Professional Documents
Culture Documents
David A. Grimaldi
Page 2: True scorpion. Dominican amber, 3x4". Private collection Editor: Harriet Whelchel
Designer: Maria Learmonth Miller
Page 6: Chest. Replica of seventeenth-century German design, made Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
c. 1880 in Munich for Arnold Buffum by Fritz von Muller, director
Grimaldi, David A.
of the Academy of Art in Munich. Height 18 ". Courtesy, Museum of
Amber: window to the past / by David A. Grimaldi.
Fine Arts, Boston. Bequest of William Arnold Buffum, 02.86
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
The body of the chest is of ebony and silver gilt, with "windows"
ISBN 0-8109-1966-4 (Abrams: doth) /0-8109-2652-0 (Mus. pbk)
of transparent amber medallions, cut in profiles and portraits,
1. Amber. 2. Amber art objects. I. Title.
inserted. The amber has been called Sicilian but is most likely Baltic.
QE391.A5G76 1996
553.2'9-dc20
Page 7: Man carrying a burden. China, eighteenth century or earlier. Copyright © 1996 American Museum of Natural History
Height 3.2". American Museum of Natural History (Anthropology). Published in 1996 by Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, New York
Drummond Collection, 70.3.2584 A Times Mirror Company
No part of the contents of this book may be reproduced without
The figure is carved from a single piece of clear yellow amber, the base the written permission of the publisher
from another piece of similar color.
Printed and bound in Japan
CONTENTS
Preface a n d A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s
AMBER IN NATURE I1
Mesolithic P e r i o d t o t h e B r o n z e A g e 145
Amber a m o n g the Ancients 149
Medieval a n d R e n a i s s a n c e A m b e r 160
Seventeenth-Nineteenth-Century European Amber 166
The Amber Room 186
Asian A m b e r s 194
Selected B i b l i o g r a p h y 209
Index 211
Photograph/Illustration Credits 216
PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
8 • Preface
it has m o r e black-and-white t h a n color p h o t o g r a p h s , is mostly about E u r o p e a n
d e c o r a t i v e objects, a n d is available only in G e r m a n .
A s m e d i u m s b o t h f o r objets d ' a r t a n d t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f e x t i n c t o r g a n i s m s
w i t h u n p a r a l l e l e d f i d e l i t y , a m b e r a n d resins fall i n t o t h e i r o w n c a t e g o r y o f
s u b s t a n c e s . Science c a n s o m e t i m e s r e d u c e t h e m y s t i q u e of a subject. In t h e case
o f a m b e r , c u r r e n t scientific i n q u i r y has actually a d d e d m o r e r o m a n c e t o a n
a l r e a d y mystical s u b s t a n c e .
A n A m e r i c a n fascination w i t h a m b e r h a s b e e n fueled b y v a r i o u s scientific
discoveries t h a t have b e e n w i d e l y p o p u l a r i z e d , m a n y o f t h e m h a v i n g b e e n m a d e
at the American M u s e u m of Natural History It is my hope that the present
b o o k a n d the exhibit will h e l p t o m a k e t h a t fascination g r o w .
A b o o k like this c a n n o t b e d e v e l o p e d w i t h o u t t h e h e l p a n d c o o p e r a t i o n o f
m a n y t a l e n t e d p e o p l e . It is a p l e a s u r e to t h a n k t h e following individuals for t h e i r
help, especially (at t h e A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y ) D e n i s F i n n i n
a n d j a c k l y n Beckett i n t h e P h o t o g r a p h y S t u d i o a n d P r e s i d e n t a n d C h a i r m a n
E m e r i t u s o f t h e A M N H , R o b e r t G o e l e t , for his p e r s o n a l g e n e r o s i t y i n
sponsoring a m b e r research; and n u m e r o u s others w h o helped in a great variety
o f w a y s : Dr. H e r b e r t A x e l r o d , E d Bridges, J o e P e t e r s , S a r a h C o v i n g t o n , J o e l
Sweimler, D o n Clyde, B a r b a r a C o n k l i n , S a m Taylor, G e r a r d C a s e , J u l i a n Stark,
Linda K r a u s e , H a n k Silverstein, Lisa Stillman, D o n n a E n g l u n d , a n d Bea
Brewster. W i t h o u t t h e s u p p o r t o f a n d t a l e n t a t t h e M u s e u m this w o r k w o u l d
have b e e n m u c h m o r e difficult. M u c h o f m y scientific r e s e a r c h o n a m b e r h a s
b e e n g e n e r o u s l y s p o n s o r e d b y a g r a n t f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l Science F o u n d a t i o n .
I a m also i n d e b t e d t o p e o p l e a t o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s , a n d v a r i o u s p r i v a t e indi-
viduals, especially E t t o r e a n d R e m o M o r o n e , for t h e i r g r a c i o u s s u p p o r t a n d h e l p
i n s t u d y i n g t h e i r w o n d r o u s collection; D i e t e r S c h l e e - ( M u s e u m fur N a t u r k u n d e ,
S t u t t g a r t ) ; S u s a n H e n d r i c k s o n ; A l e x a n d e r S h e d r i n s k y ( N e w York University
Institute o f Fine Arts); a n d t h e c o n s e r v a t o r s a n d p h o t o g r a p h e r s a t t h e M u s e u m
o f Fine Arts, B o s t o n , w h o w o r k e d v e r y h a r d t o p r e p a r e t h e Buffum C o l l e c t i o n
for this b o o k a n d t h e e x h i b i t i o n . T h e s u p p o r t o f Dr. A n n e P o u l e t a n d Janis
Staggs at t h e M u s e u m of Fine A r t s is d e e p l y a p p r e c i a t e d .
T h e r e are n u m e r o u s o t h e r s w h o a r r a n g e d for l o a n s o r c o n t r i b u t e d i n f o r m a -
tion: Faya C a u s i ( W a s h i n g t o n D.C.); A n d r e w Ross, R i c h a r d Fortey, a n d A n d r e w
Clark ( N a t u r a l H i s t o r y M u s e u m , L o n d o n ) ; J o h n C o o p e r ( B o o t h M u s e u m ,
Brighton); Ivan S a u t o v ( E k a t e r i n i n s k y Palace M u s e u m , St. P e t e r s b u r g ) ; C r i s t i n a
Piacenti ( M u s e o degli A r g e n t i , F l o r e n c e ) ; M a r j o r i e T r u s t e d (Victoria a n d A l b e r t
M u s e u m , L o n d o n ) ; V l a d i m i r Z h e r i k h i n a n d Yuri P o p o v ( P a l e o n t o l o g i c a l
Institute, M o s c o w ) ; W i l l i a m C r e p e t a n d R u d o l f M e i e r ( C o r n e l l University);
J u d i t h a n d M i c h a e l S t e i n h a r d t ; J a m e s W a t t , J o a n M e r t e n s , a n d Claire V i n c e n t
( M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m o f Art); S u s a n a P a n c a l d o , Shelby W h i t e , a n d L e o n Levy; Overleaf: Portions of three contour or
and Laura Siegel ( R o b e r t H a b e r Gallery, N e w York). flight feathers. Length of amber 1.5".
Private collection
To all I o w e d e e p t h a n k s .
Preface • 9
AMBER
IN
NATURE
ORIGINS AND PROPERTIES
12 • Amber in Nature
Geological time scale, showing the periods
relevant to the formation of amber
A m b e r i s a l m o s t always p r e s e r v e d i n a s e d i m e n t t h a t f o r m e d t h e b o t t o m
o f a n a n c i e n t l a g o o n o r river d e l t a a t t h e e d g e o f a n o c e a n o r sea. T h e specific
gravity o f solid a m b e r i s o n l y slightly h i g h e r t h a n t h a t o f w a t e r ; a l t h o u g h i t d o e s
n o t float, it is b u o y a n t a n d easily c a r r i e d by w a t e r ( a m b e r w i t h air b u b b l e s is
even m o r e b u o y a n t ) . T h u s , a m b e r w o u l d b e c a r r i e d d o w n r i v e r w i t h logs f r o m
fallen a m b e r t r e e s a n d cast u p a s b e a c h drift o n t h e s h o r e s o r i n t h e s h a l l o w s o f
t h e delta i n t o w h i c h t h e river e m p t i e s . O v e r t i m e , s e d i m e n t s w o u l d g r a d u a l l y
b u r y t h e w o o d a n d resin. T h e resin w o u l d b e c o m e a m b e r , a n d t h e w o o d a
b l a c k e n e d , charcoal-like lignite.
Amber in Nature • 13
Resins
Many are the excellent virtues of Amber, especially when taken inwardly, in a cold
state of the Brain, in Catarrhs, in the Headache, sleep and convulsive disorders,
in the suppression of the menses, hysterical and hypochondriacal disorders, and in
hemorrhages or bleedings.
14 • Amber in Nature
physician i n A m e r i c a , extolled t h e v i r t u e s o f a n unlikely c o n c o c t i o n o f g r o u n d
p i n e resin s t e e p e d i n w a t e r , called " T a r W a t e r . " Several s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
treatises w e r e w r i t t e n o n this o d d cordial a s a t r e a t m e n t a g a i n s t s m a l l p o x , u l c e r s ,
d i a r r h e a , a n d t h e "foulest d i s t e m p e r s " (syphilis). (In an age like o u r s , in w h i c h
folk m e d i c i n e is r e v e a l i n g a w e a l t h of m e d i c a l insights f r o m tropical p l a n t s , s u c h
r e m e d i e s s h o u l d n o t b e i m m e d i a t e l y dismissed.) F e w s u b s t a n c e s , t h o u g h , r i v a l
t h e m y s t i c a l p o w e r s o f t h e m o s t f a m o u s resins, f r a n k i n c e n s e a n d m y r r h .
F r a n k i n c e n s e is t h e resin f r o m Boswellia trees, especially t h e species carterii,
papyrifera, a n d thurifera. T h e finest f r a n k i n c e n s e a n d p e r h a p s t h e o l d e s t h a r v e s t s
are from s o u t h e r n Arabia. F r o m h e r e t h e H a d r a m i s w o u l d t r a n s p o r t t h e m a t e r i a l
via c a m e l caravans a c r o s s t h e A r a b i a n sands t o Palestine a n d E g y p t , a n d o t h e r
m e r c h a n t s w o u l d b r i n g i t t o G r e e c e a n d R o m e , w h e r e i t w a s especially p r i z e d .
I n t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A . D . , 3,000 t o n s p e r year w e r e s h i p p e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e
M e d i t e r r a n e a n , m o s t o f i t t o t h e R o m a n s . Its v a l u e t o t h e p e o p l e o f P a l e s t i n e i s
reflected in its m e n t i o n in t h e Bible t w e n t y - t w o t i m e s . Its e x t r e m e l y rich, r e s i n o u s
a r o m a m a d e i t t h e f i n e s t i n c e n s e available, a n d i t w a s b u r n e d ( s o m e t i m e s
c o n t i n u o u s l y ) in t e m p l e s a n d e v e n u s e d as a base for p e r f u m e s . T h e v a l u e of
frankincense vied w i t h t h a t of gold; it w a s offered to t h e infant Christ by t h e M a g i
a l o n g w i t h g o l d a n d m y r r h ( M a t t h e w 2:11).
M y r r h is f r o m s h r u b b y Commiphora trees, w h i c h are f o u n d in t h e s a m e
r e g i o n s as are Boswellia. M y r r h , t o o , w a s u s e d as an i n c e n s e , p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r i n g
c r e m a t i o n , a n d as a b a s e for p e r f u m e s , e v e n as t h e a n o i n t i n g oil of t h e H e b r e w s
i n t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t : "Your G o d h a s set y o u above y o u r c o m p a n i o n s , b y
a n o i n t i n g y o u w i t h t h e oil o f joy. All y o u r r o b e s are f r a g r a n t w i t h m y r r h a n d
aloes a n d cassia" ( P s a l m s 4 5 : 7 - 8 ) ; a n d , " M y lover is to me a s a c h e t of m y r r h
r e s t i n g b e t w e e n m y b r e a s t s " ( S o n g o f S o n g s 1:13). I t w a s u s e d b y virtually all
o f t h e a n c i e n t p e o p l e s o f Asia M i n o r i n a n o i n t i n g a n d e m b a l m i n g t h e d e a d ,
i n c l u d i n g t h e c e l e b r a t e d m o r t i c i a n s o f a n c i e n t E g y p t . I n his 1770 treatise, J o h n
C o o k offers a n a n e c d o t e o n t h e p r e s e r v a t i v e p r o p e r t i e s o f m y r r h :
16 • Amier in Nature
o f t h e century, t r e e s w o u l d e v e n b e t a p p e d , a l t h o u g h this w a s d i s c o u r a g e d i n
o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e b e h e m o t h s . T h o u s a n d s o f i t i n e r a n t " g u m d i g g e r s " traveled
a m o n g the various "gumfields." Most of t h e m were Austrian immigrants, s o m e
of t h e m poorer N e w Zealanders, and an occasional Maori. Export began a b o u t
1850; in 1856, a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1,440 t o n s w e r e e x p o r t e d , a n d by 1906, e x p o r t s
r e a c h e d 275,319 t o n s . L u m p s o f k a u r i g u m t e n t o t w e l v e p o u n d s w e r e n o t
u n c o m m o n , a n d t h e largest o n e r e p o r t e d w e i g h e d n e a r l y o n e h u n d r e d p o u n d s .
