound, etc. rf fresh water
can't get into your boat, then you have nothing to worry about.
But you must also be certain that fresh water can also get out of
your boat. Condensation can form inside the boat and cause dry rot
as easily as can rainwater frorn without. Make sure your boat is
well ventilated at aII times.
Galvanic action as boaters know it, takes place when two dissinilar
metals that are electrically connected are immersed in non-
chemically-pure water. The metals actually don't even have to be
in the water; corrosion can take place when the metals are
connected only by danp wood. By galvanic action, one metal of the
two is corroded at the expense of the other.
2-6
fn the table, the nost noble THE ELECTROLYTIC
TASLE
metals are at the top, and the
Ieast noble metals are at the Mrranry
bottom. In other words, nickel Monrl
together with aluminum in non-
Nickcl
pure water will produce an
electrical current that wiIl Eronzr {rillcon}
eventually result in the Copprr
destruction of the alurninum. Eras lrtdl
Sron:r {dunrlruml
Galvanic action is insidious.
It takes place when you least Gun mrol
expect it. For instance, if you Brut lyrllow)
use copper botton paint on the Bron:r (phqhor)
huII of an aluminun boat, the
Tin
copper in the paint will corrode
the alurninum in the hull. The L..d
only bray you can prevent this, Stacl (rtainlorl
assuruing that you must use a I ron
copper anti-fouling paint, is to
Strl (mildl
put a layer of
non-ruetallic paint between the Aluminum
two. But even then, you must be Crdmium
certain that the coverage of the Galwnizrd iroo tnd cta.l
nonnetallic paint is absolute.
Zirc
The slightest exposure of the
aluninum below can result in Megrniwn
galvanic action. Th. illtalr clot togath.r in thir t$h can bo tnrd
to{adr.r. Mrtali frr ap.n clnnot. For insoncr. brooza rnd
ordinary yellow brass, conposed coppar crn bc urcd togcthr; alqminum and copprr crnnot.
of zinc a nd copper, carries the
seeds of its own destruction in
salt water. over a period of tine, the galvanic action in, Sdy, a
brass screw, wiII erode the zinc, Ieaving a spongry mass of copper.
For that reason, brass screws, brass sea cocks, and valves are
useless in salt water.
What can you do? lilost boats require many types of netal f or
diverse purposes. For instance, a boat that has a bronze propeller
and an iron rudder needs protection or the rudder will be quickly
destroyed. The answer is to add a third metal to the process.
This third metal is known as a sacrificial rnetal it is sacrificed
to save the other two. To protect the iron rudder, a block of zinc
or other rnetaL less noble than iron can be attached to the rudder.
What happens then is the zinc, not the iron, sets up a current with
the bronze propeller, which is most noble, and is itself destroyed.
Thus the iron rudder is protected. The bronze propeller, since it
is most noble, takes care of itself.
2-7
Note: when using sacrificiar metars on your boat, be certain to
replace then periodicalry. rf you do not, you will be fooled by
your ohtn craftiness the sacrificial netal will conpletely erode,
Ieaving you with the original two metals, which will imrnediately go
to work on each other. Remember, do not paint over the zincsr or-
else they will not work.
2-8
The shaft nust eventually 90
through the bottom of the hull.
To do this, it passes through a
shaft 1og. At the inboard end
of the shaft log there is a
stuffing box. This is sirnilar 0tAilo
to the packing gland in a water
faucet. This combination of the I{UI
shaft 1og and stuffing box fl.Arf0
prevents water from entering the
boat through the shaft hole.
The stuffing box surrounds the
shaft and holds rings of packing
material. These rings are
squeezed tightty around the
shaft by a ttglandtr or rrgland sruffil6
nutrr. Water can come up into BOI
the shaft log from the bottorn,
but is prevented from entering
the boat by the packing material
in the stuffing box. The shaft
Iog and stuffing box are usuaIIY
made of bronze. The Packing tigre 2-3. Typicafstuffing bor.
material is made of a special
flexible naterial.
Once through the hull, the shaft goes through the strut. The strut
is an appendage attached to the botton of the boat that acts as a
support and bearing for the shaft. There are many types of struts
in use today, nost with only one arm but sone with two or three.
The strut must always be securely bolted to the bottom of the boat
and must be rigid. If it is not, the shaft will be able to wobble'
the bearing night be ruined, the shaft rnight bend, and you will at
Ieast get a considerable anount of vibration in your boat. As the
strut, shaft, and strut bearing are underwater, the bearing relies
on water for lubrication. Bearings in the old days were almost
always made of lignum vitae wood, but now they are.usually nade of
rubber or micarta. Many of then have grooves cut in then to allow
for a continuous flow of water inside. The bearing rnust be checked
2-9
periodically to be certain that it is in good condition. If the
bearing g o e s , the shaft can be damaged.
At the end of the shaft is the propeller, which comes in nany sizes
and shapes. eiopellers diffe-r i; diarneter, pitch, direction of
iotation, shaft-n^ofe size, and the nunber of blades. The dianeter
of a propeller is simply the diameter of the circle defined by the
-tne
tips tf turning bfaaes. The pitch of the propeller is the
.ngt" of the blades; to engineers, it is the distance the propeller
wouta move ahead after one revolution. The number of blades for a
propeller can go fron two on up. Most powerboats use a three-
bladed proPeller.
2-LO
STT'DY QUESTIONS
3. List the lay-up chores that must be done after the boat is
hauled out.
6. What are the two things that can happen to a wooden boat that
is not protected against marine growths?
1 0 . A f i r st i n d i ca ti o n o f dr Y r ot is
2-Lt
l-1. Lj-st some of the places to look for dry rot in a wooden boat.
, and
2-L2
CHAPTER 3
3-t
rxru!l
3-2
The 4-stroke cycle diesel engine operates on the same nechanical,
or operational, cycle as the gasoline engine. fn the diesel engine,
the coropression ratio is nuch higher than in the gasoline engine.
This is necessary to increase the heat generated by the compression
of the air in the compression stroke. The fuel is injected into
the cylinder at the top of the compression stroke where it is
ignited by the heat.
3-3
This scavenging operation takes place almost instantly and
corresponds to the intake and exhaust strokes of the 4-stroke
cyc1e.
3-4
E.-
corrPREssrofl
PSTOil ilG:;
E€
;l ---0
t
a ----_-€ PE;TOil Pir
E /(\
\
Plttttr Pil c^P
3-5
The camshaft is a long steel
shaft that extends the length of
the engine and carries one or nore
cams for each cyLinder. The shaft
is cylindrical, but the cans are
irregular in shape (see figure 3-
5). Each cam is partly circular
in outline but carries a LOBE
( HIJUP) which gives it an egg-
shaped appearance. The circular
part of the can is called the CAI{
FLAT. The canshaft is designed to
change rotary to interrnittent
reciprocating motion. A tappet
riding on the rotating cam is
Iifted each tine the lobe comes
around.
The camshaft must be tined with the crankshaft so that the lobes
will open the valves in each cylinder at the correct instant in the
operating cycle. In the 2-stroke cycle the exhaust valves are
opened for only a short tine, at the botton of the pohter stroke, to
pernit the burned gases to escape. Since the cycle is cornpleted in
one revolution, the camshaft rotates at the same speed as the
crankshaft.
3-6
Air Svstern. In the 4-stroke cycle engine, the air enters the
cylinders through the intake valve. As each p i s t o n g o es down on
the intake stroke, the volume of the conbustion charnber increases
and the pressure decreases. The normal atmospheric pressure then
forces the air into the cylinder through the intake vaIve.
3-7
The oil is delivered by the gear-type oil punp. This pump takes
suction through a screen fron an oil pan or sump. Frorn the punp,
the oil is forced through the oil strainer and the oil cooler into
the oil nanifold in the cylinder block. This nanifold extends the
length of the engine and serves as a passage and reservoir from
which the oil is fed to the nain crank-shaft bearings and one end
of the hollow carnshaft. Host noving parts and bearings are
Iubricated by oil. drawn fron these two sources. The cylinder walls
and the teeth of many of the gears are lubricated by oil spray
thrown off the rotating crankshaft. After the oil has served its
purpose, it drains back to the sump to be used over again.
