PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

University of the City of Manila

College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

RIVETED AND WELDED

PRESSURE VESSELS

Submitted by: | Saligue, Mikho Yves M.

Torres, Clark Ivan V.
Yepes Anna Lyn G.
Yumul, Maria Lara Angela B.

Submitted to:

Engr. Milagros R. Cabangon

June 28, 2018

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 1

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Objectives 3
Riveted Pressure Vessels 4
Uses of Pressure Vessels 4
Types of Pressure Vessels 5
Rivet 8
Vessel Joint Analysis 16
Design of Riveted Pressure Vessels 17
Welded Pressure Vessels 23
Introduction 23
Fluxes 24
Types of Welding 25
Types of Welding Joints 28
Categories of Welding Joints 30
Welded Pressure Vessel Calculation 31
References 38

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 2

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

OBJECTIVES
General Objective

 To design riveted and welded pressure vessels according to the industry’s

standards

Specific Objectives

 To enumerate and define the different types of riveted pressure vessels

 To identify the things to consider in designing a riveted pressure vessel
 To enumerate the welding techniques used in the fabrication of welded
pressure vessels
 To design and identify the things to consider in designing a welded
pressure vessel

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 3

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

I. RIVETED PRESSURE VESSELS

Pressure vessels can be dangerous, and fatal accidents have occurred in the
history of their development and operation. Consequently, pressure vessel design,
manufacture, and operation are regulated by engineering authorities backed by
legislation. For these reasons, the definition of a pressure vessel varies from country
to country.
Design involves parameters such as maximum safe operating pressure and
temperature, safety factor, corrosion allowance and minimum design
temperature (for brittle fracture).
Industrial pressure vessels are essential to the continual processing and
manufacturing by industrial and commercial concerns and therefore have a
direct impact on the both the economic and physical well-being of society.

USES OF PRESSURE VESSEL

 Storage Vessels
The most prolific of all pressure vessels are the
various storage vessels required for industrial
processes. These typically correspond to
either the vertical or horizontal variety,
although some spherical storage vessels are
in use. Used primarily to store liquids, these
pressure vessels are also available in a range
of sizes. Depending on the exact role or
product to be stored, they are constructed
using different materials with carbon steel being the most common material type.
In many cases, internal liners of a different material are used in addition to the
vessel's external material. This allows a material to be used for the external
construction that would be at a detriment if exposed to the product. Therefore
allowing the storage vessel to produce for a less cost, than that of using a special
material.

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 4

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

 Heat Exchangers
The second most common type, and almost
as prolific as storage vessels, is the heat
exchanger. Found in almost every aspect of
life, from food service to industrial plants,
heat exchangers make modern processing
and manufacturing possible. It is widely
known that heat, by its very nature, can be
a negative aspect to many industrial
processes and as such has to be removed
or reused to provide for this concern. Thus it is critical that any heat exchanger
design have an emphasis on the material chosen to ensure that the vessel can
be operated at peak optimization for extended periods. Carbon steel is a
common material but usually more stringent alloys are used to ensure longevity
and proper functioning.

 Process Vessels
Put simply, process vessels are components
in which various processes are performed.
Such as breaking down a product,
combining product, removing various
elements or aspects of a product and
more. Process vessels work in conjunction
with the other three common types. They
are usually specialized designs for their
specific process and require unique
construction materials or multiple material
types.

TYPES OF PRESSURE VESSEL

 Spherical Pressure Vessel (Sphere)

This type of vessel is preferred for storage of high pressure fluids. A sphere is a very
strong structure. The even distribution of stresses on the sphere's surfaces, both

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 5

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

internally and externally, generally means that there are no weak points. Spheres
however, are much more costly to manufacture than cylindrical vessels.

An advantage of spherical storage vessels is, that they have a smaller surface
area per unit volume than any other shape of vessel. This means, that the quantity
of heat transferred from warmer surroundings to the liquid in the sphere, will be
less than that for cylindrical or rectangular storage vessels.

 Cylindrical Pressure Vessel

Cylinders are widely used for storage due to their being less expensive to produce
than spheres. However, cylinders are not as strong as spheres due to the weak
point at each end.
This weakness is reduced by hemispherical or rounded ends being fitted. If the
whole cylinder is manufactured from thicker material than a comparable
spherical vessel of similar capacity, storage pressure can be similar to that of a
sphere.