M o s t copals derive f r o m l e g u m e t r e e s i n t h e C a e s a l p i n i o i d e a g r o u p o f
families, especially t h e g e n u s Hymenaea. A r e l a t e d g e n u s of trees, w i t h t h e
a p p r o p r i a t e n a m e Copaifera, i s t h e s o u r c e o f copals f r o m G h a n a , G u i n e a , a n d Opposite: Large piece of copal from
Sierra L e o n e in w e s t e r n Africa. Hymenaea copals o c c u r in Minais G e r a i s , Brazil; Santander, Colombia, containing
beetles. Two surfaces are polished flat.
e a s t e r n D o m i n i c a n Republic; C o l o m b i a ; a n d East Africa. D e p o s i t s f r o m Santander,
Height 4.5". American Museum of
C o l o m b i a , are h a r v e s t e d for s o m e especially large pieces ( o t h e r s i n C o l o m b i a Natural History (Entomology)
o c c u r n e a r Medellin a n d a l o n g t h e M a g d a l e n a River i n M a r i q u i t a P r o v i n c e ) .
M a n y o f t h e s e impressive p i e c e s c o n t a i n t e r m i t e s w a r m s a n d o t h e r insect
inclusions a n d are sold t o a m a t e u r c o l l e c t o r s a s " P l i o c e n e a m b e r " ( a b o u t t w o Section of a copal tree (Hymenaea
million years old), even t h o u g h c a r b o n - 1 4 d a t i n g indicates it is o n l y several verrucosa)/rom Zanzibar, off the
coast of Tanzania. Between the bark
h u n d r e d years old, like all t h e o t h e r Hymenaea copal d e p o s i t s . Similarly, a clear
and the heartwood is almost pure
Hymenaea copal f r o m e a s t e r n D o m i n i c a n Republic is sold as D o m i n i c a n a m b e r ; resin. The heartwood contains beetle
t r u e D o m i n i c a n a m b e r c o m e s f r o m t h e n o r t h e r n m o u n t a i n s a n d i s light y e l l o w galleries impregnated with resin.
Diameter 4.8". American Museum
t o d e e p red. W h e n t h e p e o p l e s o f Asia M i n o r w e r e t a p p i n g f r a n k i n c e n s e a n d
of Natural History (Entomology)
m y r r h t r e e s for i n c e n s e , c o p a l a n d freshly h a r d e n e d Hymenaea resin w e r e b u r n e d
a s a n i n c e n s e b y native p e o p l e s o f C e n t r a l a n d S o u t h A m e r i c a .
T h e M a y a b u r n e d i t i n special i n c e n s e p o t s , a n d t h e
Y a n o m a m o s o f s o u t h e r n V e n e z u e l a still collect
t h e resin for i n c e n s e .
T h e only African species of Hymenaea, H. verm
cosa (previously g i v e n its o w n g e n u s , Trachy-
lobium), o c c u r s f r o m S o m a l i a to T a n z a n i a ,
Z a n z i b a r Island, M a d a g a s c a r , a n d t h e islands
of t h e Seychelles a n d M a u r i t i u s , s o m e 1,000
miles off t h e East African coast. A r o u n d t h e
t u r n of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , H. verrucosa
copal w a s t h e basis for a very lucrative industry:
I n 1898, s o m e 512,600 p o u n d s w e r e e x p o r t e d
t o G e r m a n y for h i g h - g r a d e v a r n i s h e s . Fresh
pieces of t h e copal are a v e r y p a l e , clear yellow,
just like t h e N e w W o r l d Hymenaea copals. T h e
American M u s e u m of Natural History has a
large collection o f copal f r o m Z a n z i b a r , rich w i t h
insect inclusions. I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t s o m e o f
the East African c o p a l m a y b e u p t o t w o m i l l i o n y e a r s
old, b u t this is v e r y unlikely.
Amber in Nature • 19
DEPOSITS OF THE WORLD
Amber in Nature • 21
b u t t e r f l i e s — w a s linked w i t h t h e e v o l u t i o n o f a n g i o s p e r m p l a n t s , a n d vice versa,
A small stud of amber above the branch
of an extinct Metasequoia tree that a n d t h a t this t o o k p l a c e d u r i n g t h e C r e t a c e o u s p e r i o d . Fossils i n C r e t a c e o u s
may have produced it. This fossil, from a m b e r h a v e b e e n a p a r t i c u l a r l y r e v e a l i n g w i n d o w for u n d e r s t a n d i n g this
the Jurassic period of Russia, is about
relationship.
160 million years old. Length 2.6".
Paleontological Institute, Moscow E v e n t h o u g h a n g i o s p e r m s w e r e diversifying d u r i n g t h e C r e t a c e o u s , t h e
l a n d s c a p e a t this t i m e w a s p r o b a b l y d o m i n a t e d b y cycads a n d conifers. All o f
t h e C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r s are c e r t a i n l y c o n i f e r o u s , for a r b o r e s c e n t (treelike)
24 • Amber in Nature
Europe a l t h o u g h Cretaceous a m b e r is found near Vienna and in Salzburg,
Austria, it is t h e 100-million-year-old a m b e r of F r a n c e t h a t is b e t t e r
k n o w n a n d p r o b a b l y m o r e a b u n d a n t . O c c u r r i n g i n t h e Paris a n d A q u i t a n i a n
basins of n o r t h w e s t e r n France, near Bezonnais, Durtal, and Fouras, it resembles
i n b o t h c o m p o s i t i o n a n d k i n d s o f i n c l u s i o n s t h e 90-to-94-million-year-old
a m b e r from c e r t a i n d e p o s i t s i n N e w Jersey. C l o u d i n e s s o f t h e a m b e r i s d u e t o
m i c r o s c o p i c b u b b l e s , a n d p y r i t e ("fool's g o l d " ) has i n t r u d e d i n t o c r a c k s a n d e v e n
s o m e o f t h e insect inclusions. T h e p y r i t e h a s a l l o w e d h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n X-raying
o f s o m e insects, since i t i s m u c h d e n s e r t h a n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a m b e r a n d h a s
r e p l a c e d the original insect i n faithful detail. A s i n m o s t C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r s , t h e
fossilized insects w i t h i n are tiny, less t h a n o n e - t e n t h o f a n i n c h l o n g o n a v e r a g e ,
a l t h o u g h s o m e o f t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g o n e s , like t h e t e r m i t e s a n d l a c e w i n g s ,
are q u i t e large. T h e insects are n o t plentiful. I n t h e F r e n c h a m b e r , for e x a m p l e ,
o n e p o u n d o f r a w a m b e r yields a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w e n t y insects a n d insect p a r t s .
C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r f r o m C a n a d a , b y c o n t r a s t , yields a b o u t t w i c e this n u m b e r
of inclusions.
Amber in Nature • 27
m a n u f a c t u r e . T h e s e h u g e pits are n o w e r o d e d i n a n d c o v e r e d w i t h w o o d l a n d .
T h e a m b e r w a s p u r p o r t e d l y s o plentiful t h a t w o r k e r s w o u l d pile i t i n barrels
during the winter and b u r n it to keep warm!
A m b e r o c c u r s i n similar a b a n d o n e d clay pits i n C r e t a c e o u s e x p o s u r e s o f N e w
Jersey, w h e r e t h e m o s t a b u n d a n t N o r t h A m e r i c a n d e p o s i t s are f o u n d . C h e m i c a l
analysis identifies t h e b o t a n i c a l s o u r c e o f t h e a m b e r a s a r a u c a r i a n ; h o w e v e r ,
t w i g s i n t h e a m b e r a n d t h e m i c r o s c o p i c s t r u c t u r e o f lignite found w i t h t h e a m b e r
( s o m e t i m e s t h e a m b e r i s f o u n d i n t h e fossilized w o o d ) indicate C u p r e s s a c e a e .
A m b e r d e p o s i t s v a r y f r o m 6 5 m i l l i o n t o n e a r l y 9 5 m i l l i o n years old, a l t h o u g h a n
u n u s u a l T e r t i a r y fossil "resin," w i t h a c o n s i s t e n c y like solid, h a r d plastic, is
28 • Amber in Nature
These tiny carbonized flowers and a beetle head (lengths of each
about. 1"), preserved in clays with the New Jersey amber, were Right, above: Detrusandra, a relative of magnolias, is much simpler
photographed with a scanning electron microscope. L. H. Bailey and was perhaps wind pollinated.
Hortorium, Cornell University
Right, below: Head of a cupedoid beetle revealing intricate sculpturing.
Left: Ericalean flower shown intact (above) and "dissected " (below). This mode of fossilization is the closest equivalent to preservation in
It has petals, round sepal glands along the petals, and nectaries at amber. These and similar fossils complement those preserved in the
the bases of the stamens, which were presumably used for attracting New Jersey amber, which is of similar age.
insect pollinators, such as bees.
Amber in Nature • 29
t h a n e x a m p l e s i n T e r t i a r y a m b e r s . M a n y o f t h e flowers are f r o m plants surpris-
Famous ant, Sphecomyrma freyi,
fossilized in New Jersey amber. It is one ingly a d v a n c e d evolutionarily, b e l o n g i n g t o t r o p i c a l families a n d o t h e r g r o u p s ,
of the most primitive of known ants. w h i c h m a y explain s u c h a n a d v a n c e d b e e i n N e w Jersey a m b e r . For e x a m p l e ,
Museum of Comparative Zoology,
t h e r e are flowers o f laurels ( L a u r a c e a e ) , C h l o r a n t h a c e a e , tiny magnolia-like
Harvard University
flowers, a n d f r o m p l a n t s r e l a t e d t o t h e h e a t h s (family Ericaceae) a n d t h e witch-
h a z e l family, H a m a m e l i d a c e a e . Pollen i n t h e ericalean flowers w a s h e l d t o g e t h e r
30 • Amber in Nature
m o n s e a s n
Japan ^ S o r e d e p o s i t s i n Kuji, J a p a n , c a n b e f o u n d 85-million-year-
old a m b e r , f r o m t h e T a n e i c h i a n d K u n i t a n F o r m a t i o n s . T h e a m b e r
o c c u r s w i t h m a r i n e fossils like m o s a s a u r t e e t h a n d a m m o n i t e s (extinct relatives
o f t h e n a u t i l u s ) a n d c o m e s i n a r e m a r k a b l e v a r i e t y o f colors a n d opacity, m u c h
of it an a p p e a l i n g c a r a m e l color. It is t h e oldest a m b e r in t h e w o r l d f r o m w h i c h
objects h a v e b e e n c a r v e d , o n e r e a s o n b e i n g t h e large size o f s o m e pieces. O n e
p i e c e , f o u n d in 1927 n e a r Kuji, w e i g h s 44 p o u n d s ; a n o t h e r , f o u n d in 1941 ( a n d
n o w i n t h e N a t i o n a l Science M u s e u m i n T o k y o ) , w e i g h s 3 5 p o u n d s . B o t h o f
t h e s e large pieces are o p a q u e y e l l o w i s h o r a n g e . E v e n o l d e r a m b e r ( a b o u t 120
m i l l i o n y e a r s old) h a s b e e n f o u n d i n C h o s h i , J a p a n . All t h e C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r s
h a v e s o m e insects; o n e p i e c e f r o m Kuji h a s p o r t i o n s of a bird feather.
32 • Amber in Nature
Variations in the 85-million-year-old Kuji amber
from Japan. Length of largest piece 3 ". American
Museum of Natural History (Entomology),
courtesy of Kuji Amber Museum
Amber in Nature • 33
Collecting Cretaceous amber from the
Taimyr Peninsula, northern Siberia
34 • Amber in Nature
r o r j a D r
Siberia P y t h e largest d e p o s i t o f C r e t a c e o u s a m b e r i n t h e w o r l d c o m e s
f r o m t h e T a i m y r P e n i n s u l a i n n o r t h e r n Russia. T h e o l d e s t r e p o r t o f
this a m b e r w a s m a d e a s early a s 1730. O f t h e four m a i n d e p o s i t s o n o r n e a r
t h e T a i m y r Peninsula, o n e , a b o u t 8 0 m i l l i o n y e a r s old, i s f r o m t h e K h a t a n g a
D e p r e s s i o n , also t h e site o f t h e n o r t h e r n m o s t forests (larches). I n b o t h w e s t e r n
a n d c e n t r a l T a i m y r are 100-million-year-old d e p o s i t s f r o m t h e C e n o m a n i a n -
e p o c h , D o l g a n i a n a n d B e g i c h e v F o r m a t i o n s . A n o t h e r i s f r o m t h e Arctic I n s t i t u t e
Island, j u s t off t h e w e s t c o a s t of T a i m y r . Scientists at t h e P a l e o n t o l o g i c a l
I n s t i t u t e i n M o s c o w h a v e s p e n t d e c a d e s e x c a v a t i n g a n d s c r e e n i n g this a m b e r
for t h e c o u n t l e s s tiny o r g a n i s m s fossilized in it.
„, „ T h e o l d e s t a m b e r i n t h e w o r l d c o n t a i n i n g insects a n d o t h e r
The Middle East °
l a r g e r o r g a n i s m s c o m e s f r o m t h e M i d d l e East, specifically
L e b a n o n , a l t h o u g h s i m i l a r a m b e r o c c u r s i n Israel a n d J o r d a n . T h e a m b e r i s
chemically similar in all of t h e s e a r e a s a n d is from t h e N e o c o m i a n age ( L o w e r
C r e t a c e o u s , a b o u t 120 t o 130 m i l l i o n y e a r s old). T h e largest a m o u n t s o f a m b e r
are f o u n d a t D a h r al-Baidha, b e t w e e n B e i r u t a n d D a m a s c u s , a n d a r o u n d
Jezzine. O n l y t w o c o l l e c t i o n s o f L e b a n e s e a m b e r exist, o n e a t t h e M u s e u m fur
N a t u r k u n d e , Stuttgart, the o t h e r being the Acra Collection, part of w h i c h is
a t t h e A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l History.