The oil pressure in the line }eading fron the purnp to the engine is
indicated on a pressure gage. A ternperature gage in the return
Iine provides an indirect nethod for indicating variations in the
ternperature of the engine parts. Any abnormal drop in pressure or
rise in ternperature should be investigated at once. It is
advisable to stop the engine until the trouble has been located and
corrected.
3-8
In other types of engines, fresh water is circulated through the
engine and then through a heat exchanger. Sea water is purnped
through this exchanger and cools the fresh water. An advantage of
the fresh-water systern is that it keeps the water passages cleaner,
avoids the corrosive effects of sea water, and thus provides better
cooling.
3-9
A diesel engine will not operate efficiently unless clean fuel is
delivered to the injector. As the fuel oiL is punped into the fuel
tanks, it should be strained through a fine- nesn screen. The
larger particles of the solids suspended in the fuel are trapped - f i n e rin
the primary screen. The secondary filter separates the
particles of _foreign natter that pass through tne prinary filter
screen. The final filtering takes place within the injectdr. ltost
filters have a drain plug for removing the water, sludge, and other
foreign matter. The firter shourd be drained once ; d.y, or as
specified in the manufacturerrs technical manual.
There are many nethods of fuel injection and just as many types of
in jectors. one is the rrunit in jector'r system. The iijector
consists basically of a small cylinder and a plunger, and eitends
through the cylinder head to the combustion chamber. A cam,
located on the camshaft adjacent to the cam that operates the
exhaust valves, acts through a rocker arm and lowers the plunger at
the correct instant in the operating cycle. when the injector
prunger is depressed, it sguirts, oF injects, a fine spray oi fuer
into the cylinder, through srnall holes in the nozzLe. The smooth
operation of the engine depends to a large extent on the accuracy
with which the plungers inject the same amount of fuel into each
conbustion charnber. The amount of fuel injected into the cylinders
on each stroke is controlled by rotating the plungers or a unit
injector. The throttle, which regulates the speed of the engine,
is connected to the injectors through a portable linkage. Changing
the throttle setting rotates the plungers and varies €he anount oi
fuel injected into the cylinders on each stroke.
3-l_0
I n d u c t i o n S yste m. T h i s system dr aws gasoline fr om the fuel tank
and air from the atrnosphere, mixes then, and delivers the mixture
t o t h e c yl i n d e rs. ft co n sists of the fuel tank, the fuel punp, the
c a r b u r e t or, a n d th e n e cessar y fuel lines and air passages .
Flexible tubing carries the fuel from the tank to the carburetor,
while the intake nanifold carries the fuel-air mixture fron the
c a r b u r e t or to th e i n d i vi d u al cylinder s.
When the engine is running, the eccentric acts through the rocker
arn to lower the diaphragrm against the spring pressure. This draws
a charge of fr:el into the pump chamber through the inlet check
valve. During the next half-revolution of the eccentric, the
spring pushes the diaphragrm upward and forces the fuel out of the
punp chamber, through the outlet check valve, into the line leading
Lo the carburetor. The pump witl continue to deliver fuel as long
as the force of the spring is able to overcome the pressure in the
carburetor fuel line.
Frorn this description, it can be seen that the cam action of the
eccentric merely moves the diaphragrn downward and compresses the
spring, while the actual pumping is done by the spring .as the
piessure on it is released. The pressure which the punp maintains
in the fuel line depends on the strength of the diaphragrn spring.
As the pressure builds up, a point is reached where the spring wiII
be strong enough to lift the diaphragn only part of the htay. l{hen
no fuel is being taken into the carburetor, the diaphragm will
remain in the lowest position and the punp will not deliver any
fuel.
3-t_t_
The CARBURETORis a device used
for sending a fine spray of fuel
into a ruoving stream of air on
its way to the intake valves of
the cylinders. The spray is
swept along, vaporized, and
AkHqm ( as ;
nixia gai) , with the
6orrvrlvr noving air. The carburetor is
designed to naintain the same
nourt nixture ratio over a wide range
vrntwiCbrta of engine speeds. The UIXTTIRE
vcnr'd RATIO is the number of pounds of
air nixed with each pound of
gasoline
lhrorrtrEorty vapor. A RICH l,lIxTttRE
'
is one in which the percentage
Thronrrvrhn of gasoline vapor is high, while
a LEAN MIXTTIRE contains a low
percentage of gasoline vapor.
Gasoline engines nonnally
operate best on a mixture ratio
of about 12 to 1. A carburetor
tigre 3-10. I scberaticftaring of a consists of several principal
float-typecarbrrretor. parts, each of them perf onning
T h e M A I N J E T S Y S T E Mc o n s i s t s o f t h e d i s c h a r g e n o z z l e l o c a t e d i n t h e
venturi-shaped air passage or throat of the carburetor. A
restriction, called a metering jet, is located in the passage that
carries the fuel from the float chanber to the nozzle. fhe nain
air-bleed perruits air to pass into the discharge nozzle and mix
with the fuel. This air-bleed arrangernent, when properry designed,
will rnaintain a fairly constant fuel-air nixture raiio at aIl
engine speeds above idling.
3-L2
The inconing air must speed up to get through this snall passage.
According to a law of physics, the speeding up of a fluid in a
closed passage is accompanied by a corresponding decrease in
pressure. The reduction in pressure in the venturi section of the
carburetor causes a fine stream of fuel to spray from the nain jet.
The fuel level in the float chamber is naintained slightly below
the tip of the discharge nozzle, so that fuel will not run out of
the nozzle when the engine is stopped.
The IDLING SYSTEM provides a rich mixture for slow engine speeds
and for starting. It is made up of the idling jet, the idling air-
bleed, and the idling passage. The idling passage opens into the
air passage through the idling jet, which is just above the
throttle valve. When the engine is idling with the throttle alrnost
closed, the action of the intake stroke in each cylinder creates a
high vacuum in the air passage above the throttle valve. FueI
flows up through the idling passage and discharges into the air
strearn. The idling air-bleed is adjusted to regulate the idling
mixture ratio,
3 - 1 -3
The ignition systen is designed
to deliver a spark in the
combustion charnber of each
cylinder at a specific point in
that cylinder's cycle of
operation. A typical ignition
system consists of an ignition
coil, a nechanical breaker, a
condenser, a distributor, a
- . l r * * , o .* * i ? f t + + sparkplug in each cylinder, a
@,&rq i t t i t switch, and the necessary
wiring.
There are two distinct circuits in the ignition systern, called the
prirnary and secondary. The prirnary, or 1ow voltage circuit,
contains the battery, the ignition switch, the ignition coir, and
the breaker points and condenser. The secondary, or high-voltage
circuit, is also connected to the ignition coil, and includes the
distributor and spark plugs.
3-l_4
THE DISTRIBUTOR, contains a rotor, located secondary or high
voltage circuit, serves as a selector switch to rrdistributerf the
hiqh voltage current to the individual spark plugs. The same drive
shaft operates both the breaker points and the rotor.
The electrical systen should require little care other than routine
maintenance as specified in the ordners nanual. You should keep the
connections tightened and the battery terninals covered with a
Iiqht coating of petrolatum or Vaseline. The condenser, breaker
points,and spark ptugs, should be changed at the interval specified
in the oh,ners manual.
3-15
IXBOARD - OIIIBOARDS (I/O'sl. I/O' s have gained popularity as the
engine is installed in the stern section of the boat leaving more
unobstructed space in the boat. An outdrive goes through the
transom and down the lower unit to the propeller assembly similar
to the outboard drive. However this does call for one more angle
to transnit the power to the propeller and hence one more possible
source of maintenance problems. The outdrive usually goes through
the hull at or near the waterline and since the leg cannot be
Ij-fted clear of the water, in most instances, it leaves the drive
mechanism in the water when not in use. In salt water, T/Ots have
trouble with the part which is made of an alloy of aluminum which
is subiect to electrolysis. Engine operation and maintenance is
the same as for any other inboard engine.
3-t-6
sruDv QuEsrroNs.
1. In the spark ignition engine, fuel and air is rnixed i.n the
1.
a
3.
4.
1.
7. List the main working parts of the pohter system that transrnit
power frorn the cylinders to the drive shaft.
3-L7
10. The lubricating system in an internal combustion engine
delivers oil to the moving parts to and to
13. fn the gasoline engine, the ratio of the fuel to air mixture is
controlled by the
, and
3-t_8
l-9. List the cornponents in the secondary ignition circuit of a
gasoline engine.