Choice of Closure

 ELLIPSOIDAL HEAD this is also called a 2:1 elliptical head. The shape
of this head is more economical, because the height of the head is

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 6

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

just a quarter of the diameter. Its radius varies between the major and
minor axis.

 HEMISPHERICAL HEAD
A sphere is the ideal shape for a head, because the pressure in the
vessel is divided equally across the surface of the head. The radius
(R) of the head equals the radius of the cylindrical part of the vessel.

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 7

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

 TORISPHERICAL HEAD
These heads have a dish with a fixed radius (CR), the size of which
depends on the type of torispherical head. The transition between
the cylinder and the dish is called the knuckle. The knuckle has a
toroidal shape.

RIVET

A rivet is a cylindrical member, with one preformed head, inserted in coincident

holes in two or more plates, holding them together by the pressure exerted
between the preformed head and a fabricated head at the other end. The
cylindrical portion of the rivet is called shank or body and lower portion of shank
is known as tail

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 8

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

Permanent Fastening

Fastenings which cannot be disassembled without destroying the connecting

components. The examples of permanent fastenings in order of strength are
soldered, brazed, welded and riveted joints.

Temporary Fastening

Fastenings which can be disassembled without destroying the connecting

components. The examples of temporary fastenings are screwed, keys, cotters,
pins and splined joints.

The function of rivets in a joint is to make a connection that has strength and
tightness. The strength is necessary to prevent failure of the joint. The tightness is
necessary in order to contribute to strength and to prevent leakage as in a boiler
or in a ship hull.

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 9

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

Types of Rivet Heads

 For General Purposes

 For Boiler

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 10

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

Types of Riveted Joints

 Lap Joint
A lap joint is that in which one plate overlaps the other and the two plates are
then riveted together.

 Butt Joint
A butt joint is that in which the main plates are kept in alignment butting (i.e.
touching) each other and a cover plate (i.e. strap) is placed either on one side
or on both sides of the main plates. The cover plate is then riveted together with
the main plates.

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 11

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

Caulking and Fullering

In order to make the joints leak proof or fluid tight in pressure vessels like steam
boilers, air receivers and tanks etc. a process known as caulking is employed.
Caulking is both the processes and material to seal joints or seams in various
structures. It is employed to make the joints leak proofs or fluid tight

Fullering
• It is used to obtain leak proof joints.
• It is carried out by using fullering tools.
• The thickness of tool is equal to the thickness of the plate.
• It is gives clean surface finish.
• Less risk of damaging the plates.

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 12

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

Failures of a Riveted Joint

A riveted joint may fail in the following ways:

1. Tearing of the plate at an edge. A joint may fail due to tearing of the plate
at an edge. This can be avoided by keeping the margin, m = 1.5d, where
d is the diameter of the rivet hole.

2. Tearing of the plate across a row of rivets. Due to the tensile stresses in the
main plates, the main plate or cover plates may tear off across a row of
rivets as shown in Fig. 9.14. In such cases, we consider only one pitch length
of the plate, since every rivet is responsible for that much length of the plate
only.

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 13

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

3. Shearing of the rivets. The plates which are connected by the rivets exert
tensile stress on the rivets, and if the rivets are unable to resist the stress, they
are sheared off

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 14

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

4. Crushing of the plate or rivets. Sometimes, the rivets do not actually shear off
under the tensile stress, but are crushed. Due to this, the rivet hole becomes of an
oval shape and hence the joint becomes loose. The failure of rivets in such a
manner is also known as bearing failure. The area which resists this action is the
projected area of the hole or rivet on diametral plane.

The resistance offered by a rivet to be crushed is known as crushing resistance or

crushing strength or bearing value of the rivet.

RIVETS IN TENSION
Rivets were at one time considered unreliable for use as tension members, but
comparatively recent tests indicate that they may be used satisfactorily in this
manner and may be designed for the full working strength of the rivet material

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 15

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

VESSEL JOINT ANALYSIS

In a pressure vessel joints usual proportions, if the marginal distance is not less than
one and one half times the rivet diameter, the plate is safe against both shearing
and tearing.

EFFICIENCY OF A RIVETED JOINT

The efficiency of a riveted joint is defined as the ratio of the strength of riveted
joint to the strength of the un-riveted or solid plate.