Screening and preparing inclusions in Cretaceous a m b e r s is extremely
tedious b e c a u s e o f t h e m a n y fractures. T h e A c r a s s p e n t several d e c a d e s
processing a p p r o x i m a t e l y 200 p o u n d s o f r a w a m b e r a n d a c c u m u l a t e d a
w o n d e r f u l collection o f m o r e t h a n a t h o u s a n d fossiliferous pieces. I n t h a t
collection are m a n y exciting earliest g e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d s o f v a r i o u s a r t h r o p o d s ,
such as t e r m i t e s a n d t h e oldest definitive m o t h s ( i n c l u d i n g a caterpillar).
These fossilized organisms in Lebanese
amber, 125 to 130 million years old,
represent the oldest amber in the world
containing insects and other macroscopic
forms of life. Most are less than . 1" long.
Acra Collection
W e are c e r t a i n t h a t t h e m o t h s are t r u e l e p i d o p t e r a n s b e c a u s e t h e a m b e r h a s
p r e s e r v e d e v e n t h e m i c r o s c o p i c s t r u c t u r e o f t h e tiny scales o n t h e w i n g s .
T h e c a t e r p i l l a r h a s t h e tiny spiggotlike s p i n n e r e t a t t h e tip o f its h e a d ,
w h i c h a l m o s t certainly w o u l d n o t be p r e s e r v e d in a fossilized i m p r e s s i o n in
rock. M o s t c o m m o n i n L e b a n e s e a m b e r are m a l e scale insects, m i d g e s ,
parasitic w a s p s , a n d p s o c o p t e r a n b a r k lice. Rarities i n c l u d e p s e u d o s c o r p i o n s ,
m i l l i p e d e s , a n d s t i n g i n g w a s p s . T h e o l d e s t D N A ever r e c o v e r e d w a s from a
w e e v i l in this collection.
38 • Amber in Nature
Left: Giant Shorea curtisii tree on
Brunei. Note two men in the tree, about
midway up on the left. Burmese legend
holds that Gaudama died and perhaps
was even born in a grove of Shoreas:
Amber in Nature • 39
^ T h e largest p i e c e o f a m b e r i n t h e w o r l d , d e r i v i n g f r o m t h e l o w e r t o mid-
M i o c e n e N y a l a u F o r m a t i o n o f S a r a w a k , Malaysia, w a s discovered o n
D e c e m b e r 3 , 1991. I t w e i g h s m o r e t h a n 150 p o u n d s a n d , t o t r a n s p o r t i t t o t h e
M u s e u m fur N a t u r k u n d e i n S t u t t g a r t , G e r m a n y , w h e r e i t i s n o w o n display, i t
h a d t o b e s a w e d i n t o several s e c t i o n s . T h e a m b e r itself i s similar t o d e n s e coal,
i m p r e g n a t e d w i t h t h e fossil resin. U p o n p o l i s h i n g , v a r i o u s c o l o r s o f t h e S a r a w a k
a m b e r b e c o m e a p p a r e n t : w h i t e , pink, o r a n g e , g r e e n , even violet, a l t h o u g h a
clear y e l l o w i s r a r e . M i c r o s c o p i c r e d d i s h - b r o w n d r o p l e t s i m p a r t t h e p i n k i s h
opacity. T h e M e r i t - P e r l a area, w h e r e t h e p i e c e w a s recovered, i s m i n e d for coal,
a n d a m b e r i s f o u n d a m o n g s o m e o f t h e coal s e a m s . Bright, yellowish a m b e r
o c c u r s i n s o m e s e a m s , i n pieces 1 t o 4 0 c e n t i m e t e r s i n d i a m e t e r . T h e a m b e r
f o u n d s o far h a s c o n t a i n e d c e n t i p e d e s , spiders, beetles, ants a n d w a s p s , a n d
v a r i o u s flies. T h e D i p t e r o c a r p a c e a e family i s t h e a p p a r e n t tree s o u r c e o f this
a m b e r . M a n y species o f d i p t e r o c a r p s g r o w i n Asia, w h e r e they-are v a l u a b l e
Amber mines in northern Burma,
t i m b e r trees because of their girth, straight trunks, and resinous w o o d , which
c. 1930
h e l p s p r e v e n t t e r m i t e infestation.
40 • Amber in Nature
Historically, t h e b e s t k n o w n Asian a m b e r i s burmite, f r o m t h e H u k a w n g
The largest piece of transparent
valley o f n o r t h e r n B u r m a ( n o w M y a n m a r ) . I t w a s r e p o r t e d i n E u r o p e a n scientific amber, which is very deep red, from
l i t e r a t u r e as early as 1836, a l t h o u g h m i n i n g h a d b e e n d o n e h e r e for at least a Burma (Myanmar). It weighs 33.5
pounds and is 19.5" long. Natural
m i l l e n n i u m . B y t h e 1930s, m a n y o f t h e a m b e r m i n e s , a t least n e a r M a i n g k w a n
History Museum, London
a n d t h e village o f S h i n g b a n i n t h e H u k a w n g valley, c o n s i s t e d o f h u n d r e d s o f
a b a n d o n e d pits o v e r g r o w n b y d e n s e j u n g l e . A t t h a t t i m e , t h e largest w o r k i n g s
w e r e a t K h a n j a m a w , w h e r e 150 K a c h i n s , Shans, a n d S h a n - C h i n e s e w e r e d i g g i n g
500 to 600 pits. M o s t of t h e pits w e r e 30 to 40 feet d e e p , occasionally 50 feet,
d e p t h b e i n g c o n s t r a i n e d b y t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a d e e p s a n d layer a n d w a t e r ,
w h i c h seeps in at 40 feet. To k e e p pit walls f r o m collapsing, e l a b o r a t e s c r e e n s
of b a m b o o poles supported by w o o d e n posts were needed.
Today, b u r m i t e h a s a l m o s t l e g e n d a r y a p p e a l , i n p a r t b e c a u s e t h e d e p o s i t s are
no longer m i n e d and the supply is generally unavailable. (This m a y be because
the m i n e s are e x h a u s t e d ; i n f o r m a t i o n o n C h i n e s e a m b e r m i n i n g i s sketchy.) T h e
appeal i s also d u e t o b u r m i t e ' s p r o p e r t i e s . F r o m t h e few scientific c o l l e c t i o n s
o f i t existing (the b e s t b e i n g a t t h e N a t u r a l H i s t o r y M u s e u m , L o n d o n ) , w e k n o w
Amber in Nature • 41
t h a t i t w a s h i g h l y f o s s i l i f e r o u s . F o u r t e e n local varieties w e r e r e c o g n i z e d , m o s t o f
t h e m a r i c h , t r a n s p a r e n t r e d w i t h s t r o n g u l t r a v i o l e t f l u o r e s c e n c e . B u r m i t e i s also
h a r d e r t h a n m o s t o t h e r a m b e r s a n d i s excellent for c a r v i n g . I n fact, m u c h o f i t
w a s e x p o r t e d t o Y u n n a n , i n s o u t h e r n C h i n a , t h e n t o Beijing, for c a r v i n g v a r i o u s
objets d ' a r t . T h e largest s p e c i m e n of t r a n s p a r e n t a m b e r in t h e w o r l d is a deep-red
p i e c e o f b u r m i t e w e i g h i n g 33.5 p o u n d s , i n t h e m i n e r a l o g y d e p a r t m e n t o f t h e
N a t u r a l H i s t o r y M u s e u m , L o n d o n . D i s c o v e r e d i n 1860, i t w a s p r e s e n t e d t o t h e
m u s e u m i n 1940.
Interestingly, t h e r e i s n o historical m e n t i o n o f a m b e r from L i a o n i n g Province,
C h i n a , for u s e i n c a r v i n g o r n a m e n t a l objects. A m b e r h e r e o c c u r s w i t h coal i n
t h e G u c h e n z g i F o r m a t i o n o f F u S h u n . I t t o o exists i n large pieces a n d i s highly
fossiliferous. B u r m i t e a n d F u S h u n a m b e r w e r e b o t h f o r m e d i n t h e E o c e n e ,
a n d t h e b o t a n i c a l s o u r c e s are u n k n o w n .
c a s w e
Africa ^ ^ * ^ k n o w n for its p r o d u c t i o n o f copal, b u t t h e o n l y T e r t i a r y
d e p o s i t o n t h e c o n t i n e n t w i t h t r u e a m b e r c o m e s from s o u t h e a s t e r n
Nigeria near Umuahia, in the A m e k i Formation of the Eocene. T h e a m b e r is
d a r k r e d , t r a n s p a r e n t t o o p a q u e . N o b i o l o g i c a l inclusions are k n o w n , n o r i s t h e
plant source.
e s t e t n e
Europe ^ P' o v e r w h e l m i n g size o f t h e Baltic d e p o s i t s , Sicilian a m b e r h a s
its o w n allure. A m b e r f r o m t h e S i m e t o River o f Sicily, n e a r C a t a n i a , a n d
t h e Salso River (called simetite) is r e n o w n e d for its varied, d e e p c o l o r s : red, b l u e ,
a n d s m o k y g r e e n . A r n o l d Buffum, w h o extolled t h e v i r t u e s o f Sicilian a m b e r i n
his b o o k The Tears of the Heliades, a m a s s e d a w o n d e r f u l c o l l e c t i o n of E u r o p e a n
a m b e r o b j e t s d ' a r t i n t h e late n i n e t e e n t h century, w h i c h are i n t h e M u s e u m o f
Fine Arts, B o s t o n . O t h e r c o l l e c t i o n s o f s i m e t i t e , b u t o f m i n e r a l o g i c a l s p e c i m e n s ,
are a t t h e A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l History. A l t h o u g h s o m e pieces are
i n d e e d t h e d e e p r e d t h a t Buffum described, t h e r e are n o pieces w i t h distinctive
g r e e n a n d b l u e h u e s i n t h e B o s t o n c o l l e c t i o n , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e these colors h a v e
faded. Sicilian a m b e r i s y o u n g e r ( O l i g o c e n e t o M i o c e n e ) t h a n the Baltic a m b e r ,
a n d t h e d e p o s i t s are m u c h smaller. S i m e t i t e is c o l l e c t e d only rarely today,
a l t h o u g h it is h a r d to i m a g i n e t h a t an e x h a u s t e d supply is t h e r e a s o n , for t h e r e
n e v e r w a s o r g a n i z e d o r m e c h a n i z e d m i n i n g o f i t like t h a t d o n e for a m b e r o n
t h e S a m l a n d P e n i n s u l a o f t h e Baltic Sea.
O b s c u r e b y E u r o p e a n a m b e r s t a n d a r d s i s rumanite, f r o m t h e C a r p a t h i a n
Mountains of Romania. Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits of Romanian a m b e r
h a v e b e e n f o u n d . T h e t r u e T e r t i a r y r u m a n i t e has p r o p e r t i e s a n d c o l o r s similar t o
s i m e t i t e a n d c o m e s largely f r o m a r e a s s u r r o u n d i n g Colti, i n B u z a u District. Else-
w h e r e in the Carpathians, in the Lvov and Ivano-Frankovsk regions, near the
t o w n o f V e r k h n i i Sinevidnyi, are E o c e n e d e p o s i t s o f succinite. S i m e t i t e a n d m o s t
r u m a n i t e lack succinic acid, a n d t h e b o t a n i c a l s o u r c e o f t h e a m b e r s i s u n c e r t a i n .
Amber in Nature • 43
Right: Landscape on Axel Heiburg
Island in the Arctic Circle, where 50-
million-year-old forests are preserved
in the permafrost with amber
44 • Amber in Nature
Variety in the 40-million-year-old amber from
central Arkansas. Some pieces have been
polished, revealing transparency; others are
completely opaque. Length of largest piece 1.7".
American Museum of Natural History
(Entomology)
Amber in Nature • 45
r e m a i n s b e n e a t h t h e f r o z e n d e s o l a t i o n . T h e a m b e r itself i s n o t s o well preserved,
m u c h of it h a v i n g an oxidized, p o w d e r y , d e e p crust, w i t h a small c o r e of
t r a n s p a r e n t y e l l o w a m b e r . A m b e r f r o m fossilized Pseudolarix t r e e s f o u n d h e r e
c o n t a i n s succinic acid i n a m o u n t s similar t o t h a t f o u n d i n Baltic a m b e r , w h i c h
m a y r e l a t e t h e s e t r e e s t o t h e b o t a n i c a l s o u r c e s o f Baltic a m b e r .
T h e largest N o r t h A m e r i c a n d e p o s i t o f a m b e r i s f r o m t h e E o c e n e C l a i b o r n e
Formation of Malvern County, Arkansas. T h e a m b e r is in t w o locations, one
a n expansive pit m i n e d for clay t o m a n u f a c t u r e bricks, t h e o t h e r a n a b a n d o n e d
clay pit. I n t h e active m i n e , pieces u p t o t h r e e i n c h e s l o n g can b e f o u n d o n t h e
surface of a d a r k clay i m p r e g n a t e d w i t h lignite. If t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s t r a t u m is
e x p o s e d , it is possible to collect several p o u n d s off t h e surface in o n e day. T h i s
a m b e r is v e r y distinctive for its w e a t h e r e d r i n d a n d d e n s e i n t e r n a l flow lines,
w h i c h are also w e a t h e r e d . I n t a c t a m b e r i n t h e c o r e o f a piece can b e r e d t o
yellow; t h e y e l l o w a m b e r i s m o r e often m a d e slightly cloudy b y m i c r o s c o p i c
b u b b l e s . M y r i a d a r t h r o p o d s are p r e s e r v e d i n t h e a m b e r , b u t finding t h e m
r e q u i r e s diligence b e c a u s e o f t h e o p a c i t y o f t h e m a t e r i a l . C h e m i s t r y s u g g e s t s
t h a t t h e b o t a n i c a l s o u r c e i s i n t h e D i p t e r o c a r p a c e a e , w h i c h i s i n t r i g u i n g since n o
t r e e s i n t h e family g r o w n o w i n N o r t h A m e r i c a .