20. The high voltage that produces the spark in the spark plug is
produced in the
3- 19
CHAT4IER4
I{ARLTNSPIKE gEAURilgfiTP
!-ql*g* Of, .FPPts. Today t,here are three basic t149es of, rope
available to boaters. They are natural rope, synthetic rope, and
wire rope, However, there has been a great shift away from the
natural llnes to the synthetic ]ines in the past few years. Once
rope is placed aboard a vessel- and/or put to us€r it is termed
Line.
NqtPraf ,Ililrp,, Until the 1.950's, there were six tlpes of natural
fiber line readily availabre for use. ?hese were nanila, sisaL
cotton, hempr Linen, and jute. Ot these six, maniLa and cotton
lines axe Just about the only ones whlch can be found in most
marine supply gtores today. Because of this, only manila and
cotton will be discussed here.
Manil.a line ig made from plant fibers and is fairly Etrong and
durable. It is the most popular of natural fiber lines. fts main
advantages are: it is readily available, relative inexpensive and
ls very durable, With proper care, manila line can last for
years. It has virtually been replaced, however, by synthetic
llne for running rigging and other light use. Compared to
synthetic fiber line, manila is fairly stiff. Its chief
disadvantage is that lt wi].l deteriorate if Btowed wet, or
allowed to lie out in the sun or foul weather, rt dries easj-1y,
though, and is not very hard to maintain.
Cg!!g+ line has only about half the strength of manila line. It
is mostly used by smalL boats. Unlike uranila, iL is pllable and
soft to the touch, and w111 run srnoothly in bloclts. rts main
disadvantage ls that it is susceptible to rot. It also stret,ches
quite a bit like some of, the syn|hetics.
FrqFhqFlc P*rr-rg. synthetic line may look like natural fiber line
but there is a world of difference between them. slmthetics
usually cogt much more than natural fiber 1in€r but the
difference in price is Eenerally well worth it, The use of
synthetice is vety advantageous,
synthetics can be stowed wet, and they ar6 almost irnpervious to
salt, air, waterr and anything else that could destroy natural
line. they last an incredibly long t,ine. They are tougher
and stronger size for size than Just about any other line
material. synthetics can do anythinE that f,iber l"ine can do and
do the better just about every time.
4-1
cH2
Synthetic line needs hardly any mad-ntenance, lo be sur€r it
wiLt deteriorate when left out in the weaLherr but this rate
of deterioratlon is fairly slow. It can also mildew if stored
wet. If gynthet,ics are given the care that is usually given
to fiber line, then their longevity is almost llnitless.
All synthetics tend to un3.ay when they are cut, so care should
be taken when cuttinE them. After cuttlng, you should
immediately whip them. Heat can heJ-p you a 1ot when whipping
synthetic line. For instance, a soJ.dering iron heLd against
the end of a nylon line will melt the fiberg. When the iron
is taken dwalr the molten mass wil-I harden; giving you a self-
contained whipping.
4- 2
Polyethylene and Polvpropylene are two other types of synthetic
line in use today. They have similar properties and, quite
understandably, similar names. Compared to the other synthetics,
however, polyethylene and polypropylene line have several
disadvantages. o n e i s l o w a b r a s i o n r e s i s t a n c e . Another
disadvantage is that they are not as supple as the other
synthetics. They have the sane flexibility a s m a n i l a .
Both types of line are very popular because they float. They have
just about replaced all other types of line as water-ski tow lines.
Wire Rope. Wire rope is not used very much by small boaters. fts
use is generally confined to rigging on sailboats and anchor lines
for small boats. fts manufacture is similar to fiber and synthetic
Iine. It is made up of wound strands of wire, generally over a
core, which is sornetimes made of wire, but usually of fiber. Using
fiber for the core of wire rope gives it flexibifity and forms a
cushion for the wire strands. This provides the wire rope with a
certain amount of elasticity or give. Wire ropes are made in five
grades, which are rel.ative to strength. These grades are, in
declining order: improved plow steel, plow steel, mild plow steel,
traction steel, and iron.
Do not overload your line. For lines of aII types, assume that
the safe working strength i s o n e-fif'th its breaking strength. In
other words, if the breaking s t r e n g t h o f a l i n e i s o n e t h o u s a n d
pounds, then never subject it to a strain of more than two hundred
pounds. What you are doing, in effect, is saving those other four-
fifths or 8OO pounds for an emergency" If your line is o1d or
worn, make an allowance to this o n e - f i f t h r u l e . f n o t h e r words,
make it one-tenth.
protect your lines against abrasion. Both the outer and inner
fibers of your line contribute equally to its strength. It stands
to reason that worn line is weakened line. Where line is subject
to loca} abrasion for instance, when it witl rub against a chock
protect it with chafing gear, such as canvas wrapped tight around
the line.
4-3
Avoid sudden strains on your line. Lines of a}l types that are
strong enough to hold up to a steady strain can be broken with a
sudden jerk. Care when working with lines is extrernely irnportant.
Always keep your lines clean. Dirt acLs like sandpaper on both
natural and synthetic line. It is an abrasive and is dangerous to
lines if it is allowed to work into the fibers. Wash your lines
thoroughly with clean water when it becomes dirty. And, of course,
allow it t o dry before y o u p u t it back into use. Even though
synthetic line wiII not rot if stored wet, you do not want to
induce any more moisture into your storage Iockers than necessary.
A1ways match your Iine to its use. For instance, use the right
size line for the sheaves in a block or puIley. Don't force thick
line into a small chock. Misusing your line in this way can put
excess wear on it.
Keep chernicals of all kinds away from your lines. Natural fiber
lines can be severely damaged by exposure to chemicals. Though the
ruLe books say that synthetic fiber line is immune to damage from
oil, gasoline, paint, turpentine, alcohol, and most other
chemical-s, be on the safe side. Make it a general rule to keep
chemicals ahray from aII kinds of line.
Avoid excess wear. To avoid wear, reverse your line end for end
periodically. This wiII distribute the wear more evenly on your
line and give a longer life. For instance, end-for-end your anchor
Iine at regular intervals, the part that is regularly immersed in
water should be substituted for the part that remains dry on deck.
Do not run your lines over sharp angles. Sharp bends in a line
decrease its strength in that spot. If you have to run your line
over a sharp angle, pad it for safety.
4-4
LIXE USAGE, KNO{IS. HTTCHES. BErDS - Al{D SPLICES.
T h e S O U A R EK N O T , ( f i g u r e 4-2)
or Reef Knot, is one of the most
common knots for joining two
Iines of equal size together
where no great load is placed. Sguarc knot. Also called reef knot.
It jarns up tight and is hard to
undo when given great strain
and, if one side is pulled
unevenly, rnight cause the knot
to fall into two half hitches.
4-5
The BOWLINE (figure 4-3), often referred to as the rrKing of
Knotsrr, is the most used knot for naking a tenporary loop. It is
made w i t h a s i n g l e l i n e , i s e a s y t o t i e , w o n t s l i p u n d e r l o a d and
is e a s i t y u n t i e d . I t m a y a l s o b e u s e d t o j o i n t w o l i n e s t o g e t h er
by tying the of one bowline inside the loop of the other.
J
Xake loop Up ttrrough end Back dorn
enound back through
4-6
The CLovE HrTCH (figure 4-5)
is a basic knot used to
temporarily tie a line to
ry
pilings, etc. When a strain is
maintained, the line wiII not
slip. It wiII setup tight and
can be hard to untie. When left
slack after tying, it can work
Ioose, So watch it.
Tlo a
Contlnuo ovor and under
TIMEEN, HITCH for an addltlonal 3 or A
tumu
4-7
The ROLLfNGHITCH, or stopper knot, can be attached around a line
under strain and used to rnaintain the strain while the other line
is being rnoved or fastened. It can also be slid along the line
under strain by hand, but will hold when load is on it. You can
bend a line on to a spar or another line at a rnid-point of the spar
or line. Sornetines used when converting a single towline into a
bridle.
T1e a
hal:f hltch
Around agaln
cro33 0rror
flrst turn
passlng
betveon
tho flrst
turn
ROIIINC HITCH
The SHEET BEND,zBECKET BEND uses either name and is used to tied
two lines of unequal size together. Unlike the square knot it is
easily untied after strain. The double becket is simply an extra
turn again back under and through.