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 16

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

DESIGN OF RIVETED PRESSURE VESSELS

Stresses in Thin-Walled Cylindrical Vessels

In vessels of usual proportions the stress induced in the shell by the internal
pressure may be considered as uniform across the wall section, since the shell
thickness is small compared to the diameter. The expression for the wall stress is
found by equating the force tending to rupture the shell to the resistance offered
by the wall.

For tangential stress: Consider the tank shown being subjected to an

internal pressure p. The length of the tank is L and the wall thickness is t. Isolating
the right half of the tank:

Image obtained from mathalino.co/reviewer/mechanics-and-strength-of-materials/thin-walled-

pressure-vessels

𝐹 = 𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝𝐷𝐿
𝑇 = 𝜎𝑡 𝐴𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝜎𝑡 𝑡𝐿
𝛴𝐹𝐻 = 0
𝐹 = 2𝑇
𝑝𝐷𝐿 = 2(𝜎𝑡 𝑡𝐿)
𝑝𝐷
𝜎𝑡 =
2𝑡

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 17

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

For longitudinal stress: Consider the free body diagram in the transverse
section of the tank:

The total force acting at the rear of the tank F must equal to the total longitudinal
stress on the wall PT = σLAwall. Since t is so small compared to D, the area of the
wall is close to πDt.
𝜋
𝐹 = 𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝 𝐷2
4
𝑃𝑇 = 𝜎𝐿 𝜋𝐷𝑡
𝛴𝐹𝐻 = 0
𝑃𝑇 = 𝐹
𝜋
𝜎𝐿 𝜋𝐷𝑡 = 𝑝 𝐷2
4
𝑝𝐷
𝜎𝐿 =
4𝑡

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 18

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

Design of the Shell and Riveted Joints

For shell thickness:

The ASME Boiler Construction Code, Unfired Pressure Vessels (ASME-UPV

Code) applies to unfired pressure vessels having an internal pressure greater than
15 psi. gage and inner diameters greater than 6 in. The required shell thickness for
an internal pressure may be calculated by:
𝑝𝑅
𝑡=
𝑆𝑒
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑅 = 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑆 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑒 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑡 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠

The previous equation is not applicable to vessels in which the shell

thickness exceeds 10% of the inside radius. For such conditions, the thickness may
be calculated from:

(𝑆𝑒 + 𝑝)𝑅2
𝑡= √ −𝑅
(𝑆𝑒 − 𝑝)

The efficiencies of the joints are calculated from the vessel joint analysis.
The efficiencies for the types may be given as:

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 19

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

For the joints:

The marginal and back pitches, and the butt strap thickness may be
determined from Section U-27, ASME-UPV Code.
Important Terms:

a) Pitch: This is the distance between two centers of the consecutive rivets in
a single row.
b) Back Pitch: This is the shortest distance between two successive rows in a
multiple riveted joint.
c) Margin or marginal pitch: This is the distance between the centre of the rivet
hole to the nearest edge of the plate.
The distance between rows of rivets may be calculated by:
𝑃
𝐼𝑓 ≤ 4 ; 𝐵𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = 1.75𝑑
𝑑
𝑃
𝐼𝑓 > 4 ; 𝐵𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = 1.75𝑑 + 0.1(𝑃 − 4𝑑)
𝑑
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑃 = 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
𝐵 = 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑡 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

The marginal pitch may be calculated by:

1.5𝑑 < 𝑀 < 1.75𝑑

Head Selection and Design

The heads of cylindrical pressure vessels may

be of flat, dished, flanged dished, elliptical, conical
or hemispherical form. Flanged and dished heads
are ordinarily used for riveted vessels.

The thickness of the head with the pressure on

the concave side is calculated by:

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 20

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

0.833𝑝𝐿
𝑡=
𝑆𝑒
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐿 = 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠ℎ
𝑆 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑒 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑡𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓
𝑡 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠

If a flanged-in manhole or access opening that exceeds 6 inches in any

dimension is required in the head, the thickness as computed should be increased
by at least 15%. If more than one manhole is in the same head, the minimum
distance between openings shall not be less than one fourth the outer diameter
of the head.

For a definite internal pressure, the thickness of a head with the convex side
toward the pressure can be obtained from:
1.39𝑝𝐿
𝑡=
𝑆𝑒
Seamless heads may be obtained in stock sizes from 12 to 168in. outer
diameter; heads with one welded center seam are available in stock sizes from
180 to 216 in. outer diameter. The crown radius is usually equal to the inner
diameter of the head minus 6 in., but varies with individual manufacturers and the
forming dies available.