A m u c h s m a l l e r b u t i n t e r e s t i n g d e p o s i t of Tertiary a m b e r is f o u n d in t h e
m i d - E o c e n e T i g e r M o u n t a i n F o r m a t i o n n e a r Seattle, W a s h i n g t o n , i n a small,
s t e e p e x p o s u r e i n heavily w o o d e d s t a t e p r o p e r t y . T h e a m b e r , a d a r k , t r a n s p a r e n t
red, is e x t r e m e l y brittle a n d fractures easily w h e n extracted from t h e clay substrate.
A l t h o u g h n o insects have b e e n f o u n d i n it, t h e m a n y plant fibers i n t h e a m b e r
are s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o n t h e b a r k o f c e d a r s i n t h e C u p r e s s a c e a e , w h i c h s u g g e s t s
t h a t t h e a m b e r w a s f o r m e d f r o m a t r e e i n t h e s a m e family.
46 • Amber in Nature
Baltic Amber
T h e largest d e p o s i t s o f a m b e r i n t h e w o r l d , a n d t h e o n e s e x p l o i t e d t h e l o n g e s t ,
derive f r o m t h e s h o r e s o f t h e Baltic Sea i n n o r t h e r n E u r o p e . A m b e r also
w a s h e s u p o n t h e s h o r e s o f e a s t e r n E n g l a n d a n d Scotland. Baltic a m b e r h a s
a n exceptionally rich h i s t o r y o f a n c i e n t t r a d e , s u p p o r t e d b y guilds o f a m b e r
c r a f t s m e n a n d s t u n n i n g w o r k s o f art. I t e v e n f i g u r e s i n G r e e k m y t h o l o g y .
. _ . T h e t r u e Baltic a m b e r is f o u n d on or n e a r t h e s h o r e s
Location and Geology
o f t h e e a s t e r n Baltic Sea, p a r t i c u l a r l y o n t h e S a m l a n d
Peninsula. T h e p e n i n s u l a , a m e r e 400 s q u a r e m i l e s in size, h a s p r o d u c e d 90
p e r c e n t o f all t h e a m b e r i n E u r o p e . B o t h its n o r t h e r n b a y (Kurisches Haff)
a n d s o u t h e r n bay (Frisches Haff) are nearly entirely closed off to t h e Baltic Sea.
Beaches o n the side o f t h e p e n i n s u l a facing t h e sea are n a r r o w , w i t h s t e e p ,
vertical cliffs. A m b e r w a s h e d u p o n t h e b e a c h e s , especially after s t o r m s , h a s
b e e n h a r v e s t e d for at least t e n m i l l e n n i a . A few h u g e pieces h a v e b e e n f o u n d ;
Amber in Nature • 47
Opposite: Section of Baltic
amber encrusted with barnacles,
with one end cut and polished.
Pieces like this demonstrate that
Baltic amber was in marine
water after being eroded from
sediment. Length 3.4". American
Museum of Natural History
(Earth and Planetary Sciences)
Amber in Nature * 49
o n e , w e i g h i n g 21.5 p o u n d s ( n o w i n t h e H u m b o l d t M u s e u m , Berlin), w a s
d i s c o v e r e d i n 1890 a t t h e m o u t h o f t h e O d e r River. A m b e r i s s t r a n d e d o n o t h e r
Baltic s h o r e s as well a n d , occasionally, e v e n t h e e a s t e r n s h o r e s of E n g l a n d . In
N o r t h J u t l a n d , D e n m a r k , for i n s t a n c e , 3,000 p o u n d s w e r e c o l l e c t e d this w a y
in 1800, a n d , after several s t o r m y y e a r s b e t w e e n 1822 a n d 1825, o n e D a n i s h
m e r c h a n t c o l l e c t e d 686 p o u n d s a t R i n g k j o b i n g ( o n e piece p u r p o r t e d l y w e i g h e d
2 7 p o u n d s ) . T h e r e c o r d , t h o u g h , g o e s t o t h e S a m l a n d Peninsula; d u r i n g o n e day
Large piece of Baltic amber, left un-
i n 1862, 4,400 p o u n d s w e r e c o l l e c t e d off b e a c h e s i n t h e t o w n o f P a l m n i c k e n
polished to show the natural fissures,
with a necklace of polished amber (now Yantarny). It is n o t coincidental that the m o s t productive a m b e r mine in
beads. Length 9.8". American h i s t o r y w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h a t t o w n a b o u t t e n y e a r s later.
Museum of Natural History (Earth
A m b e r h a d b e e n collected largely f r o m t h e S a m l a n d b e a c h e s u p u n t i l t h e mid-
and Planetary Sciences)
n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w h e n t w o p e o p l e m a d e a m a j o r i m p a c t o n massive-scale
Such a large piece of amber would m i n i n g o f a m b e r . I n 1850, K o n i g s b e r g ' s Society for Physical E c o n o m y h i r e d
have been prized by artisans for sculpt-
geologist George Zaddach, w h o described h o w the amber was concentrated in
ing a figure or other decorative piece.
layers of t h e blau Erde ("blue e a r t h , " actually g r e e n i s h a n d f o r m e d by g l a u c o n i t e )
50 • Amber in Nature
Two pieces of Baltic amber with
surfaces polished. One piece is a
mottled, opaque yellow-orange with
deep pits. The other is mostly
transparent with milky swirls on the
interior. Length of larger piece 4.4".
American Museum of Natural History
(Earth and Planetary Sciences)
Amber in Nature • SI
The Palmnicken amber mine, c. 1985
52 • Amber in Nature
B y 1930, a m b e r e x t r a c t i o n a t P a l m n i c k e n w a s largely m e c h a n i z e d . H u g e
c o n v e y e r s d u m p e d b u c k e t s o f blau Erde i n t o o p e n freight cars. T h e t r a i n s t h e n
c a r r i e d t h e e a r t h over t o g r a t e s , w h e r e i t w a s spilled t o t h e s p r a y h o u s e b e l o w
a n d b l a s t e d w i t h h i g h - p r e s s u r e h o s e s ; s m a l l p i e c e s floated o u t of a slurry, l a r g e r
pieces w e r e collected b y h a n d . O u t o f t h e h u n d r e d s o f t h o u s a n d s o f p o u n d s
e x t r a c t e d yearly, n e a r l y 9 0 p e r c e n t w a s o f p o o r quality a n d s u i t a b l e o n l y for
c h e m i c a l processing; t h e r e m a i n d e r w a s u s e d for c a r v i n g s a n d j e w e l r y o r
c o n t a i n e d fossilized i n c l u s i o n s . T h a t 9 0 p e r c e n t w a s d r y distilled i n h u g e i r o n
r e t o r t s , w h i c h yielded 6 0 t o 6 5 p e r c e n t a m b e r c o l o p h o n y ( a h i g h - g r a d e v a r n i s h ) ,
1 5 t o 2 0 p e r c e n t a m b e r oil ( u s e d i n m e d i c i n e s , casting, a n d t h e h i g h e s t g r a d e
varnishes), a n d 2 p e r c e n t distilled acids (used for m e d i c i n e s a n d dyes). P a l m n i c k e n
i s still t h e m o s t prolific a m b e r m i n e i n t h e w o r l d .
54 • Amber in Nature
t i m e , a n d t h e n c e in t h e Baltic r e g i o n . T h e Pseudolarix h y p o t h e s i s is also b o l s t e r e d
b y t h e fact t h a t m a n y o f t h e o t h e r p l a n t a n d insect species fossilized i n t h e Baltic
a m b e r are closely r e l a t e d t o species n o w living i n Asia, Australia, a n d e v e n Chile.
Amber in Nature • 55
A famous specimen: larva of the owl
"fly," Neadelphus protae, in Baltic
amber, in which all of the intricate
processes and hairs are preserved.
Like the related ant lions, these
larvae impale their prey with their
huge mandibles and then suck them
dry. Hagen Collection, Museum of
Comparative Zoology, Harvard
University
58 • Amber in Nature
a n o t h e r distinctive feature o f Baltic a m b e r i n c l u s i o n s i s t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n . Insects
i n Baltic a m b e r , m u c h m o r e t h a n i n a n y o t h e r a m b e r , have a m i l k y c o v e r i n g
(Schimmel) over at least a p a r t of t h e body. T h i s m i l k i n e s s is an e m u l s i o n of
microscopic bubbles caused by decomposition.
C o l l e c t o r s o f Baltic a m b e r are n o t i m m u n e f r o m t h e o b s e s s i o n for v e r t e b r a t e
r e m a i n s typical of m o s t a m b e r d e p o s i t s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e is also a v e n e r a b l e
h i s t o r y o f forgeries i n E u r o p e (see p a g e s 140-41). T h e o n l y w h o l e , possibly
a u t h e n t i c v e r t e b r a t e s p e c i m e n in Baltic a m b e r w a s a Nucras succinea, a s m a l l
lizard r e l a t e d t o o n e s living n o w i n Africa, w h i c h a p p a r e n t l y w a s lost w i t h s o m e
of t h e K o n i g s b e r g collection. S m a l l tufts of m a m m a l h a i r a n d a few small single
feathers o c c u r in Baltic a m b e r , a n d r e c e n t l y t h e tails of a lizard a n d a r o d e n t
w e r e found.
O n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n s i g h t s i n t o e v o l u t i o n t h a t t h e s t u d y o f Baltic
a m b e r fossils has m a d e c o n c e r n s e x t i n c t i o n s . For m a n y o f t h e n o w e x t i n c t p l a n t s
a n d insects in this a m b e r , t h e closest living relatives are f o u n d in t r o p i c a l or
s u b t r o p i c a l Asia, Australia, o r s o u t h e r n S o u t h A m e r i c a . For e x a m p l e , t h e small
parasitic plant Trigonobalanus t o d a y g r o w s in S o u t h e a s t Asia. T h e p l a n t Trianthera
in Baltic a m b e r is closely r e l a t e d to Eusideroxylon f r o m B o r n e o a n d S u m a t r a .
A r c h a e i d spiders a n d m a n y c h i r o n o m i d m i d g e s have t h e i r closest living relatives
i n N e w Z e a l a n d , Australia, o r C h i l e . W h y s o m e g r o u p s o f o r g a n i s m s w e r e o n c e
widespread and b e c a m e extinct t h r o u g h o u t m o s t of their range is uncertain.
S u p p l a n t i n g t h e p o p u l a r i t y of Baltic a m b e r , at least in N o r t h A m e r i c a , is t h e
a m b e r f r o m C h i a p a s , M e x i c o , a n d t h e D o m i n i c a n Republic. T h i s m a y b e d u e t o
its p r o x i m i t y t o t h e U n i t e d States a n d t h e availability o f r a r e fossiliferous pieces,
b u t a m a j o r factor c e r t a i n l y is t h e exquisite p r e s e r v a t i o n of i n c l u s i o n s , p r o b a b l y
t h e b e s t o f a n y a m b e r . I n t h e D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c a n d M e x i c o , a m b e r w a s well
k n o w n t o t h e native p e o p l e s . C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s a p p a r e n t l y received gifts
of a m b e r from the Taino people w h e n he landed on the n o r t h e r n shore of the
An unusually large piece of Mexican
amber, with one surface unpolished D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c . I n M e x i c o , a m b e r w a s c a r v e d a n d u s e d for i n c e n s e b y
and showing deep natural grooves. t h e Maya, a n d s o m e i n d i g e n o u s u s e o f i t still exists. Mexican a m b e r h a s b e e n
Length 6.5". American Museum of
k n o w n t o N o r t h A m e r i c a n a n d E u r o p e a n scientists since a b o u t 1890, w h e r e a s
Natural History (Entomology)
D o m i n i c a n a m b e r w a s n o t scientifically k n o w n until a b o u t t h e m i d - 1 9 4 0 s .
62 • Amber in Nature
Clear yellow Mexican amber containing
dark bubbles and two small amblypygids,
a kind of arachnid. Length of amber 3.1".
American Museum of Natural History
(Entomology)
Amber in Nature • 63
M e x i c a n a n d D o m i n i c a n a m b e r s w e r e b o t h f o r m e d f r o m extinct species
o f Hymenaea trees, a l t h o u g h t h e o n l y o n e yet d e s c r i b e d (definitively n a m e d )
is Hymenaea protera f r o m t h e D o m i n i c a n Republic. Well b e f o r e it w a s n a m e d ,
scientists h a d d i s c o v e r e d t h a t this D o m i n i c a n a m b e r t r e e i s m o r e closely related
to t h e o n e African m e m b e r of t h e living species in this g e n u s (H. verrucosa,
a s o u r c e o f African c o p a l ) t h a n t o a n y N e w W o r l d species. T h e M e x i c a n a m b e r
t r e e is a p p a r e n t l y m o s t closely r e l a t e d to t h e living H. courbaril, w h i c h is w i d e -
s p r e a d i n s o u t h e r n M e x i c o a n d t h e C a r i b b e a n , all t h e w a y d o w n t h r o u g h S o u t h
A m e r i c a . Identifications o f t h e s o u r c e o f t h e a m b e r s are b a s e d o n c h e m i s t r y
a n d o n t h e w h o l e a n d p a r t i a l flowers a n d leaves i n t h e a m b e r . D o m i n i c a n a n d
M e x i c a n d e p o s i t s are a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s , h a v i n g b e e n f o r m e d
f r o m a r o u n d t h e m i d - O l i g o c e n e ( a b o u t 3 0 m i l l i o n years ago) t o t h e early
64 • Amber in Nature
Detail of the small crab in the amber
piece at right. Width of crab .2"
66 • Amber in Nature
Amber in Nature • 67
M i o c e n e ( a b o u t 20 m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o ) . Very little basis exists for s o m e claims that
D o m i n i c a n a m b e r is 40 m i l l i o n y e a r s old.