4-8
SPLfCfNG is the preferred urethod of perrnanently joining two lines
together and to make a permanent eye in a line. A splice is
stronger than a knot, hitch, or bend.
To start a SHORT SPLICE, unlay the end of each rope about six
inches. Secure the ends of the three strands with tape to keep
them from further unlaying. l{ith synthetic line the ends of each
strand can be fused with a soldering iron. Also tape the point on
the line where the unlaying is to eease.
The EYE SPLICE is used when a pennanent eye is desired and nay be
made around any object such as eye splice thinble, stanchion, or
sirnply made without anything in the eye. To start, tape each of
the three strands to keep then from unlaying and unlay six inches
or more of the line and prevent further unlaying of the line at
that point by taping there.
Determine the size of the eye, keep the turn of the eye towards you
and the standing part of the line away from you, with a fid or
fingers separate a strand on the standing part of the line and run
the middle of the three taped strands under this opening. Separate
a strand on the standing part to the left of your first tuck and
repeat step number one. Renember the rule, the next strand rrgoes
in: where the previous strand rrcame out'r . Tuck the third strand
through the remaining lay on the standing part that has no strand
under it. Repeat this process three or more tines naking sure that
no lay on the standing part has two strands under it.
4-L0
STrOIIIXGLIIIE. Stowing your line so it is ready for use can be done
in several w a y s .
Faked. t{hen you want to lay a line on the deck, in its fuII
so that it i" ready to fun out rapidly without tangling, it
feigtfi,
should be faked down.
4-11
STUDY QUESTTONS.
4-L2
L2. What are the five grades of wire lines?
L3. List the ten rules for the proper care of line.
4-L3
21,. when laying a long line down on deck, where the furr rength
must be run out fairly rapidly, the line should be
24. Tie the folrowing knots: square knot, bowline, round turn and
two harf hitches, crove hitch, doubre becket/sheet bends, and
timber hitch.
4-L4
CIIAPTERS
BOATIIANDLING
STI]DY OUTLINE
qt Bo,qtHandliqg
Basic,Principlpp
RigbtandI.€ft"I{andPropellen
HowthePnopellerActs
SuctionandfischargeScrewCunents
UneqrnlBladeThrust
HowaRuderActs
PropellerCunent'sActiononRudder
of Boatto Rudderandhopeller
Response
No WayOn,kopellerNd Trunlng
No WayO4 hopellerTuningAhead
Wi& Headnay,PropelltrTirmingAbad
With Headway,hopeller Rovorsing
with RuddertoPort
No Way04 FropellerReversing
With Stemway,PropellerRevening
BaskingWith Left Rudder
BackingWith RudderAmidships
Backingwi& Nght Rudder
SteeringWhileBacking
With Sterquay,hopellerTuning Ahead
Turningin closeQuarters
BacldtgArounda T[rn
BackingtoPortFron a Slip
Lcavinga Mooring
WhenThereIs Windor Current
PickingUp a MooringUnderPower
5"1
cH2
F9FF, rinepjgd Their ueq
Terninology
Mooring a Boat
Two Lines on One PiLe
Heaving -tines and Monkey's Fists
U si n g S p ri n g L i n es
Gaing Ahead on a Spring
Ahead on an After Spring
Reversjng on a Spring
L,sa.ri nq at a, Pier
A B e rth B e tw e e n P iles
Usinq Springs to the Pjles
' Nproaching Upwind
Ge tti n g C L e ar of a Pile
Making a Tight Turn
5-2
Handling Trrin-Screw Boats
5-3
STUDY QUESTIONS
l-. The part of the current that flows into the propeller is called
9. The mooring line that keeps the boat from going ahead is the
5-4
I I, Gettingawayfrom a dock,whentheboatis beingsetinto it by thewind generally
requues usmg an
12. Backing on a forwurd quarter spring on the port side, the bow will
14. A 4 to 6 foot long plank hung horimntally on the sideof the o-oatandbackedwith
is called a
15, By going atreadon one enginewhile the other reverses,a twin screwboat can be
5-5
cH2
This Page Left Intentionally Blank
5-6
CHAPTER6
IINAVY WEATHER
Ir this lessoq someof the principlesof wavesand wind will be covered. Beeause
boatingconditionsancso variable,however,dependingas they do on location,time of
year,the 0?e of boat beingused,and scoresof otherfactors,you shouldstudyother
souroes aswell to reallygeta feelfot whatyoumightbeup against.
6-l
cH2
If the wind directionshouldchangefor a periodof time,the watsrwiil be
turbulent.Thentheditectionof thewayeswill beginto confonnto thenew
direetionofthewind.
As you can see, there are several ways wavcs are described. There is height
lengllr"periodandslope.
6-2
The PERIOD of a wave is the tirne it takes two crests to pass the
same point. It stands to reason that the longer the length, the
Ionger the period; but of course, faster noving wave systens do not
always obey this rule. Wave speeds for the most part average about
30 n.p.h.
6-3
SEISUfC WAVESare sometimes incorrectly referred to as tidal waves.
They are commonly called "Tsunamisfr. These waves are caused by
earthquakes, volcano eruptions, and dislocations under the ocean
floor. Their hrave lengths are usually very long, for instance,
several hundred rniles, and surprisinqly enough their heights are
also very low. A seisnic sea wave will do very little damage to
anybody out in the open ocean. When it gets close to shore,
trouble begins. When it reaches shallow water, the wave becomes
short and much steeper. The closer it gets to shore, the higher it
becomes until its crest breaks and it crashes to the beach.
SWELLS are waves that were originally generated by the wind but
continue to exist long after the wind has died down. fn effect,
swells are dying hlaves. You wiII generally find swells in areas
where there are long fetches. They originally begin in a storm
area when fierce winds kick up the waves. After the wind <lies
down, the waves will continue oD, provided, of course, that they
meet no obstructions. The passage of tirne and distance reduces
what once might have been huge braves into smoothly undulating
swells. But don't be fooled they can be dangerous again. When
swell-s reach shoal water, they will be tripped up by the bottom and
if conditions are right they can easily become dangerous SURF.
Breaking waves and surf can be broken down into two categories;
plungers and spillers.
6-4
naves'
SPILLERS, on the other hand, are the resul"t of cyclical
Sick-outs are short choppy waves that h a v e b e e n f a i r l y r e c ently
spitters are j u s t t h e o p p o s i t e f r o m p l u n g ers'
formed by the wind.
They break quietlY and gently"
g h
then sink
and get
/ N^=
deeper
even c l o s e r t o t h e b o t t o m. In Figure H.-Bow and Jtem wayct. The tt rn weve ir
a situation I i k e t h i s , s P e ed dte mort dangerour of thc two.
should b e r e d u c e d i r u n e d i a t e l y '
to small
CROSS SEAS. Other types of waves that can be dangerous
of f o r c e s ' A tidal
boats are cross seas caused, by a variety
meeLing an opposing wave systen head on, o r a t a n angle,
current,
cnop. fwo wave systerns from d i f f e r e n t s o urces
can creace an
s h i f t s in
t h a t m e e t a t a "n. t iaf n g l e c a n h a v e t h e s a m e e f f e c t . sudden
a situation where the wind will b e b l o w i n g
the wind can
" aves, tossing the sea in aIl directions.
a g a i n s t o n c o m i"nt .g. €w
Both wind and
affect the movement of a boat' How rnuch is a function of
current
the amount of superstructure o f a b o a t , the amount of underbody of
a boat, the strength and direction of the wind, and the strength
and direction of the current.
6-5
The arnount o f e f f e c t wi-ll be greater if the boat has a shallow
flat bottom and less if the boat has a d e e p d r a f t . (Figure 6-5. )
Figun &6.-Thc wind har morr rurfacr to lct on with gort A thon Bort B.
Boot A will bc moru difficult to handlc in wind wtertrcr.
the wind
A z
boat heading
=
shows less Profile than one
running at cross angles to
the wind. (See figure 6-7 -\
ft is virtual-lY inPossible to
Iook at any boat and
determine exactlY how nuch it
wiII b e a f f e c t e d b Y
the wind and current. OnIy
by experimenting w i t h your
boat in all conditions will
you be able to come uP with
accurate estimates.
6-7
From the foregoing, it can be seen that the effect of wind and
current on a boat depends upon:
SURF OPERATION. As the surfers have found, all incoming hraves are
not the same but run in a series called rrsetsrr. This means that
the big ones have several smaller ones in between. Understanding
this, is very usefur when trying to operate in the surf ana
particularly when there is a wave build up to surf conditions in a
harbor channel.