The knuckle radius, by the ASME-UPV Code, must not be less than three
times the thickness of the head, but in no case can it be less than 6% of the outer
diameter, whichever is larger. To illustrate, the 24-in. diameter head, in gages from
8/16 to ½ in., is made with a 1.5-in. knuckle radius, since this value is based upon
0.06 × 24 or 1.44. The knuckle radius for a 1.5-in. gage head is 4.5-in based on the
3t.

Corrosion Allowance

The “corrosion allowance” is the additional thickness of metal added to allow for
material lost by corrosion and erosion, or scaling. Corrosion is a complex
phenomenon, and it is not possible to give specific rules for the estimation of the

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 21

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

corrosion allowance required for all circumstances. The allowance should be

based on experience with the material of construction under similar service
conditions to those for the proposed design. For carbon and low-alloy steels,
where severe corrosion is not expected, a minimum allowance of 2.0 mm should
be used; where more severe conditions are anticipated this should be increased
to 4.0 mm. Most design codes and standards specify a minimum allowance of 1.0
mm, but under the ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII no corrosion allowance is needed
when past experience indicates that corrosion is only superficial or does not
occur.

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 22

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

II. WELDED PRESSURE VESSELS

INTRODUCTION

Aside from riveting, other commonly used processes of joining metals

include: Welding, Brazing, and Soldering.

Brazing joins two metals by heating and melting a filler (alloy) that bonds to
the two pieces of metal and joins them. The filler must have a melting temperature
below that of the base metal. Brazing can join dissimilar metals such as aluminum,
silver, copper, gold, and nickel. Properly brazed joints can be stronger than the
pieces being joined, but are not as strong as welded joints. Brazing also has
minimal effects on the two metal parts.

Soldering is a low-temperature analog to brazing. It takes place with fillers

that melt at temperatures below 450°C. Metals that can be soldered include gold,
silver, copper, brass, and iron. When the filler (also known as solder) solidifies, it is
bonded to the metal parts and joins them. The bond is not as strong as brazed
joint or welded one.

On the other hand, welding is a process in which two or more parts are
joined permanently at their touching surfaces by application of heat with or
without pressure and addition of filler material. Compared to brazing and

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 23

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

soldering, the base metal also melts along with the filler, creating a stronger bond
between the joined metals.

In welding, the two metals must be similar. For example, copper cannot be
welded to steel. Welding uses high temperatures to melt and join two metal parts.
When properly done, the finished weld is as strong as the surrounding metal.

Seeing as we are talking about pressure vessels which are used in an

industrial scale, we are going to focus on the welding process as it results in a
stronger bond between metals.

FLUXES

For successful fusion, the surfaces to be welded must be and remain

perfectly clean during the process. Many alloys contain metals that react with the
atmospheric oxygen therefore producing oxide films, and it is essential that some
cleaning agent or flux be used to remove any oxides formed during welding. If
oxides are occluded in the metal, they will prevent good bonding.

Flux is also a liquid that promotes wetting, which lets the filler flow over the
metal parts to be joined. It cleans the metal surface of oxides so that the filler
bonds more tightly to the metal parts.

Fluxes may be used separately, which is usually the case in brazing and
soldering, or as a coating on the welding rod.

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 24

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

TYPES OF WELDING
Welding processes are classified into two major groups:

A. Fusion Welding

In this process, base metal is melted by means of heat. Often, in

fusion welding operations, a filler metal is added to the molten pool to
facilitate the process and provide bulk and strength to the joint.

Commonly used fusion welding processes are: arc welding,

resistance welding, oxyfuel welding, electron beam welding, and laser
beam welding.

B. Plastic Welding

In this process, joining of parts takes place by application of pressure

alone or a combination of heat and pressure. No filler metal is used.

Commonly used solid-state welding processes are: diffusion welding,

friction welding, and ultrasonic welding.
The welds in pressure vessel fabrication have to be of the highest quality.
In the welding of pressure vessels, the most extensively used welding processes
are classified under arc welding and oxyfuel welding.

1. ARC WELDING

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 25

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

Arc welding is a method of permanently joining two or more metal parts. It

consists of combination of different welding processes wherein coalescence
is produced by heating with an electric arc (mostly without the application of
pressure).