F o u r t e e n species o f Hymenaea are f o u n d t o d a y t h r o u g h o u t t h e C a r i b b e a n ,
t r o p i c a l S o u t h A m e r i c a , a n d , curiously, t h e w e s t e r n half o f C e n t r a l A m e r i c a
( s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e e a s t e r n half by a c e n t r a l spine of m o u n t a i n s ) . In t h e
D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c , Hymenaea t r e e s are called algorrobo, a n d t h e resin is peruvia
(in C o s t a Rica, Hymenaea is guapinol, or s t i n k i n g t o e ) . Leaves a n d t h e large,
h a r d s e e d p o d s are s t u d d e d w i t h tiny p o c k e t s o f resin, w h i c h c h e m i c a l l y defend
t h e t r e e from caterpillars, weevils, a n d o t h e r h e r b i v o r o u s insects. Hymenaea
p r o d u c e s p r o d i g i o u s q u a n t i t i e s o f resin f r o m its t r u n k s and b r a n c h e s , s o m e t i m e s
a c c u m u l a t i n g i n large "stalactites." Very large pieces o f D o m i n i c a n a m b e r are
s o m e t i m e s f o u n d : o n e p i e c e of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 17.5 p o u n d s is in a s h o p in S a n t o
D o m i n g o ; a n o t h e r , o f 15.8 p o u n d s , i s i n H a m b u r g , G e r m a n y .
Amber mining in the Dominican
Republic B o t h M e x i c a n a n d D o m i n i c a n a m b e r o c c u r i n similar settings a n d are m i n e d
in similar w a y s by locals. G e n e r a l l y t h e a m b e r is f o u n d b e c a u s e a l a n d s l i d e
Opposite, clockwise from left: Miner in
a l o n g a s t e e p slope in t h e m o u n t a i n s e x p o s e s veins of black lignite. If t h e lignite
an open pit at the Los Cacaos mines,
Dominican Republic c o n t a i n s a m b e r , i t i s g r a d u a l l y e x t r a c t e d b y d i g g i n g along t h e vein w i t h picks a n d
shovels. In a rich s e a m , several p o u n d s of a m b e r can be e x t r a c t e d in a day. W h e n
The famous La Toca group of mines,
t h e veins e x t e n d d e e p i n t o t h e m o u n t a i n , t h e diggings evolve i n t o t u n n e l s , s o m e -
near the ridge of a steep slope. Ramon
"Rubio" Martinez, a famous amber t i m e s 100 to 200 feet l o n g . T h i s is especially t r u e in Mexico; in t h e D o m i n i c a n
dealer, is in the foreground. R e p u b l i c , t u n n e l s are d u g o n l y i n t h e L a T o c a g r o u p o f m i n e s ( m o s t o t h e r
d i g g i n g s are b r o a d , d e e p pits). W a t e r a c c u m u l a t e s i n the t u n n e l s a n d m u s t b e
Open pits and huts at the Los Cacaos
mines. These mines are acclaimed for b a l e d o r p u m p e d o u t . E v e n so, t h e t u n n e l s s o m e t i m e s collapse, a s h a s h a p p e n e d
the blue amber they yield. i n t h e D o m i n i c a n L a Toca m i n e s .
After d i g g i n g , t h e m i n e r t a k e s t h e m a t e r i a l i n t o bright s u n l i g h t , w a s h e s it,
Three men working in a deep pit at
the Los Cacaos mines a n d c h i p s a small p i e c e off o n e e n d to e x p o s e a clear w i n d o w . If t h e w i n d o w
reveals a n y special, large o r g a n i s m inside, it is reserved for special b a r g a i n i n g
w i t h a m b e r dealers. In t h e D o m i n i c a n Republic, the dealers c e n t e r e d in Santiago
and Santo D o m i n g o have corps of polishers, some of t h e m children, w h o
r e m o v e t h e r i n d f r o m t h e c r u d e a m b e r a n d polish it, g e n e r a l l y f o l l o w i n g t h e
n a t u r a l c o n t o u r s . T h o u s a n d s o f pieces are processed e a c h w e e k i n t h e larger
a m b e r s h o p s , all s o r t e d a c c o r d i n g t o size a n d w h e t h e r t h e y h a v e r a r e inclusions
o r n o t . Small, b a r r e n pieces are u s e d for necklaces, b r a c e l e t s , a n d e a r r i n g s . I n
M e x i c o , t h e g r i n d i n g a n d p o l i s h i n g i s m o r e o f a c o t t a g e i n d u s t r y , b u t even h e r e
t h e c h o i c e s t , r a r e s t fossil pieces m a k e t h e i r w a y t o a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r k e t o f
a m a t e u r collectors and m u s e u m s .
Scientific s t u d y o f t h e o r g a n i s m s h a s revealed, p a r t i c u l a r l y for D o m i n i c a n
a m b e r , a n e x c e e d i n g l y rich extinct b i o t a , o u r k n o w l e d g e o f w h i c h i s based o n
c o l l e c t i o n s o f D o m i n i c a n fossils i n t h e M u s e u m fiir N a t u r k u n d e i n Stuttgart,
t h e S m i t h s o n i a n I n s t i t u t i o n , a n d t h e A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l History.
T h e p a l e o n t o l o g y d e p a r t m e n t a t t h e University o f California, Berkeley, has a n
intensively s t u d i e d c o l l e c t i o n of M e x i c a n a m b e r fossils. T h e r e also exist several
s u p e r b p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n s o f D o m i n i c a n a n d M e x i c a n a m b e r fossils.
68 • Amber in Nature
Overleaf, left: Chunk of Dominican amber in its siltstone
matrix. Length of amber 2.1". American Museum of
Natural History (Earth and Planetary Sciences)
Amber in Nature • 69
U n l i k e t h e Baltic a m b e r , M e x i c a n a n d D o m i n i c a n a m b e r rarely o c c u r s i n
Amber mining in the Dominican
Republic milky, o p a q u e f o r m s ; it is u s u a l l y v e r y t r a n s p a r e n t . Insect a n d o t h e r inclusions
in D o m i n i c a n a n d M e x i c a n a m b e r also r a r e l y are o b s c u r e d by a milky s u b s t a n c e ,
a l t h o u g h o r g a n i s m s i n M e x i c a n a m b e r are frequently distorted b y c o m p r e s s i o n .
72 • Amber in Nature
This page: A piece of Dominican
amber lighted completely from behind
(above), and with long-wave ultraviolet
and some reflected white light (below).
Under ultraviolet light, the fluorescing
amber appears very dense, and visible
are many more flow lines than are
seen in transmitted light. The piece
contains some termites. Length of
amber 2.9". American Museum of
Natural History (Entomology)
74 • Amber in Nature
Opposite and left (running in columns):
Reconstruction sketches showing how the
piece below was formed
Amber in Nature • 77
FROZEN IN THE ACT
An a n t b e n e a t h a p o p l a r f o u n d ,
An a m b e r tear has covered r o u n d ;
so s h e t h a t w a s in life d e s p i s e d ,
in d e a t h p r e s e r v e d , is h i g h l y p r i z e d .
I n t h e b r i g h t t e a r P h a e t h o n ' s sister s h e d
a b e e is seen, as in its n e c t a r , d e a d .
Its m a n y toils h a v e e a r n e d a g u e r d o n h i g h ,
in s u c h a t o m b a b e e m i g h t w i s h to die.
—Martial, Epigrams (Books vi.xv; iv.xxxii)
J n t h e e x c e p t i o n a l c i r c u m s t a n c e , a fossil is f o u n d t h a t reveals s o m e t h i n g of
its life h i s t o r y a n d h a b i t s . T h e f a b u l o u s i c h t h y o s a u r s f r o m W i i r t t e m b e r g ,
G e r m a n y , are p r e s e r v e d in a slate so fine t h a t o n e c a n see t h a t t h e y g a v e live
b i r t h t o t h e i r y o u n g a n d , s o m e t i m e s , can d i s c e r n w h a t t h e y a t e . Fish f r o m t h e
S a n t a n a l i m e s t o n e of Brazil ( a b o u t 110 m i l l i o n years old) are p r e s e r v e d in
r e m a r k a b l e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l c o n c r e t i o n s , w i t h t h e m u s c l e b u n d l e s entirely
r e p l a c e d b y m i n e r a l s w i t h t h e i r s h a p e still intact. Occasionally o n e i s f o u n d
r e p l e t e w i t h t h e little b o d i e s o f t h e s h r i m p t h a t i t d i n e d u p o n . F o r o r g a n i s m s
as delicate as insects, " f r e e z i n g " a p r e h i s t o r i c m o m e n t r e q u i r e s e x c e p t i o n a l
p r e s e r v a t i o n , w h i c h a m b e r p r o v i d e s . A m b e r s have p r e s e r v e d t h e v a r i o u s
d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t a g e s o f s o m e insects, p r e y a n d p l a n t h o s t s , p a r a s i t e s ,
c o m m e n s a l s , as well as e x h i b i t i o n s of defensive a n d social b e h a v i o r . M o s t
o f t h e e x a m p l e s will b e t a k e n f r o m t h e 25-to-30-million-year-old D o m i n i c a n
a m b e r b e c a u s e t h e diversity o f its inclusions allows t h e m o s t c o m p l e t e
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e a n c i e n t forest.
Fossils in this section are preserved
D i s p e r s a l of a species is n e c e s s a r y if o p p o s i t e sexes are to m e e t a n d in 25-to-30-million-year-old amber
r e p r o d u c e . I n s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e t h e ability t o g e t a r o u n d i s l i m i t e d , a s w i t h from the Dominican Republic, unless
otherwise noted.
a n a r t h r o p o d t h a t lacks w i n g s , n o v e l s o l u t i o n s are r e q u i r e d . O n e o f t h e m o s t
interesting is phoresy, or h i t c h i n g a ride on a n o t h e r a n i m a l . P h o r e s y is c o m m o n
in m i t e s t h a t disperse f r o m , say, m u s h r o o m to m u s h r o o m on a fly P h o r e t i c
Opposite: A damselfly, slender relative
mites o n v a r i o u s flies are p r e s e r v e d i n a m b e r , b u t p r o b a b l y t h e b e s t e x a m p l e s
to dragonflies. Length of amber 1.8".
are s o m e sweat b e e s (halictids) w i t h d o z e n s o f tiny m i t e s still l a t c h e d o n for Private collection
one last, fateful ride.
Amber in Nature • 79
Opposite, above: Membracid treehopper. The part of its body just behind
the head is prolonged into a spine with three thorns. Length of amber
1.4". American Museum of Natural History (Entomology)
Amber in Nature • SI
T h e m o s t c u r i o u s e x a m p l e o f p h o r e s y i n a m b e r involves p s e u d o s c o r p i o n s ,
tiny r e n d i t i o n s o f s c o r p i o n s w i t h o u t t h e stinger. M a n y p s e u d o s c o r p i o n s live
u n d e r b a r k o r a m o n g c r a c k s i n b a r k , w h e r e t h e y feed o n m i t e s a n d o t h e r tiny
a r t h r o p o d s . S o m e t i m e s o n e is f o u n d w i t h a claw c l a m p e d o n t o a b r a c o n i d
w a s p o r tipulid flies, b u t i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r t h e y are a t t a c h e d m o s t often t o
w o o d - b o r i n g platypodid (ambrosia) beetles. We k n o w today that s o m e pseudo
s c o r p i o n s live i n t h e galleries m a d e b y w o o d - b o r i n g beetles. W h e n t h e
p s e u d o s c o r p i o n s d i s p e r s e , t h e y l a t c h o n t o t h e first b e e t l e t h a t c o m e s a l o n g ,
w h i c h m a y t a k e t h e m t o a n o t h e r t r e e like t h e original.
82 • Amber in Nature
Swarm of termites. The winged
termites were caught on the bottom
of a large flow of resin, which was
engulfed by an even larger flow. Length
of amber 3 ". American Museum of
Natural History (Entomology)
s w a r m s . T h o u s a n d s , o r m i l l i o n s , o f m a l e s fly a b o u t i n o n e s p o t , i n t o w h i c h
females fly t o b e c o m e m a t e d , t h u s i n s u r i n g t h a t t h e sexes r e n d e z v o u s d u r i n g
t h e i r brief life span. C o p u l a t i o n m a y take h o u r s , as in t h e case of a b i b i o n i d
m i d g e , Plecia nearctica, t h e "love b u g . " Male s w a r m s , or p o r t i o n s of t h e m , in
D o m i n i c a n a m b e r are m o s t c o m m o n l y o f scatopsid m i d g e s , b u t e x a m p l e s o f
e m p i d i d flies, d o l i c h o p o d i d flies, m y c e t o p h i l i d m i d g e s , tipulid flies, a n d t e r m i t e s
also appear. T e r m i t e s w a r m s c a u g h t i n a m b e r usually have a j u m b l e o f w i n g s
a m o n g t h e b o d i e s , since t e r m i t e s easily s h e d t h e i r w i n g s after l a n d i n g . O c c a -
sionally a m a t i n g p a i r of m i d g e s is c a u g h t in t h e resin. O n e p i e c e of Baltic a m b e r
even c o n t a i n s a pair of m a t i n g spiders. T h e o l d e s t m a t i n g pair, of a n y k i n d of
animal, are sciarid m i d g e s in 125-million-year-old L e b a n e s e a m b e r .