Before running into this condition, stand off and count the waves
between sets, then time your operation to take place after the big
one and before the next biq one. This requires experience and a
rimber neck, or astern rookout, as well as eyes in the back of your
head to watch what is cominq up astern.
when going down the front of a wave the water at your stern is
going towards your bow while the water at your bow is going toward
your stern. This makes it very easy to swing sideways to the wave
and broach. That is, the boat rolled over on its side.
observation and experience will show what can and what cannot be
done with a particular boat and given conditions. Do not trust to
Iuck and better yet stay out of surf it can be deadly!
HEAVY WEATHER OPERATTON. when you are caught out in hiqh wind
and/or seas, there are extra dangers you must prepare for. rf reft
to its own devices, a boat will norrnarly farl into a trough. when
the winds are strong enough and/or the seas high enough, thi-s
action can cause a BRoAcH. As long as you can maneuver, you need
to keep the bow pointing into the wind/seas. Instead of running
f fh e a d - o n r r , t r y r u n n i n g a t a n a n g l e , o f u p t o 4 5 d e g r e e s , t o
the
waves.
The danger comes when you can no longer maintain headway. This is
when a BRoAcH becomes possible. To prevent this, you can utilize
a Sea Anchor as described be1ow.
6-8
Another scenario is when you are rulrning before the sea- As the
wind/waves hit your stern, the boat has a tendency to YAW. That
is, the stern going from side to side. Steering becornes e x t r e r n ely
Aiificult. y o i . r fi;d yourself turning the wheel frorn s i d e - t o - s i d e
trying to offset the stern's motion. If the y a w i n g is not k e pt
under control, the boat can again broach-
There are several techniques for keeping the yawing under control.
AII require continual change of throttle setting. When running
before t h e s e a , t h e b e s t p o s i t i o n f o r t h e b o a t i s o n the rrback
side'r of the hrave. The speed of the boat should be adjusted to
keep t h e b o a t i n t h a t p o s i t i o n o n t h e w a v e i f p o s s i b l e - T h e r e a re
tinl w h e n y o u w i l l f i n a y o u r s e l f o n t h e f r o n t o f t h e w a v e . I t is
t ike raci-ng down a ni r r and a broach becomes a distinct
possibility. The relative notion of the water past the rudder
decreuses u n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a n d therefore has less effect.
Less rudder effect, t h e m o r e d i f f i c u l t y i n k e e p ing yawing under
e n g i n e , t o i n c r e a s e y o u r t r d o w nh i l t run|l
control. Speeding u p t h e
and increaie rudder c o n t r o l , i s a p o s s i b i l i t y . T h e r e i s also
another danger with t h i s a c t i o n . A s y o u r e a c h t h e b o t t o m o f the
wave, if th; speed is t o o g r e a t , t h e b o w c a n d i g i n a n d t h e s t e rn
be tifted up ind over b y t h e f o l l o w i n g b t a v e . T h i s e n d - o v e r - e n d
f Iip is called PITCI{POLING.
€hI.flSN HrscewooP
?q 6q
S,|AALJ- WI?E 6QD€
rcMNG
5r/lveL \'tc* UNE
WIVEL
-7-
iRFaNlq
LrNE
F i g u r e& 8 . - A c o n i c s e aa n c h o r ( d r o g u e ) . T h i s i s t h e m o s l c o m m o n l y s e e nt y p e .
6-9
The classic sea anchor is constructed like a cone. The anchor
itself is made of canvas or other cloth shaped like a bucket open
at both ends. The ends are held open in circres by hoops. ine
wide end faces toward the boat and the narrosr end faces away frorn
the boat. A cabre is attached to the anchor by a bridle to the
wide end and a tripping line is attached to the narrohr end. The
purpose of a sea anchor so constructed is to keep the bow of the
!oat-heading into the seas. This prevents the boat frorn falling
into the trough and possibly broaching. A boat lying to a ="i
anchor is making reeway, but not as much as she woura ir she were
drifting free.
Swrve-t*-
NMrosl 6q Lt*o"..,
6,l.stvAS cftgsBAr?5
Figure S9.-Crosbar.type seaanchor.
As with a regular anchor, a long Iine should be used with the sea
anchor. This will nininize any snapping as the boat surges. when
the sea anchor is rigged, it should be invisible but not more than,
sdy, 15 feet berow the surface of the sea. chain or wire rope
should never be used for the sea anchor as they would sink the
anchor too low to have any effect at all.
The theory of a sea anchor makes it seem very easy to strearn and
very easy to handle. rn practice, however, it is very difficult to
handre and is hard to control.. As you can see, a tripping rine is
attached to the narrow end of the cone. The purpose of this line
is to enable you to corJ.apse the sea anchor by pulling on it. you
should then be able to pull in the entire assembly. The problem is
that the tripping line can become tangled with the towing line and
eventually collapse the sea anchor alt by itself. You could have
a mess hanging from your bow that wilI lose its effectiveness.
Sometimes an oil bag will be attached to the cable just aft of the
sea anchor. The effect of the oil seeping from the bag is to
create a slick on the waves since oil is lighter than water and
will rise to the surface. The oil slick wilr cut down on the
amount of breakinq water in front of the boat.
6-L0
If you do not have a regular sea anchor, you can construct one in
a n e m e r g- deenccky . An old bucket w i l l d o i n a p i n c h , d s w i l l a large
basket, chairs, dD ice Chest, a w o o d e n c r a t e , o r e v e n a wide
board fastened to a line with a bridle attached to the four
corners. Even a S$tamped d i n g h y , f a s t e n e d s e c u r e l Y , c a n b e u s e d for
a rnakeshift Sea anchor. Just remember the purpose of the sea
anchor when you are building it that is to create drag which
wiII keep the bow pointed into the seas, cut drift and provide
directional stability for your boat.
When running before the seas, this same device is called a DROGUE-
Again,its purpose is to provide directional stability, this time to
keep the yawing under control. tlith it streamed fron the stern,
the possinifity o f B R O A C H I N Go r P I T C H P O L I N Gi s n i n i n i z e d .
5l','1ALi-
Utl,t? UNE
6- 11
Ar tCt(
Ducy
I lL/F
Yyt3O
AAR
BRIDI.E
TOwrsi6
UNE
a\\, ^C.
l6L\ 7F 9
CR NYiO\
L IKC\
6/
F i g u r e6 - 1 1 ' - A s a i l ' t y p e s e a a n c h o r . T h i s t y p e i s h a r d t e
t r i p w h e n y o u w i s h t o h a u l i t i n , h e n c et h e b u o y r a t h e r
a trip line The buoy also holds the anchor at the desired than
depth, as the rail-typc drogue has a tendency to 'ink.
BR\CI-E
,eY
.t$-
a\N
SWIVEL
lC{'\C -\=
IowrNG
rrrlF
Ll t\l-
6-12
STUDY QUESTTONS.
3. The time it takes two wave crests to pass the same point is
known as the
4. What is fetch?
7. What is a swell?
11. List three ways that a dangerous cross sea can develop.
6-1 3
L2. A boat with a will be greatly affected
by strong winds.
14. List some of the elements that the effect of wind and current
upon a boat depends.
15. When running before the seas, if possible, the boat should be
maintained on the of the wave.
18. What is the pitfall in using a tripping line with a sea anchor?
19. List some itens you can use to make an emergency sea anchor in
the absence of a readY-made one.
6-L4
20. What is the purpose of towing a warp?
2L. If conditions get really bad, slow down and hold your bow at an
angle of about degrees to the seas.
22. In a head sea, a vessel witn too much weight forward will
rather than rise.
23. In a head sea, a vessel with too much weight aft will tend to
24. Thrown broadside to the swells, or rrin the trough,rr can cause
the vessel to
25. When a vessel runs down a steep wave, buries her bow, and the
next crest throws her stern over, she has
6-l_5
CIIAPTER 7
ffTRODUgilOl{. The reading material for this lesson can be found in the following
pages gnd q thg se.ctioqs on ld, or Enersqtcy
the chapter on the earlier editions
and Sqc$op 3,
editionrs. qu errd of the lesson are based on
readings.