A homogeneous joint is achieved by melting and fusing the adjacent

portions of the separate parts. The final welded joint has a unit strength
approximately equal to that of the base material. The arc temperature is
maintained at approximately 4400°C. A flux material is used to prevent
oxidation, which decomposes under the heat of welding and releases a gas
that shields the arc and the hot metal. The second basic method employs an
inert or nearly inert gas to form a protective envelope around the arc and the
weld. Helium, argon, and carbon dioxide are the most commonly used gases.

The most common arc welding processes used in building pressure vessels are:

a. Shielded-Metal Arc (SMAW) or Stick Welding

This is an arc welding process wherein coalescence is produced by

heating the workpiece with an electric arc setup between a flux-coated
electrode and the workpiece. The electrode is in a rod form coated with
flux.

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 26

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

b. Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

This is another type of arc welding process, in which coalescence is

produced by heating the workpiece with an electric arc setup between
the bare electrode and the work piece. Molten pool remains completely
hidden under a blanket of granular material called flux. The electrode is in
a wire form and is continuously fed from a reel. Movement of the weld gun,
dispensing of the flux and picking up of surplus flux granules behind the gun
are usually automatic.

c. Gas-Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) or Metal-Inert Gas (MIG) Welding

In this process an inert gas such as argon, helium, carbon dioxide or

a mixture of them are used to prevent atmospheric contamination of the
weld. The shielding gas is allowed to flow through the weld gun. The
electrode used here is in a wire form, fed continuously at a fixed rate. The
wire is consumed during the process and thereby provides filler metal.

d. Gas-Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) or Tungsten-Inert Gas (TIG) Welding

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 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

This process is also known as tungsten–inert gas (TIG) welding. This is

similar to the Gas Metal Arc Welding process. Difference being the
electrode is non-consumable and does not provide filler metal in this case.
A gas shield (usually inert gas) is used as in the GMAW process. If the filler
metal is required, an auxiliary rod is used.

2. Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW)

This process is also known as oxy-acetylene welding. Heat is supplied by the

combustion of acetylene in a stream of oxygen. Both gases are supplied to
the torch through flexible hoses. Heat from this torch is lower and far less
concentrated than that from an electric arc.
TYPES OF WELDING JOINTS

1. Tee Joint

Tee welding joints are formed when two

members intersect at a 90° angle which makes the
edges come together in the center of a plate or
component. Tee Joints are considered a type of fillet
weld, and can also be made when a pipe or tube is

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 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

welded onto a base plate. Extra care is required to ensure effective

penetration into the roof of the weld.

2. Lap Joint
Lap welding joints are used most often to joint
two pieces with differing thicknesses together. Also
considered a fillet type, the weld can be made on
one or both sides. A Lap Joint is formed when 2
pieces are placed in an over lapping pattern on top
of each other.
3. Edge Joint
Edge welding Joints are often applied to sheet
metal parts that have flanging edges or are placed
at a location where a weld must be made to attach
to adjacent pieces. Being a groove type weld, Edge
Joints, the pieces are set side by side and welded on
the same edge. For heavier applications filler metal
is added to melt or fuse the edge completely and to
reinforce the plate.

4. Corner Joint
Being one of the most popular welds in the
sheet metal industry the Corner welding joint is used
on the outer edge of the piece. This weld is a type of
joint that comes together at right angles between
two metal parts to form an L. These are common in
the construction of boxes, box frames and similar
fabrications.

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 29

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

5. Butt Joint
Being the universally accepted method for
attaching a pipe to itself it’s also used for valves,
flanges, fittings, and other equipment. A butt
welding joint is also known as a square grove weld.
It’s the easiest and probably the most common weld
there is. It consists of two flat pieces that are side by
side parallel. It’s a very affordable option.
CATEGORIES OF WELDED JOINTS

 Category A
Longitudinal welded joints within main parts (shells, heads, cones, flat
plates, nozzles, and the attachment weld of a hemispherical head to a
shell).

 Category B
Circumferential welded joints within the main parts (shell, cone, nozzles
and the attachment joint between formed heads (elliptical and
torispherical) and shell).

 Category C

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 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

Welded joints connecting flanges, tubesheets, flat heads to main

shell, formed heads, transition in diameter, nozzles, or any welded joint
connecting one side plate to another side plate of a flat-sided vessel.