Amber in Nature • 85
From top to bottom: Mating crane
flies. Length of amber 1.2 ". Private
collection
86 • Amber in Nature
M a n y flies reflexively lay e g g s w h e n t h e y die, w h i c h explains w h y s o m e
female flies i n a m b e r h a v e eggs j u s t b e h i n d t h e m . T h i s i s s e e n i n D o m i n i c a n
a m b e r m o s t c o m m o n l y i n t h e little d r o s o p h i l i d fruit flies b u t also w i t h s o m e
m i d g e s , s u c h as t h e c h i r o n o m i d t r a i l i n g a s t r i n g of h e r eggs. O c c a s i o n a l l y a
d e c a y i n g insect o r o t h e r u n i d e n t i f i e d d e c a y i n g tissue h a s c l u m p s o f fly eggs o n
it, w h i c h n e v e r q u i t e h a t c h e d b e f o r e resin e n g u l f e d t h e m . O n e exquisite a s p e c t
o f insect eggs i n a m b e r i s t h a t t h e i n t r i c a t e g e o m e t r i c s c u l p t u r i n g o f t h e eggshell
is still a p p a r e n t . In o n e case, a y o u n g l a r v a w a s c a u g h t e m e r g i n g f r o m its egg.
In several o t h e r cases, loosely w o v e n silken c o c o o n s of spiders still h a v e t h e
e m b r y o s o r n e w l y h a t c h e d s p i d e r l i n g s w i t h i n . Various k i n d s o f l a r v a e o c c u r i n
a m b e r , b u t t h e choice s p e c i m e n s are o f a larva i n s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g s i t u a t i o n ,
s u c h a s w i t h silken cases. B a g w o r m , o r psychid m o t h , caterpillars c a r r y a r o u n d
t h e m a b a g o f silk, t o w h i c h h a s b e e n s e w n m a n y bits o f leaves a n d t w i g s o f t h e
p l a n t t h e y w e r e feeding u p o n . I t c a m o u f l a g e s t h e m e x t r e m e l y well, b u t i t did n o t
Amber in Nature • 87
p r e v e n t a few f r o m b e i n g e n g u l f e d in resin m i l l i o n s of y e a r s a g o . T i n e i d m o t h
c a t e r p i l l a r s do a similar t h i n g on a s m a l l e r scale, a n d g e n e r a l l y t h e y u s e t h e i r
o w n frass (insect feces) for c o n c e a l m e n t . T h e o n e s p r e s e r v e d i n a m b e r w e r e
probably g r a z i n g u p o n the w o o d y polypore (bracket) fungi that g r e w on the
Dominican a m b e r tree.
Social insects h a v e c o l o n i e s o f h u n d r e d s t o h u n d r e d s o f t h o u s a n d s o f
individuals, divided i n t o castes for defense, egg-laying, a n d w o r k i n g . S o m e t i m e s
t h e w o r k e r s are s u b d i v i d e d i n t o n u r s e s a n d m a j o r a n d m i n o r w o r k e r s . O n e j u s t
n e e d s t o see t h e h u g e t e r m i t e m o u n d s o n a n African s a v a n n a , o r a n a r m y a n t
s w a r m i n a S o u t h A m e r i c a n j u n g l e , t o a p p r e c i a t e h o w social insects are a m o n g
t h e m o s t ecologically i m p o r t a n t g r o u p s o f a n i m a l s , a n d g e n e r a l l y t h e m o s t
Opposite: Paper wasp. Length of amber
.8". American Museum of Natural c o n s p i c u o u s insects. I n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r t h e social insects are a n t s (the m o s t
History (Entomology) c o m m o n o f all t h e inclusions), t e r m i t e s , stingless bees, a n d , rarely, p a p e r w a s p s .
V a r i o u s castes are p r e s e r v e d , i n c l u d i n g t h e b i z a r r e w o r k e r s of Zacryptocerus,
w h i c h p l u g t h e e n t r a n c e o f t h e c o l o n y w i t h t h e i r flat h e a d s . T o e n t e r , a n a n t
Ants caught while attempting to carry m u s t t a p p r o p e r l y w i t h its a n t e n n a e . A n o t h e r w e i r d caste i s t h e n a s u t e soldier
their larval brood to safety. Museum
o f s o m e t e r m i t e s . N a s u t e s h a v e h e a d s s h a p e d like a b o t t l e , from w h i c h t h e y
fur Naturkunde, Stuttgart
s p r a y a sticky s u b s t a n c e at i n t r u d e r s . Of c o u r s e , p o r t i o n s of c o l o n i e s a r e
90 • Amber in Nature
o c c a s i o n a l l y e n g u l f e d b y resin, s o m e t i m e s w i t h h u n d r e d s o f a n t s ( o n e p i e c e i n
Portion of an Azteca ant colony. This
piece contains about two hundred t h e S t u t t g a r t m u s e u m c o n t a i n s a b o u t 2,000 ants). Very rarely a p i e c e is f o u n d
ants. Length of amber 1.5". American i n w h i c h t h e w o r k e r s w e r e c a u g h t t r y i n g t o c a r r y the b r o o d t o safety. T h e o n l y
Museum of Natural History
(Entomology) p o r t i o n s o f t h e a c t u a l n e s t are several cells from the p a p e r w a s p s . H o w e v e r ,
t h e m i d d e n s a n d r e m a i n s o f t e r m i t e a n d a n t nests w i t h t h e i r original o w n e r s
a b o u n d in amber.
T h e m i d d e n s o f t h e a n t c o l o n i e s p r o v i d e excellent clues a s t o w h a t t h e c o l o n y
w a s f e e d i n g u p o n , s u c h a s a s s o r t e d b o d y p a r t s o f o t h e r insects. Every social
insect c o l o n y t o d a y h a s " g u e s t s , " s o m e w a n t e d , s o m e n o t . S o m e are parasites;
o t h e r s — t h e inquilines—merely live off t h e scraps in t h e n e s t . In D o m i n i c a n
a m b e r , t h e r e are nicoletiid silverfish, c e r t a i n tiny staphylinid, l i m u l o d i d , a n d
92 • Amber in Nature
p a u s s i n e b e e t l e s , all s u p e r b l y a d a p t e d for living u n d e t e c t e d a m o n g
(or a t least t o l e r a t e d b y ) a n t s i n t h e i r colony. A n d t h e r e are t h e
parasites of the ants, t o o , s u c h as t h e b i z a r r e t w i s t e d - w i n g e d parasites,
a n d v a r i o u s scuttleflies o f t h e P h o r i d a e family. T h e social insect
colony, t h e n as now, is a c o s m o s of e c o l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
M a n y p r e d a t o r y b e e t l e s , l a c e w i n g s , r o b b e r flies, s u c k i n g b u g s ,
spiders, a n d even m a n t i s e s a n d damselflies have b e e n t r a p p e d i n
a m b e r , b u t a p r e d a t o r c a u g h t in t h e act w i t h its p r e y is r a r e . S o m e -
t i m e s a p i e c e c o n t a i n s s p i d e r w e b s w i t h t h e v i c t i m (generally a tiny,
frail g n a t ) s n a g g e d on a t h r e a d . N e v e r h a s a p i e c e b e e n f o u n d w i t h
t h e spider still r e s i d e n t . O n e p i e c e i n t h e A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f
N a t u r a l H i s t o r y h a s a j u m p i n g (salticid) s p i d e r g r a p p l i n g w i t h its
m i l l i p e d e prey. A f a m o u s p i e c e of Baltic a m b e r h a s a Ptilocerus
assassin (reduviid) b u g i n it, a l o n g w i t h t h e h u s k s o f t h e a n t p r e y
t h a t t h e b u g s u c k e d dry. Living relatives o f this b u g t o d a y lure a n t s
f r o m t h e i r nests w i t h t h e s c e n t f r o m a special g l a n d , t h e n t h e y
Amber in Nature • 93
Opposite: Dominican amber
with two amblypygids (whip
scorpions) and various small
insects in it. Width of amber
3 ". Private collection
Amber in Nature • 95
Above: Spider. Length of amber 1.6".
Private collection
96 • Amber in Nature
i m p a l e t h e a n t w i t h t h e i r s h a r p b e a k s . A similar b u g i s f o u n d i n D o m i n i c a n
a m b e r , b u t it p r o b a b l y fed on t h e stingless b e e s , Proplebeia dominicana, t h a t w e r e
v e r y c o m m o n i n t h e D o m i n i c a n a m b e r forest. T h e foreleg o f e a c h b u g h a s a
large d r o p l e t , w h i c h it m u s t h a v e u s e d as a sticky s n a g for t h e b e e .
T h e parasitic insects are, likewise, v e r y c o m m o n i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r ,
especially t h e v a r i o u s m i n u t e w a s p s . ( E n t o m o l o g i s t s refer t o insects t h a t live o n
a n d eventually kill a n o t h e r , h o s t insect as a parasitoid, to d i s t i n g u i s h t h e m f r o m
t r u e p a r a s i t e s , w h i c h d o n o t kill t h e i r h o s t s . ) F e w direct e v i d e n c e s o f p a r a s i t e s
a n d p a r a s i t o i d s exist i n a m b e r . M i t e s a r e t h e m o s t c o m m o n t y p e o f p a r a s i t e
f o u n d o n insects. W a t e r m i t e s are f o u n d o n t h e a d u l t s o f s o m e a q u a t i c insects,
s u c h a s caddis flies a n d c h i r o n o m i d m i d g e s . S o m e tiny m o t h s h a r b o r e r y t h r a e i d
m i t e s , a n d small d r o s o p h i l i d flies o c c a s i o n a l l y have large m a c r o c h e l i d m i t e s
( p r o p o r t i o n a l i n size t o a h u m a n w i t h a w a t e r m e l o n a t t a c h e d ) . T h e m o s t
Above: Tiny twisted-winged parasite
g r u e s o m e are t h e n e m a t o d e w o r m p a r a s i t e s ; i n o n e p i e c e o f D o m i n i c a n a m b e r (order Strepsipteran) of ants. Only .5
from the Stuttgart m u s e u m , a h u g e m e r m i t h i d n e m a t o d e can be seen e m e r g i n g mm long, it is remarkably similar to a
present-day species. American Museum
f r o m its m i d g e h o s t ; t h e n e m a t o d e m u s t have t a k e n u p m o s t o f t h e h o s t ' s body.
of Natural History (Entomology)
Several pieces o f D o m i n i c a n a m b e r h a v e l e a f h o p p e r n y m p h s w i t h a large b l a c k
sac a t t a c h e d n e a r t h e a b d o m e n . T h i s i s a d r y i n i d w a s p larva (adult d r y i n i d w a s p s
also are in t h e a m b e r ) . A p e r s o n a l favorite is a D o m i n i c a n a m b e r s p e c i m e n
String of tiny cocoons suspended from
containing tangled strands of spider webbing. Dangling along the strands is a a spider web. The cocoons are from wasp
r o w o f seven tiny c o c o o n s ; t h e w a s p l a r v a e t h a t s p u n t h e s e c o c o o n s p a r a s i t i z e d larvae tHat parasitized the spider that
spun the web. American Museum of
t h e spider o n w h o s e w e b t h e c o c o o n s are n o w p r e s e r v e d . A d u l t w a s p s e m e r g e d
Natural History (Entomology)
f r o m all b u t t h r e e o f t h e c o c o o n s .
Amber in Nature • 97
Ancient Communities:
Reconstructing the Ancient Dominican Amber Forest
P r e s e r v a t i o n in a m b e r is as b i a s e d as a n y o t h e r k i n d of fossilization, particularly
w h e n it c o m e s to size. Large insects generally have the s t r e n g t h to free t h e m s e l v e s
f r o m sticky sap, so it is v e r y r a r e to find large beetles, dragonflies, g r a s s h o p p e r s ,
a n d t h e like i n a m b e r . I n fact, t h e l o n g e s t insects discovered i n a m b e r are d a m s e l -
Small menagerie of 217 insects, spiders,
flies ( a b o u t t w o - a n d - a - h a l f i n c h e s l o n g ) t h a t c o u l d n o t free t h e m s e l v e s f r o m
and plants. The "spray" of tiny
insects is collembola, or springtaib. t h e resin b e c a u s e t h e y are s o delicate a n d t h i n . Likewise f o r p l a n t s : o n l y t h o s e
The flowers and stems are from an flowers a n d leaves small e n o u g h t o b e b l o w n a b o u t i n the w i n d a n d e n c a p s u l a t e d
acacia. Length of amber 1.5". Private
by a s t r e a m of resin are t h e o n e s t h a t are p r e s e r v e d . This lilliputian bias in
collection
fossilization i s m a d e u p for, t h o u g h , b y t h e lifelike detail p r e s e r v e d i n t h e a m b e r
98 • Amber in Nature
a n d t h e s h e e r diversity of tiny o r g a n i s m s . It is well d o c u m e n t e d t h a t , at least for
insects, t h e n u m b e r of species i n c r e a s e s tenfold for a tenfold d e c r e a s e in b o d y
size. A n d t h e m o r e species t h a t are p r e s e r v e d , t h e m o r e c o m p l e t e i s a r e c o n -
s t r u c t i o n of t h e a m b e r forest. A fascinating insight is revealed by d i s c o v e r y of
a m b e r pieces w i t h a m e n a g e r i e p r e s e r v e d inside, f o r m i n g a t r u e s n a p s h o t of a
tiny p a r t o f t h e c o m m u n i t y . S o m e o f t h e s e pieces display s t r i k i n g diversity. O n e
i n t h e S t u t t g a r t m u s e u m , for e x a m p l e , h a s i n i t s o m e t w o h u n d r e d i n d i v i d u a l
a r t h r o p o d s b e l o n g i n g t o t w e n t y - t w o families.