At some time o'r another, ycru will have to render assistance to another vessel, as a
member of the Auxiliary or as a private citiaen. You may even have to take 6teps to
help yourself. How you handle yourself and your craft is of utmost importxrce. In an
emergency, life and pmperty is at stake. Evefr the simplest assistance effort -- such as
rightins a capsiaed sailboat in a proteeted cove -- c&n hrrn out to be dangerous. Ttre
smallest leak far out at sea can equal in importance the largest leak close to shore.
This lesson will touch on some of tlre techniques you should know to help others and
yourself in an emergency.
If you approach from upwlnd, you may blow down on the boat trapping crewman and
gear between the turc vessels.
If you approaeh from downwind, you stand a chance of foulingyour prop on the
sailboat gear-mast, boom, rigging and sails,
You must make your decision based on the conditions on hand. Some factors whidr
may aid you are the drift rate of both vessels (are you drifting downwind faster that the
sailboat), tlre amount of gear that you see in the water, and the ability of the sailboats
crew to clear some of this gear away.
7- L
cH2
After you reach the sailboat, check on the condition of the crew. If
they are in poor condition, get right in there and render assistance.
Your first responsibility ie to save lives; property comes second, If
the crew is in good cqndition, have them st,ay in the water. They can
help you right their boat.
The next step is to have the crew of the saiLboat haul in the sails
and running rigging. It is generally wasted effort to try to right a
sailboat witti her sails up- Odds ate that she will immediately capsize
agrain from the weight of the water aloft. Now to assist in righting
the boatr have the crew stand on the keel or centerboard and hold on
to the gunwales. Their weight will help right the boat, perhaps €ven
doing the job without your assi$tance, If the boat stil1 will not
right, maneuver carefully downwind unt,il you can grasp the end of the
mast. Caref,ully Lift the na$t from the water (sailboats are delicate
and cannot stand great ameunts of abuse). Your lifting of the
masthead, and the weight of the crew on the centerboard or keel,
should now right the sailboat.
A11 you have left to do is get a line aboard the sailboat, help dewater
the hull, and tow in the boat, lf required. Dewatering and towing are
covered later on in this lesson.
One of the obvious things to consider first is the state of the tlde.
If the boat ran agrourtd at low tide or halfway between hiqh and low
tide' with the t,ide rislng, your best action just nigbt be no action.
The rising tide will refloat the boat without your lifting a hand. In
such a situation, though you must take care. If the tide comes in wlt,h
a strong current, or the wind is unfavorable and strong, you could
easily be driven further aground with the rislng tide before you can
get, underway.
If it is your boat that is aground, rather than a boat you are trying
to assiat, be careful about, throwing the engine immediately into
reverse and trying to back off. You might suck sand up from astern and
deposit it under your boat, adding more shoal beneath you. fn addition,
sand and other debris from that bottom couLd be sucked up into your
engine.
7-2
As soon as a boat has stranded,
get an anchor out to Prevent it
from going further aground. With llill*'*o*
Iuck, you night be able to keeP {[|J'o,ao'*
the stern afloat and only the bow
aground. Consider the wind and/or
the current when setting the
anchor. By setting the anchor
upwind or up-current, you wiIl
prevent the stern from swinging
and thus putting your boat
broadside to the shoal. You can
then use the anchor as a kedge;
that is, when you are ready to
nake your attenpt to get off, Put
the engine in reverse and haul in
on the anchor line. If you have a Figun 7-1.-Udng a kedgeto haul off a groundadboat
winch to help y o u haul, so much Widr thc cngine in reverse,haul in on the anchorline
the better. The thrust of the Thr location of the andror herc will give thc boat min
propeller and pulting on the mum rwing from the c{rrent or wind when it breal
anchor should pull you free. loorc.
(See figure 7-I).
ff you are going to assist a stranded boat, prepare aII the gear
you need before you make an approach. Get personal flotation
devices on deck and don yours. llake ready a heaving line and
towing line. Prepare a float if you wiII be floating i n a l i n e.
Make up a bridle (and one for the other boat as well) if required.
Get out an anchor and anchor line.
How you make your approach wiII depend on the wind and current. Be
caretul of the shoal; you could run aground yourself trying to make
an assist. Your judgrment on the scene will tell you whether
conditions a r e f a v o r a b l e f o r g o i n g i n b o w f i r s t t o get a line
aboard t h e s t r a n d e d v e s s e l , o F w h e t h e r y o u s h o u l d g o in stern
first. I f a n a p p r o a c h i s i n p o s s i b l e , a n a l t e r n a t i v e n i g h t be to
float in a l i n e , o r u s e a d i n g h y t o h a u l i t i n . I n t h e e v e nt that
one or t h e o t h e r o f t h e l a t t e r a l t e r n a t i v e s i s s e l e c t e d , anchor
your boat in p o s i t i o n b e f o r e m a k i n g t h e a t t e n p t . Y o u w i l l have
better control o v e r t h e s i t u a t i o n .
7-3
A r w a y s atta ch yo u r l i n e to som ething substantiar . use the
trailering ste m e ye o r ski towing tr ansom eyes or other secur e
f a s t e n i n gs su ch a s sa mp son posts. Towing puts tr emendous str a i ns
o n b o t h b o a ts, e sp e ci a rry when one of the boats is agr ound. (s ee
figure 7-2.)
BRIDT-E
5
5kr
'fo* /ltO 10wrNq
WT AEROdN{D t yf t
90{r
FigureT-2.-Towing off a groundcd boat when wind or currenl ir not r factor. The direct tow, u/ith the ruain
arried in the direction you vv.ntthc Arounded boat to move, ir mostcffestive.
**""*
/illlare^,r
tpv
When you begin towing the
stranded boat off, tow in a
direction that wiII compensate
for the wind or current,
whichever is strongest. If you
don't, you night find yourself
being swept downwind or down-
current, with the ultinate
possibility of g o i n g aground
eoAr
yourself. Start towing slowly
A6(cxrND
and gradually build up speed as
Figur. 7-3.-Towing off r groundcd boat whcn wind or
the stranded boat begins to come
current ir a factor. Thc towing bort ir not prercntinghcr free. (See fig. 7-3)
broadlideto the wind or currcnt, ro lcawry ir kcpt to I
minimum. If the stranded boat is still
stuck fast after all this, she
night be stuck in the bottom by suction. Have the crerd of the
stranded boat move from one side to the other, oE frorn the bow to
the stern, thus rocking the boat. This night be enough to break
the suction. If the boat is still stuck fast, and you think nore
power night do the job, have the boat set out an anchor as
described previously. With you towing, and the stranded boat going
in reverse and hauling in on her anchor line at the same time, odds
are she will come free.
CAUTfON: Have all crew members of both vessels don PFD's and stand
clear of tow line.
7-4
APPROACHTNG A BURNING VESSEL. Approaching a burning vessel to take
off the crew can be a tricky and a dangerous operation. Since
speed is essential, the chances of your being able to prepare well
enough in advance are slim.
As you make your approach, 9€t your gear ready. Break out personal
flotation devices, fire extinguishers, buckets, heaving lines, and
whatever else you will need. If you have the time, wet down
thoroughly the bow or the stern, depending on whether you will be
naking a bow-to or stern-to approach. This wetting d o w n w i I I h e lp
protect your boat frorn the intense heat of the flames.
l-)
For many years the three sided
fire triangle was used to
describe the conbustion and
extinguishing theory. Recently,
a new theory has developed.
This new theory adds nchemical
reactionfr, as a base to the
three sides of fuel, heat, and
oxygen. The fire triangle has
becone a fire tetrahedron which
represents a pyranid. Take abray
one or more of the four sides,
and the fire will go out. For
instance, by shutting off the
oxygen by srnothering a f ire, it
will no longer burn. CooI the
fire and there will no longer be
any heat for combustion. Take
away the f ueI, and the f larne
will be gone. In like manner,
for those fires supported by a
chemical reaction, stop it and Figure7-1. Tbefor:r elerentsof ttre fire
the fire wiII go out (See tetrahedronnecessary to support
figure 7-4) conbrstion. Takearayoneof
tbeseandthe fire rill go out.
Fu e l Clas: E x t i n g u i r h i n gA g c n t
7-6
A plug can be used in situations
where the hole is fairly snall and
has a rounded shape. Such a hole HoLEDNANK
rnight be caused by an object
piercing the hull or it could be
caused by a through-hull fitting
breaking. If y o u r s m a l l , r ounded
hole is jagged on the edges and
you can easily get to it, try to
sruooth off the edges so that your
plug will filf the entire hole. ?ue
Make your plug out of a piece of
soft wood, preferably white pine.