 Category D
Welded joints connecting nozzles to main shells, spheres, formed
heads, flat heads, flat-sided vessels.
Welded Pressure Vessel Calculation

1. Design Pressure

A vessel must be designed to withstand the maximum pressure to which it

is likely to be subjected in operation. For vessels under internal pressure, the design
pressure (sometimes called maximum allowable working pressure or MAWP) is
taken as the pressure at which the relief device is set. According to Sinnott (2013),
a 10% margin between the normal operating pressure and the design pressure.
Design Pressure= 1.10 × (Operating Pressure)

2. Design Temperature

The strength of metals decreases with increasing temperature so the maximum

allowable stress will depend on the material temperature. The maximum design
temperature at which the maximum allowable stress is evaluated should be taken
as the maximum working temperature of the material, with due allowance for any
uncertainty involved in predicting vessel wall temperatures.

3. Materials

Selection of a suitable material must take into account the suitability of the
material for fabrication (particularly welding) as well as the compatibility of the
material with the process environment. Pressure vessels are constructed from plain
carbon steels, low and high alloy steels, other alloys, clad plate, and reinforced
plastics. According to Peters (1991), a corrosion allowance of 0.010 to 0.015 in./yr,
or about 1/8 in. for a lo-year life is a reasonable value.

4. Fluid Service

A vessel must be designed appropriately with the fluid to be service in the

vessel. Such considerations should be its properties.

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 31

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

Types of Vessels According to ASME-UPV Code

Vessel Fluid Service Operating Operating

Type Temperature Pressure
U-68 • Any service or • No limit • No
application limit

U-69 • Any application except • 700ºF – • 400 psi

as containers for lethal head
gases, ammonia, thickness
chlorine, natural or less than 1.5
manufactured fuel gas, in
propane and butane • 300ºF- head
are exempted from thickness
lethal classification. greater than
1.5 in

U-70 • Any application in • 250ºF but • 200 psi

which plate thickness not to
does not exceed 5/8 in exceed the
boiling
temperature
at
atmospheric
pressure

Class U-68 vessels are more expensive on account of construction details.

They must also be furnished with at least one manway to permit access for interior
welding. Class U-70 vessels are usually the least expensive, and may be
constructed as to require no manways.

5. Safety Factor

The filling capacity of most pressure vessels in the indu stry is 80% to provide
protection against overfill for tanks (20% safety factor).

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 32

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

(Source: Plant Design and Economics for Chemical

Engineers by Peters and Timmerhaus, Table 6, p. 37)

6. Diameter and Height

The most common ratio of height and

diameter used for pressure vessels is H=4/3D.

(Source: Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers 4th

ed., Branan, p. 224)

7. Calculate the volume of the vessel and choose

the head to be used for the roof and bottom.

Standard ellipsoidal heads are somewhat

stronger than dished heads of the same gage.
Ellipsoidal heads are available in the same range of
outer diameter and gage as dished heads. Conical
head is obtainable in a range of sizes from 66 to 150 in
outer diameter, varying by increments of 6 in and gages from 5/8 to 1 ½ in, varying
by increments of 1/8 in. Hemispherical head is Available in very limited range of
size but somewhat greater variety of designs is commercially obtainable if
segmentable heads can be used. For high-pressure vessels, hemispherical heads
are usually the most economical.

Type h Volume Area

Cylinder 𝑫𝟐
𝝅 ×𝒉
𝟒
Standard 𝝅𝑫𝟑 𝐀 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟗𝑫𝟐
𝐕=
Ellipsoidal 𝟐𝟒

Standard Dished 𝐡 𝑽 𝑨 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟖𝑳𝒉

=𝑳 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟓𝒉𝟐 (𝟑𝑳
𝟐 − 𝒉)
− √𝑳𝟐 − 𝑫 ⁄𝟒

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 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

Conical 𝒉 𝐕 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟐𝒉(𝑫𝟐 + 𝐀
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑨(𝑫 − 𝒎) 𝑫𝒎 + 𝒎𝟐 ) = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟓(𝑫
=
𝟐 + 𝒎)√𝟒𝒉𝟐 + (𝑫 − 𝒎)
+𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟓𝒅𝟐

8. Determine the maximum allowable stress of the material you are using.

For design purposes it is necessary to decide a value for the maximum

allowable stress (nominal design strength) that can be accepted in the material
of construction. In the API-ASME Code, it established the stress for vessels made
from carbon steel. Applying a suitable safety factor to the maximum stress that
the material could be expected to withstand without failure under standard test
conditions.