T h e m o s t direct signs o f t h e D o m i n i c a n a m b e r forest are t h e a s s o r t m e n t o f
flowers, s t e m s , leaves, seeds, a n d e v e n t e n d r i l s p r e s e r v e d i n t h e a m b e r . Living o n
t h e t r u n k s o f t h e D o m i n i c a n a m b e r tree, a s h a p p e n s now, w e r e m o s s e s , Liverworts,
a n d t h e occasional m u s h r o o m . Living a m o n g t h e a m b e r t r e e s w e r e m i m o s o i d
trees like acacias. Flowers of t h e families B o m b a c a c e a e (balsa a n d b a o b a b family),
E u p h o r b i a c e a e ( e u p h o r b s , s u c h as cassava a n d poinsettia), H i p p o c r a t a c e a e , L e g u -
m i n o s a e (pea family), M e l i a c e a e ( m a h o g a n y family), M y r i s t i c a c e a e ( n u t m e g
family), a n d T h y m e l i a c e a e h a v e all b e e n identified i n t h e a m b e r .
Inference o f t h e a n c i e n t a m b e r forest c a n b e m a d e b a s e d o n t h e m y r i a d
insects p r e s e r v e d i n a m b e r . A d u l t a n d i m m a t u r e insects o c c u p y v a r i o u s n i c h e s i n
f r e s h w a t e r (and, occasionally, in b r a c k i s h a n d salt w a t e r ) , soil, a n d d e c a y i n g ~
Map of the piece opposite
w o o d ; as parasites of o t h e r insects and of vertebrates; and feeding on the entire
Amber in Nature • 99
a r r a y of f u n g i , flowers, a n d leaves. S o m e insects are d e d i c a t e d to a p a r t i c u l a r
A menagerie piece, only 1.1" in
k i n d o f p l a n t ; for e x a m p l e , m o n a r c h b u t t e r f l y caterpillars c o n c e n t r a t e o n
diameter, containing sixty-two whole
or partial insects representing five m i l k w e e d s , o t h e r s are g r e a t g e n e r a l i s t s . If an insect in a m b e r h a s living relatives
orders and fourteen families. Some of f e e d i n g exclusively on a p a r t i c u l a r g e n u s of t r e e , we c a n be fairly certain that t h e
the inclusions are covered with mold.
e x t i n c t species fed on an e x t i n c t species of t h e t r e e . For e x a m p l e , we are fairly
American Museum of Natural History
(Entomology) c e r t a i n t h a t f i g t r e e s lived i n t h e a m b e r forest, even t h o u g h w e have n o direct
e v i d e n c e . T h e s e t r e e s are r e n o w n e d , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , for the "flying
b u t t r e s s e s " t h a t h e l p s u p p o r t t h e i r g a r g a n t u a n p r o p o r t i o n s , i n contrast w i t h
A 1982 s t u d y p u b l i s h e d in t h e j o u r n a l Science r e p o r t e d on o r g a n e l l e s a n d o t h e r
s u b c e l l u l a r s t r u c t u r e s f r o m a bit of tissue in a 40-million-year-old f u n g u s g n a t
i n Baltic a m b e r , e x a m i n e d w i t h a n e l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p e . I t w a s w i d e l y a c c l a i m e d
a s o p e n i n g t h e d o o r for f u t u r e r e s e a r c h o n t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f a m b e r fossils,
i n c l u d i n g a n c i e n t D N A . Incredibly, s u c h a result h a d b e e n r e p o r t e d a l m o s t e i g h t y
years earlier, u s i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l light m i c r o s c o p y a n d histology. T h a t 1903 r e p o r t ,
by Nicolai K o r n i l o w i t c h , u n f o r t u n a t e l y w a s p u b l i s h e d in a local j o u r n a l , a n d in
Russian, s o i t r e m a i n e d a l m o s t totally o b s c u r e . K o r n i l o w i t c h r e p o r t e d t h a t d r i e d
tissue t a k e n f r o m insects i n Baltic a m b e r p o s s e s s e d b a n d i n g p a t t e r n s typical o f
m o d e r n m u s c l e tissue. T r u l y g r e a t ideas a n d results i n science are often t o o far
a h e a d o f t h e i r t i m e . N o o n e k n e w o f t h e existence o f D N A i n K o r n i l o w i t c h ' s
t i m e , b u t t h e 1982 s t u d y a t least p r o m p t e d t h e q u e s t i o n , I f i n t r a c e l l u l a r
m e m b r a n e s and organelles could be preserved, why not chromatin, and even
D N A ? (As will be discussed later, t h a t s t u d y did slowly s t i m u l a t e i n t e r e s t in
e x t r a c t i n g a n c i e n t D N A f r o m a m b e r fossils, b u t i t w a s a t e c h n o l o g i c a l b r e a k -
t h r o u g h t h a t s e r v e d as t h e real d r i v i n g force.) Since 1982, several c o m p r e h e n s i v e
studies h a v e revealed even m o r e c o n s i s t e n t a n d u n e x p e c t e d l y lifelike p r e s e r v a t i o n
of soft i n t e r n a l tissues of insects a n d p l a n t s in a m b e r .
A n insect s p e c i m e n c a n n o t b e " e x h u m e d " f r o m a m b e r b y m e l t i n g a w a y
t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a m b e r , since a m b e r will m e l t o n l y u n d e r t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d
p r e s s u r e s s o h i g h t h a t t h e y d e s t r o y t h e i n c l u s i o n s (in a n o r m a l a t m o s p h e r e
a m b e r b u r n s a n d s o f t e n s b u t d o e s n o t liquefy). E x h u m a t i o n i s d o n e b y u s i n g a
very fine saw, v i e w e d u n d e r a m i c r o s c o p e , to c i r c u m s c r i b e a g r o o v e a r o u n d t h e
s p e c i m e n s . W h e n t h e g r o o v e i s close e n o u g h t o t h e inclusion, t h e t w o h a l v e s are
carefully p r i e d a p a r t , g e n e r a l l y s e p a r a t i n g a l o n g t h e b o d y w a l l o f t h e insect o r
plant p a r t . A l t h o u g h o n l y t h e m o s t c o m m o n inclusions i n a m b e r are u s e d for
this w o r k , o p e n i n g a c o m m o n stingless b e e i n D o m i n i c a n a m b e r b r i n g s a s e n s e
o f mystery, n o t u n l i k e t h e u n w r a p p i n g o f a n E g y p t i a n m u m m y . I n t h e case o f
the b e e , h o w e v e r , w e c a n p e e r i n t o r e m a i n s t h a t are 2 5 m i l l i o n y e a r s old, n o t
6,000 years, a n d t h e d e g r e e o f p r e s e r v a t i o n w o u l d h a v e inspired e v e n E g y p t i a n
morticians.
Ancient E g y p t i a n s h a d t o e v i s c e r a t e a n d " d e b r a i n " cadavers for m u m m i f i c a -
tion, since t h e s e o r g a n s w o u l d b l o a t a n d o t h e r w i s e d e c o m p o s e ( t h e v i s c e r a a n d
vital o r g a n s w e r e p r e s e r v e d in special c a n o p i c j a r s w i t h spirit fluids like w i n e ) .
Above left: Right half of a stingless bee. Note the sheets of intact muscle in the thorax.
Above right: Left half of bee at left
Below left: Detail from bee above, of the head, showing scales on the tongue, muscles in the head, and the brain
Below right: Detail from bee above, of the thorax, showing crumpled air-sac membranes
21 • Amber in Nature
Pages 123-25: Scanning electron-
micrographs of fossib "exhumed'
from Dominican amber
T h e D N A t h a t i s p r e s e r v e d i n a m b e r fossils i s s o h o p e -
Suspended Animation?
lessly j u m b l e d i n t o tiny f r a g m e n t s t h a t , g i v e n p r e s e n t
t e c h n o l o g y , i t w o u l d b e i m p o s s i b l e t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e e n t i r e g e n o m e of, say,
a n extinct t e r m i t e . T h e t a s k h a s b e e n l i k e n e d t o t h e scale o f r e c o n s t r u c t i n g
Tolstoy's War and Peace o u t of t h e a l p h a b e t n o o d l e s in s o u p , w i t h o u t ever h a v i n g
r e a d t h e b o o k . E v e n w i t h a n a l m o s t limitless s u p p l y o f tissue a n d fully i n t a c t
D N A , t h e h u m a n g e n o m e p r o j e c t i s still r e q u i r i n g d e c a d e s o f w o r k b y h u n d r e d s
of r e s e a r c h e r s . If, in fifty years, t h e t e c h n o l o g y exists to r e a d a n d a s s e m b l e t h e
g e n o m e o f o u r extinct t e r m i t e , c o u l d t h e t e r m i t e t h e n b e r e s u r r e c t e d ? T h i s i s Bubbles in Dominican amber, harbor
of quiescent, ancient bacteria? Length
actually t h e m o s t c o m p l i c a t e d p a r t , since s o m a n y c o m p l e x levels o f o r g a n i -
of amber 1.8". Private collection
z a t i o n lie b e t w e e n t h e D N A s e q u e n c e a n d t h e w h o l e o r g a n i s m . H o w t h e D N A
IN
ART
The objects in this section are of
Baltic amber, with the exception
of the Asian pieces, most of which
were crafted from burmite, or
T h e u s e o f a m b e r a s a n artistic m e d i u m i s a n a t u r a l o n e b e c a u s e i t can b e
c a r v e d relatively easily, a n d it c o m e s in a v a r i e t y of w a r m colors. H o w e v e r ,
i t s p l i n t e r s a n d b r e a k s m o r e easily t h a n ivory, o n e s u b s t a n c e u s e d often w i t h
Burmese amber. a m b e r , w h i c h is w h y t h e detail in a m b e r c a r v i n g s is n o t as i n t r i c a t e as t h a t in
ivories. T h e s m o o t h feel o f h i g h l y p o l i s h e d a m b e r a n d its w a r m t h m a k e i t
especially p r i z e d for objects t h a t are h a n d l e d o r w o r n a g a i n s t t h e skin, s u c h a s
Page 142: Chessboard. Probably c h e s s pieces, r o s a r y b e a d s , a n d n e c k l a c e s . T h e pianist Frederic C h o p i n c a r r i e d
Danzig, late seventeenth-early
eighteenth century. 14.5x14.5x1.6". a m b e r pieces w i t h h i m , t o relax his f i n g e r s over t h e m before a p e r f o r m a n c e , a n d
Courtesy, Museum of Fine Arts, t h e c o n d u c t o r L e o n a r d B e r n s t e i n ( w h o s e last n a m e m e a n s " a m b e r " i n G e r m a n )
Boston. Bequest of William Arnold had a conducting baton with an a m b e r handle. So cherished was a m b e r a m o n g
Buffum, 02.205
t h e C h i n e s e a n d a n c i e n t Italic-speaking p e o p l e s t h a t t h e i r c a r v i n g s w o u l d
The playing squares are made of follow t h e n a t u r a l c o n t o u r s o f t h e piece. T h e y c o n s i d e r e d i t w a s t e f u l t o t r i m
alternating thin pieces of transparent off excess a m b e r simply for t h e sake of m a k i n g a s y m m e t r i c a l c a r v i n g . In s o m e
and opaque amber mounted to a wooden
frame; the perimeter has twelve trans- cases, this t e c h n i q u e w o u l d distort a b u s t or figure, while in o t h e r s t h e t o p o g r a p h y
parent amber "windows" and a mosaic of t h e p i e c e dictated t h e actual subject, often yielding a v e r y p l e a s i n g asymmetry.
of opaque ambers. The underside is
T h i s c o n s e r v a t i v e fitting of a c a r v e d subject to t h e n a t u r a l c o n t o u r s of a
lined with red velvet, and a small
round, carved foot of amber marks p i e c e w a s c o m p l e t e l y o p p o s i t e t o t h e p r a c t i c e s i n s e v e n t e e n t h - a n d eighteenth-
each corner. The transparent squares c e n t u r y a m b e r w o r k s h o p s o f n o r t h e r n E u r o p e , w h e r e s y m m e t r y w a s the
have a scene inscribed in fine detail on
e s s e n c e . L a r g e , e l a b o r a t e a r t w o r k s w e r e crafted b y u s i n g m a n y smaller a m b e r
the reverse side, each with a phrase in
French. The scenes and phrases show p i e c e s in m o s a i c s or as small tiles, often a t t a c h e d to a w o o d e n frame. T h e s t e m s
against a gold foil backing onto which o f s o m e chalices a n d candlesticks w e r e m a d e f r o m t e n o r m o r e pieces o f a m b e r ,
each transparent piece is mounted.
all intricately t u r n e d a n d h e l d t o g e t h e r b y a c e n t r a l , i n t e r n a l rod. T h e m o s t
The board is accompanied by thirty-
two chess pieces of relatively simple o r n a t e a n d c o n t r i v e d artistic a p p l i c a t i o n o f a m b e r can b e seen i n the small a l t a r s
design, all with some turning and each a n d c h e s t s m a d e i n a n a r c h i t e c t u r a l motif. I n m a n y cases, a m o s a i c o f a m b e r
made from several pieces of amber.
p i e c e s w o u l d b e a t t a c h e d a s a t h i n v e n e e r t o t h e w o o d e n frame. U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,
o x i d a t i o n is a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m w i t h w a f e r - t h i n pieces, and such s e v e n t e e n t h - a n d
e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y objects are g e n e r a l l y i n w o r s e condition t h a n m u c h o l d e r
p i e c e s m a d e o f solid a m b e r . W i t h m a n y o f t h e ancient a m b e r s , t o o , t h e
c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e i r p r e s e r v a t i o n , i n d a m p , c o o l t o m b s , w a s ideal.