Taper it so that you can drive it
into the hole and it wiII fit
snugly before you reach the end.
(See figure 7-5.)
A plug is most effective when ligure 7-5. t terprary plugfor a holettrat canbe
it is driven in fron the reached fror tie outside. Beforeit is drivenbore,
outside of a huII, rather this plugcanberrappeduith canvass or cloth
than frorn the inside. uhichriII rakean effective qasket.
This is not always possible,
of course, since the hole may be well below the waterline and out
of reach. In an emergency, YoD're not going to have tine to careen
your boat for such a job. But assuming that you can reach the hole
from the outside, drive the plug in frorn that side. The reason why
this is done is that the water pressure will help hold the plug in
place, whereas if it were driven in froru the inside, the water
pressure on the outside of the hull could eventually pop the plug
through, especially if it is a weak PIug to begin with. To be
doubly sure that you will get a tight fit, wrap some canvas or
other cloth around the ptug before you drive it hone. Be certain
however, n o t t o u s e g l u e w h e n s e t t i n g t h e p l u g , i f t h i s is to be a
temporary repair.
In the event that you can't get to the hole from the outside of the
huII, you wiII have to begin on the inside. Go through the same
procedure as in the above repair, but one more step will have to be
added. Once you have your ptug in place, cut it off flush on the
inside of the p l a n k i n g . Then t a k e a p i e c e o f w o o d t h a t w i l l cover
the head of the plug and then some, and put it over the plug
against the planking. When this is done, nail or screw this wooden
pitcn into place. What you have done is made a brace that wiII
lceep the water pressure fron pushing the plug back through the
planking into your boat. (See figure 7-6)
7-7
NStOeoF
FIOLEDRAIK
rCH NIAILED
CIrfftE ar/g '&ffilteD
FLuSFtf{ERe IN RACE
flNE G. C'THTR'
fi"T h,ccP
FiEre i-5 - I tenporaryplug/patcbappliedfror insidetle hull. Ibe patcbrill keepthe plug fror being
forcedout of psition by rater pressure.Cloti canalsobeusedas a gasket.
These procedures described for wooden boats are also effective with
boats of other rnaterial, such as fiberglass, steel, aluminum, or
ferro-cement. However, you should exercise caution in using a plug
on fiberglass boats. It may cause nore darnage by splitting the
hull. You will also have to use some other means of securing the
patch over the plug on the inside job. What you do will depend on
the l o c a t i o n o f t h e h o l e a n d t h e n a t e r i a l s y o u h a v e o n h a nd. For
instance, if the hole is in the very bottoro of the boat, you night
try putting sornething heavy on top of the protruding head of the
plug, or have a crevr member hold it in place. fn a situation like
this, improvisation i s y o u r o n l y s a l v a t i o n .
7-8
A patch can be made out of just
about anything that nay be handy
at the time. As a natter of
fact, it will probably take some
ingenuity on your part to cone
up with anything that will meet
your needs. Even those who
carry around in their boat
pieces of wood and cloth and F?At'(e
other naterials for just such an
emergency usually find that what a/ANKFaSTqVED
at& FRAhdEs
they have, when the tine comes,
is too small or too large or too
thick or too thin, oF for sone
h&D ftrcl{
other reason ineffectual. Sorne
of the things that have been '&& ADrH
used in the past to make a
temporary patch have included
bundles of rags or clothes,
saiIs, floorboards, pieces of
boxes, rnattresses, blankets,
foul weather gear, PFDs, engine PiEre 7-7. f guickandeffectiveteuporary
patch.
covers, and many other items. Tbeclotb acts as a oasket.
The idea is to get sornething that
will fit over the hole and stop
the incorning water. (See figure 7-7.)
Once again, the most effective way to use a patch, as when using a
plug, is to apply it from the outside of the huII. This is
especiarly true when you are tarking about repairing a large hole
below the waterline. Anything that you cover a hole with fron the
inside, b e l o w t h e w a t e rline, will more than likely be irnrnediately
dislodged by t h e p r e s s u r e of the water. If the outside part of the
patch is going to be made of wood or some other rigid itern, it is
better to put between this outer patch and the huII a piece of
cloth to act as a gasket. Any patch, whether applied from the
inside or the outside, should be considerably larger than the hole
that it will cover. Patches applied fron the outside can be either
nailed, screwed, or lashed in pIace.
If your patch cannot be applied frorn the outside, then you wiII
have to work fron the inside. Cut a piece of wood or some other
rnaterial that is rigid, so that it is bigger than the hole and will
fit between frames or whatever hull members roight be in the way.
Put a piece of cloth to act as a gasket between the patch and the
plank, and then fasten the patch in place. Here again, you wilt
have to use your ingenuity to come up with the best means of
holding it in place. If you are lucky, you night be abie to wedge
it in place as in the illustration. Or you night nail or screw it
into the planking-screws obviously are most effective. ff you lack
7-9
these options, which will most
likely be the case if you are
dealing with a boat made of
material other than wood, you
are going to have to find some
other means. Once aEain, what
you do will be deternined by
what you have. Anything that
can be used as shorinq night
help you out. A deck chair
resting on the patch night be
wedged in place against
sourething else which is rigid.
You night have to develop an
entire system of interlocking
pieces of shoring to hold that
patch in place. (See figure 7-
8)
For years concrete was used as a patching naterial for those ships
far removed from repair facilities and this technigue has been
followed by the boaters and yachtsmen far frorn help and on their
ohrn. Aided by the epoxies we nohr have that will set under water it
is possible to make a very enduring patch with this naterial. once
the leak is under control a two part mix of epoxy can be applied to
the leak even though a small amount of water is coming in. When
mixed, soak a towel or some sinilar naterial with the epoxy and
apply to the hole, holding it there until it hardens.
7-LO
If your boat is not swamped, that is, the water in the boat has not
yet reached the level of the water outside the boat, You will be
able to pump or baII. But your pump might not be operable if the
water is too high and the punp operates on the engine or electrical
power-the power source night be flooded out. If this is the case,
you will have to somehow get the water down to a level where you
can repair and operate your power. Here, a portable punp, if you
have one, or a bailer wiII come in handy.
Some portable pumps are not necessarily hand operated, but night
run on their ohrn internal engines. In nost cases, when a Coast
Guard cutter or helicopter puts a punp aboard a boat in an
emergency, it will be powered by a gasoline engine sinilar to that
on a lawn mower. Be sure to put the punp in a secure place, and
keep it out of the water.
ff your intake does not have a screen, and there is a lot of debris
that you can't get rid of, you had best devise a screen of your
ovirn. You night take a bucket, punch it full of small holes all the
hray around, and punch a large hole in the botton for the intake
hose to fit into. Put the bucket in the water upside-down and
insert the hose and you have a screen. Of course, You must be
certain that the bucket stays upside down, against the floorboards
or the bottom of the boat.
Before you even start punping, ot bailing, You should try to plug
or patch as many holes as possible. This cannot always be done,
especially if there is too much water in the boat for you to work.
In such a case, you will have to try to get ahead of the water
coming in until you can reach the hole to patch or plug it; then
you will be able to finish g e t t i n g r i d o f a I I t h e w a t e r .
Once you have pumped or bailed your way down to the floorboards,
the going gets a little more difficult. If your boat has frames, as
in a wooden boat, unless there a r e l i n b e r holes, You will have to
punp or bail the water out from between the frames. This will mean
puffing up a lot of floorboards" But if your boat has linber
7-IL
holes, or no frames (as in most fiberglass boats), the water wilt
collect in the lowest part of the bi1ge. Find that spot, and
insert the intake hose there, once again being sure to screen it
well.
If your boat was fuII of water because of a hole or holes you had
to repair temporarily, odds are that your patches or plugs wiII
leak around the edges. This means on your way to shore you will
have to p u n p or bail p e riodically, or even continuously if the
leaks are fast.
7-L2
STUDY QI'ESTIONS.
7-L3
1l-. A Class A fire consists of and
should be used to extinguish it.
1 - 4 . W h a t typ e o f h o l e ca n b e plugged?
15. Plugs and patches are most effective when apptied from the
of the hull.
l-6. List some of the materials that can be used for an emergency
patch.