The basis for establishing the maximum allowable stress values in the ASME
BPV Code is given in ASME BPV Code Sec. II Part D, Mandatory Appendix 1.

𝑆 = 𝑆𝑢 × 𝐹𝑚 × 𝐹𝑎 × 𝐹𝑟 × 𝐹𝑠

Where: Su= Ultimate Tensile Strengths;

Fm= Material Factor;

Fs= Allowable Fraction of Su that is based on the metal temperature;

Fr= stress relieving factor;

Fa= radiograph factor

The material factor, Fm, of a material is based on the group of carbon steels used:

 Group A (Firebox Grades of Forge Welding and High Tensile Strength

Carbon Steels)= 1.0
 Group B (Flange grades)= 0.97
 Group C (Structural or Mild Steels)= 0.92

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 34

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

The allowable fraction of Su that is based on the metal temperature or the

operating temperature is based on this table: (Source: Process Equipment Design,
Hesse & Rushton)

Metal Temperature at Plate and Forged Steel, Cast Steel, %

deg F %
Up to 650 25 16.7
700 23.7 16.4
750 21 14.7
800 18 12.9
850 15 11.1
900 12 9.3
950 9 7.5
1000 6.2 5.7

Stress relieving is mandatory for other permissible steels when the plate
thickness shell or head at any welded joints exceeds 1 ¼ in., and for thinner plates,
when the thickness exceeds (D+50)/120, where D is the shell diameter in inches.
Radiographing and stress relieving are mandatory for vessels made of ASTM A-
150 steel and for ATM A-149.

Radiographing and stress relieving are credited by multiplying the allowable

design stress by radiograph factor of 1.12 and stress relieving factor of 1.06. These
can only be employed when all the main joints of the vessel are radiographed. If
stress relieving and radiographing is not employed, it is taken as unity.

9. Calculate the thickness of the shell.

𝑝𝐷
t= +𝑐
2𝑆𝑒 − 𝑝

Where:
p= Design Pressure
S= Maximum Allowable Stress
e= Joint Efficiency
c= Corrosion Allowance

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 35

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

The joint efficiency can be determined by the type of welding joint to be

used.

Type of Joint Efficiency Limitations

Single full fillet lap joints 0.55 May be used only for attaching heads
without plug welds convex to pressure with plate thickness
not exceeding 5/8 in

Single full fillet lap joints with 0.65 May be used only for circumferential
plug welds joints with plate thickness not exceeding
5/8 in

Double full fillet lap joints 0.65 May be used only for circumferential
joints with plate thickness not exceeding
5/8 in

Single welded butt joint 0.70 Cannot be used for joints over 5/8 in thick
without backing-up strips

Single welded butt joint with 0.80 Limited to the application to joints not
backing-up strips over 1 ¼ in thick

Double welded butt joint 0.80 None

(vee or U type)

10. Calculate the thickness of the head:

Standard Ellipsoidal 𝒑𝑫
𝐭=
𝟐𝑺𝒆

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 36

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

Standard Dished 𝒑𝑳𝑾

𝐭=
𝟐𝑺𝒆
Conical 𝒑𝑴
𝐭=
𝟐(𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑨)𝑺𝒆
Hemispherical 𝒑𝑫
𝐭=
𝟒𝑺𝒆

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 37

 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering

REFERENCES

1. Branan, C. (2002). Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers. Elsevier.

2. Green, D., Maloney, J., & Perry, R. (1997). Perry's Chemical Engineers'
Handbook. McGraw-Hill.
3. Hesse, H. C., & Rushton, J. H. (1945). Process Equipment Design. Toronto,
Canada: D. Van Nostrand Company.
4. McCabe, W., Smith, J., & Harriott, P. (1993). Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering. Mcgraw-Hill.
5. Metals Handbook-Welding, Brazing and Soldering, American Society for
Metals, 1993, 10th edition, Volume 6, USA.
6. Peters, M., & Timmerhaus, K. (1991). Plant Design and Economics for
Chemical Engineers. McGraw-Hill.
7. R S Parmar, Welding engineering & technology, Khanna Publisher, 2002,
2nd edition, New Delhi.
8. Richard Little, Welding and Welding Technology, McGraw Hill, (2001), 1st
edition
9. Sinnott, R., & Towler, G. (2013). Chemical Engineering Design. Elsevier.
10. Welding handbook, American Welding Society, (1983), 7th edition

Riveted and Welded Pressure Vessels 38