7-14
CHAPTtsRT
RULEIS
T{AVIGATIOIT
nqTRODpCfIOK. Ttre reading material for this lessom may be found in the chapters
covering ng$gtlgg"Eg{gt-in tlre earlier editions at Q-E.AP.WAN E letlt+q. frqw.nqn+Hp q;ni,
SmgE Fpqt Ha,n4llrro and W:tton-9. Cktp.tqr 6 ufi,f of the later editions. Ttre
student should read all indicated chapters pa$ng particular attention to the topics and
sub-topics in the following study outline.
g:fr{D}'olrTl,nrq
r{AYI9aTIOflRIlIrEff:
tIcHTS alrp paY 8I1APPS
Tbe ,Q,9. Ialaed ,Fulgr
Navigation Lights
'LiglX Definitiotw
Masthead Light
Sidelights
Conbination Light--
Sternlight
Towing Light
All-Round Light
Flashing Light
Special Flashing Light
MastheadWtlts
Sidelights
Stenilights
Lights forTowing
TousingAlortgside or F.tshir4 Ahead
Exception
TourittgAstcm
SmatlfuatTouing
8-1
CH2
L i g h ts fo r S p e ci a l - Pur pose Vessels
Fishing Vesse.l.s
P i l o t V e sse l s
Vessels With Lirnited Maneuverability
Vesse]s JVot Ander Conmand
VesseJs ReetrJcted in ManeuverabiTity
Day Shapes
VesseJs Undet SaiT and. Power
VesseLs at Anchor or Aground
(U n d e r 7 me ter s)
(U n d e r 2 0 meter s)
(U n d e r 1 2 n eter s)
VesseLs Towing and Eeing Towed
Vessei,s Engaged 7n Fishing
VesseJs with Linited ManeuverabiTity
Iateraatioq?}, Rqle.s, Ptr, the F,o?S
A p p l l ca b i l i L y
Navigation Lights
Definitions
Lights for Power-Driven Vesse-ls Underway
Lights for Vessefs Artchored ot Aground
Lights for Vessels Towing
Vesse-ls Const,rained by Draft
We
Definition of Terms
Wh i stl e
S h o rt b l a st
Prolonged bi-ast
'tPrivileged (stand an) " and rtBurdened
(give way) " Vesse].s
8-2
cH2
Whistle Signals
Danger SignaT
l4aneuvering Lights
Basic Responsibilities
8-3
Steering and Sailing Rufes
Whistle SignaTs
t4aneuvering Lights
Overtaking Vessels
( Sound signals )
8-4
STUDY QUESTTONS
8-5
11. A short blast is a blast of about duration.
17. Under Inland Rules, 2 short blasts mean 'rI intend to leave you
on my siderr.
20. At night, the overtaking situation exists when the vessel ahead
can not see of
the vessel ahead.
8-6
22. When in or near an area of restricted visibility, a power
driven vessel naking htay through the water rnust sound
at intervals of not more than
mi n u te s.
8-7
CIIAPTIR 9
AITCITORTNG
tllTBO-.Dp,CfIOlt. Ttre reading material for this lesson nray be found tn the chapter
covering Aactprtng in the earlier editions of Ql#fi/al/t{ P|rloEna., Sea'matl{,}tlp., ar$
g$all,Dq fi**fiW and 9ieetlon ,4-Chq?4et,12 of ttrc later editions. The student
should read the entire chapter paying particular attention to the topics snd sub-topics in
the following study outline.
sfl'DY OI'TLIIYP
arrcnoFrG
Groun4T{qkle
Scppe
Anchgrtne ?echdsper
How to Anchor
Approaching the Anctnrage
I.€tting tJaieAnetarGo
MtingtteAndtor
Making Fasf
Ircreasing Holding Pow*
Getting underway
Clearing a Foried Arrclpr
9-1
cH2
Using two anchors
To Reduce Yawing
Guard Against Wind or Cutrent Shjfts
Stern Anchots
At, Piers and Wharves
R a fti n g
Some cautlons
Chocks, Bitts, Cleats, and Other Fittings
Permanent !{oorinEe
(typ e a n ch o r used)
9-2
STUDY QUESTIONS
2. AII gear, taken collectively, that lies between the boat and
its anchor is called the
10. When chocks, bitts, cleats, and other fittings are used on deck
the nust be and reinforced with a
9-3
CIIAPTER I-O
Deck Hand. The deck hand is responsible for line handling, fender
stowing, tow watch, and most anything else that may come up, so be
available. The deck hand should know marlinespike seamanship and
be well versed on towing and a s s i s t a n c e a n d t h e u se of mooring
Iines. This knowledge wiII make y o u r j o b o f d e c k h a nd easier.
10- 1
Report, in a loud voice, the relative bearing of the object and the
distance to the object. The relative bearing should be given in
degrees around the boat starting at the bow and going around,
clockwise, for 360 degrees just like the compass, but using the bow
as north. Some use the clock system of reporting using the twelve
hour-clock face systern of giving the bearing. Be sure the helmsman
answers your report so you know it was heard.
Night l-ookouts should keep someone advised where they are and wear
a life jacket preferably one equipped with a }iqht. Rememberto
keep one hand for the ship and one for yourself and don,t fall
overboard. rt's lonely out there at night alone in the water.
Avoid looking at bright rights, and get your night eyes before
going on watch. The technique for night scanning is a rittle
different due to the construction of the cones in the eye. you
will use f'off center" vision to see objects that you cannot see if
you look directry at them. one good way is to scan about 5 to to
<legrees above the horizon and objects on the horizon and bel-ow will
be seen. You may al-so look to one side of the tarqet and do the
same thing.
As a boat ovtner/operator -
Slow down in channels, you are leqally responsible for your wake
and any damage it may cause and that can become expensive.
ff anchoring for the night near other boats, check for clearance
so you don't swing into them. Keep the noise down, Your neighbor
might be trying to escape the hectic life ashore. Don't forget
to check the scope of the anchor rode, and see if the anchor is
holdinq.
10- 3
rnform first time guests what clothing to bring (keep it warrn but
minirnal, with baggage easy to stow) and any other items you feer
will add to their comfort, like seasick remedies. Don't forget
sunglasses and sun block lotion.
show your guests the location of the pFD's (life jackets), fire
extinguishers and other emergency equipnent. Brief guests on
safety procedures: propeller dangers, nan overboard procedures,
one hand for the boat, and fire hazards. Also instruct guests on
the use of the head and the operation of any other appropriate
gear.
As a guest
Do not go aboard a boat without first hailing the boat and asking
permission, just like knocking on a door ashore.
Do not htear shoes that wiII mark up the decks you night be asked
to scrub the marks off.
When arriving back at the dock ask what you can do to secure the
boat, Ieaving it clean and ready for the next tine you might like
to be invited. Any operator reaLly appreciates this and it will
be another learninq experience. A TIIANK YOU is always proper.
V e s s e f s 2 6 f e e t a n d o v e r m u s t h a v e a D I S C H A R G EO F O f L P R O H I B f T E D
placard displayed in the machinery spaces as a reminder not to pump
oil or oily waste over the side.
Vessels 26 feet and over, except those on inland lakes and sole
state waters, must also display, in a prominent place, a IBASII
DfSPOSAL placard. This is to remind all those onboard what is not
to be dumped over the side.
10 - 4
fn addition, v e s s e l s 4 0 f e e t a n d over with a galley and berths must
post a written trash managenent plan. The person in charge of the
p l a n i s t o b e n a r n e d . T h e p l a n must state how and where garbage
will be collected and disposed.
Be sure to observe all federal and local laws regarding the pumping
of holding tanks. Holding tanks are used aboard to hold the
effluent f r o m the t o i l e t a n d a n y other drainage that may be
environmentally harnful. Other methods of treating harnful
material have been recommended and legalized from tirne to tirne such
as electric devices to break down the chlorine ion in the water
thereby chlorinating t h e a f f l u e n t . O t h e r m e a n s s u ch as macerators
with chenical p i l l s to be added have also been used. There will be
no attempt in this course to set a standard as new methods continue
to be legalized and recommended.
10-5
STUDY QUESTTONS
6. FIow many degrees do you move your eyes each second when
scanning?
Lo-6
L4. The tern trneet herrf , means?
L7. The tow watch must not stand in line with the In
case of it
ro-7