F o r a t least t e n m i l l e n n i a , E u r o p e a n p e o p l e s h a v e a d o r n e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h
Baltic a m b e r . T h e o l d e s t artifacts are b e a d s a n d a m u l e t s f o u n d close t o
w h e r e t h e m o s t extensive a m b e r d e p o s i t s o c c u r even today. O n e c a n i m a g i n e
t h a t i n a n area w h e r e t h e r e are l o n g w i n t e r n i g h t s , t h e s u n w a s a focal p o i n t o f
existence a n d w o r s h i p . A s u b s t a n c e o f s u c h w a r m c o l o r a n d feel, like a m b e r ,
p r o b a b l y h a d special significance t o t h e early Baltic p e o p l e s . A m b e r w a s s u c h
a n i m p o r t a n t c o m m o d i t y w i t h w h i c h t o t r a d e for c o p p e r a n d i r o n t h a t i t h a d a
f u n d a m e n t a l influence o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f n o r t h e r n E u r o p e a n c u l t u r e s .
T h e oldest a m b e r artifacts, h o w e v e r , are f r o m E n g l a n d , n o t t h e Baltic. R o u g h
b e a d s f r o m G o u g h ' s Cave i n C h e d d a r a n d Cresswell C r a g s , S t a r r Carr, d a t e d
from 11,000 t o 9000 B.C. (Paleolithic), w e r e u n d o u b t e d l y crafted f r o m p i e c e s o f
Baltic a m b e r t h a t w a s h e d o n t o t h e e a s t e r n s h o r e s o f Britain. ( T h i s w a s a t i m e
d e e p into t h e last Ice A g e , w h e n t h e British Isles w e r e still largely c o n n e c t e d t o
t h e E u r o p e a n m a i n l a n d . ) Similar artifacts m u s t h a v e b e e n m a d e b y p e o p l e living Pendants from the Mesolithic period
of western Jutland, Denmark. Oval
n e a r t h e Baltic Sea a t t h e s a m e t i m e . M e s o l i t h i c (c. 4000 B.C.) a m u l e t s a n d b e a d s
pendant decorated with lines of drilled
are k n o w n f r o m s o u t h e r n S c a n d i n a v i a b u t are c o n s i d e r a b l y r a r e r f r o m t h e holes, Maglemose Culture, c. 7000 B.C.
e a s t e r n Baltic r e g i o n . Large-scale p r o d u c t i o n o f a m b e r artifacts w a s n o t e v i d e n t Height 2.1". Stylized bear, probably
Ertebolle Culture, c. 4500 B.C. Length
u n t i l t h e Early N e o l i t h i c (3400-3100 B.C.) N a r v a C u l t u r e . A find n e a r S a r n a t e in
2.6". Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen,
t h e e a s t e r n Baltic u n c o v e r e d a m b e r pieces w i t h flint a n d b o n e t o o l s , w h i c h w e r e A52125 (oval), A520&9 (bear)
p r o b a b l y u s e d t o w o r k t h e a m b e r . By t h e M i d d l e N e o l i t h i c ( 3 1 0 0 - 2 5 0 0 B.C.),
a m b e r w o r k i n g a n d t r a d e h a d b u r g e o n e d , especially i n t h e e a s t e r n Baltic. I n
Sventoji, L i t h u a n i a , 850 a m b e r o r n a m e n t s f r o m this p e r i o d w e r e f o u n d , s o m e
o f t h e m V-shaped b u t t o n s o f b o n e , jet, a n d a m b e r . A t W o l d e n b e r g , n e a r Berlin,
t h e e l e g a n t a m b e r c a r v i n g o f a highly stylized h o r s e f r o m this p e r i o d w a s f o u n d .
T h e Lake L u b a n a s r e g i o n , Latvia, r e p r e s e n t s t h e richest s o u r c e o f M i d d l e
N e o l i t h i c a m b e r w o r k i n g s . E n o u g h pieces w e r e crafted for w i d e s p r e a d t r a d i n g
t h r o u g h o u t Europe. Beads are k n o w n from the Middle Neolithic of Charavines,
i n t h e alpine r e g i o n o f F r a n c e . P e r h a p s t h e m o s t distinctive t y p e o f artifact i n
a m b e r is the double-headed ax bead, m o s t c o m m o n from s o u t h e r n Scandinavia
and Mecklenberg.
T h e m o s t c e l e b r a t e d o f all N e o l i t h i c a m b e r finds w a s m a d e i n t h e 1850s n e a r
Juodkrante (then Schwarzort), Samland Peninsula. D r e d g e d from the Kurisches
Haff w e r e 434 artifacts, i n c l u d i n g b e a d s , b u t t o n s , small h u m a n "idols," a n i m a l s ,
and ax-shaped b e a d s w i t h h o l e s for s u s p e n d i n g a s p e n d a n t s . T h e y w e r e d e p o s i t e d
in the collection of A l b e r t u s Universitat, K o n i g s b e r g , b u t , like t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s
h u g e c o l l e c t i o n o f fossiliferous a m b e r , t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l c o l l e c t i o n s w e r e
d i s p e r s e d t o o t h e r areas o f G e r m a n y d u r i n g W o r l d W a r II. Similar artifacts have
b e e n f o u n d i n P a l a n g a , L i t h u a n i a , i n situ i n p e a t b o g s o r g r a v e sites. T h o s e pieces
are n o w i n t h e P a l a n g a M u s e u m , w h i c h i s largely d e d i c a t e d t o a m b e r .
D u r i n g t h e N e o l i t h i c p e r i o d a n d t h e m u c h l a t e r Iron A g e , t h e British Isles are
r a t h e r p e r i p h e r a l t o o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a m b e r i n its a r c h a e o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t .
T h i s is n o t t r u e , h o w e v e r , for t h e B r o n z e A g e ( 3 0 0 0 - 7 0 0 B.C.), of w h i c h m o r e is
k n o w n i n G r e a t Britain t h a n i n c o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e . D o c u m e n t a t i o n exists from
AmberinArt • 149
Winged female head. Etruscan, 5th
century B.C. Height 3.1". Private
collection
Opposite: Winged deity with a youth. Etruscan, c. fifth century B.C. Height 4.5". Private collection
This work was carved from a homogenously opaque, reddish-brown piece of amber; a consolidant
appears to have been used, making the surface slightly more shiny than it would be naturally.
The hair of the deity is pulled back with a band and falls in fine braids down the back. The right
wing is folded down under the right arm, with the right hand resting on the left thigh of the
youth and the left hand wrapped behind his neck. The youth is distinguished from the deity by
his relatively larger eyes, finer features, and smaller size. His right arm is raised, and the left arm
rests on his lap. The youth appears to be sitting on the lap of the deity. The group may represent
Eos (in Etruscan, Thesan), the Greek goddess of the dawn, carrying off one of her young lovers,
perhaps Tithonos (Etruscan, Tinthun).
The influence of the natural contours of the amber is evident, particularly in the margins
around the youth's raised hand and the right side of the piece, for which no actual structure is
rendered. The bulging chest of the deity and the depression in the breast of the youth reflect
deformities in the amber. The large hole between the figures was bored, perhaps for suspending as
a pendant, but the one in front of the deity's chest appears natural.
J 62 'Amber in Art
Etching from P. Abraham, Etwas fur
Alle d. eine kurze Beschreibung, 1711
T e u t o n i c o r d e r s t r u g g l e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r c o n t r o l over a m b e r b y e s t a b l i s h i n g
t h e i r o w n P a t e r n o s t e r m a c h e r guild i n K o n i g s b e r g , w h i c h w a s t o evolve l a t e r
i n t o t h e Royal A m b e r W o r k s . T h e guild p r o m o t e d s e c u l a r i t e m s , s u c h a s g a m e
b o a r d s , g o b l e t s , c u p s , t a n k a r d s , a n d caskets, a n d , especially i n t h e f o u r t e e n t h a n d
fifteenth c e n t u r i e s , e x p o r t e d carvings o f r e l i g i o u s figures, c u t l e r y w i t h a m b e r
h a n d l e s , crucifixes, a n d s m a l l b o t t l e s t o F r e n c h a n d Italian royalty. But t h e
w i d e s p r e a d decline i n t h e u s e o f rosaries after t h e R e f o r m a t i o n u l t i m a t e l y led
t o t h e collapse o f t h e o r d e r ' s a m b e r guild.
F r o m 1533 t o 1642, t h e k n i g h t s t r a n s f e r r e d t h e r i g h t s t o t h e a m b e r m o n o p o l y
t o t h e w e a l t h y D a n z i g m e r c h a n t family o f Paul K o e h n v o n Jaski. I t w a s d u r i n g
t h e Jaski family's r u l e t h a t t h e f a m o u s t e c h n i q u e s o f Bernsteinstechen ( p o k i n g )
and Kdscher (catching) w i t h l o n g n e t s c a m e i n t o w i d e s p r e a d use. Several old w o o d -
cuts a n d e n g r a v i n g s , for e x a m p l e , s h o w m e n i n h e a v y l e a t h e r cuirasses fighting
the surf w i t h t h e i r nets. S o m e d r a w i n g s s h o w fires s u s p e n d e d f r o m p o l e s o n s h o r e ,
supposedly used to t h a w the gatherers' leather g a r m e n t s in very cold weather.
A brisk t r a d e t o t h e Far East for M u h a m m a d a n r o s a r i e s k e p t t h e a m b e r b u s i n e s s
D u r i n g t h e s e v e n t e e n t h a n d e i g h t e e n t h centuries, n o r t h e r n E u r o p e ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y P r u s s i a ( n o w G e r m a n y a n d t h e e a s t e r n Baltic c o u n t r i e s ) , w a s
f l o o d e d w i t h a m b e r w o r k s h o p s a n d artisans. T h i s i s t h e p e r i o d o f t h e w o r k s h o p s
h e a d e d b y t h e g r e a t a m b e r m a s t e r s , w h o b r o u g h t t o t h e craft a s o p h i s t i c a t i o n
n e v e r a c h i e v e d b e f o r e o r since. D e c o r a t i v e objects, b o t h secular a n d e c u m e n i c a l ,
b e c a m e g r a n d : chests, inlaid c a b i n e t s , altars, inlaid g a m e b o a r d s , g r o u p s o f
s c u l p t e d f i g u r e s , l i d d e d t a n k a r d s , e v e n several chandeliers, and, o f c o u r s e , t h e
f a m o u s Russian a m b e r r o o m . W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f small s c u l p t u r e s a n d b o w l s
c a r v e d f r o m single pieces o f a m b e r , m o s t objects w e r e m a d e b y f i t t i n g p i e c e s o f
a m b e r t o g e t h e r i n t o a m o s a i c for an inlaid facade, or by j o i n i n g w i t h a c e n t r a l
r o d (in t h e case o f intricately t u r n e d j o i n t s for candlesticks, b o w l s t e m s , a n d t h e
like). N o n e o f this c o u l d h a v e b e e n a c h i e v e d w i t h o u t vast supplies o f a m b e r ,
especially since pieces w e r e individually s e l e c t e d for their color, size, a n d s h a p e .
It is no coincidence that the great w o r k s h o p s developed in towns along or n e a r
t h e s o u t h e r n c o a s t o f t h e Baltic Sea w h e r e a m b e r w a s plentiful: Kassel, L i i b e c k ,
D a n z i g , a n d especially K o n i g s b e r g .
T h e g r a n d e r a o f a m b e r w o r k also c o u l d n o t have developed w i t h o u t t h e
s p o n s o r s h i p o f a v e r y elite a r i s t o c r a c y o f t h e t i m e . D u r i n g the s e v e n t e e n t h a n d
eighteenth centuries, absolutism t r i u m p h e d in continental Europe, while E n g l a n d
w a s b e c o m i n g m o r e d e m o c r a t i c . I t w a s t h e e r a o f t h e czars o f Russia, w h i c h
b e g a n w i t h t h e r u l e o f Ivan t h e Terrible (1533-84) a n d flourished u n d e r P e t e r
t h e G r e a t (1682-1725) a n d C a t h e r i n e t h e G r e a t (1762-96). Prussia h a d b e c o m e
o n e o f t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s u n d e r t h e rule o f Frederick I
(1688-1713), Frederick William I (1713-40), a n d t h e "enlightened despot" Frederick
t h e G r e a t (1740-86). N o n e o f t h e E u r o p e a n r u l e r s , t h o u g h , b r o u g h t m o r e
o p u l e n c e t o n o b i l i t y t h a n did L o u i s XIV o f F r a n c e (1643-1715). His p a l a c e a t
Versailles t o o k t h i r t y t h o u s a n d m e n m o r e t h a n t w e n t y years t o c o m p l e t e .
A r c h i t e c t u r e , art, c l o t h i n g , a n d d e c o r a t i v e objects t h a t inspired w o n d e r a n d a
d i s r e g a r d for t h e n o r m a l w e r e t h e Z e i t g e i s t a m o n g all E u r o p e a n nobility, n o t j u s t
i n F r a n c e . Also, t h e r u l i n g levels o f t h e C a t h o l i c clergy w e r e advisers a n d
spiritual c o n f i d a n t s t o t h e nobility, a n d t h e y a d o p t e d a n equally rarified t a s t e .
T h e s p l e n d o r a n d o p u l e n c e o f t h e age w e r e c a p t u r e d i n a m b e r .
A m b e r was highly reworked in the Prussian workshops, so that various
effects c o u l d b e achieved. O n e o f t h e m o s t successful t e c h n i q u e s w a s t h e u s e o f
172-Amber in Art
Nine chess pieces. German, seventeenth century
Opposite: Carp leaping from the water. Below: Jui-Ruyi. China, eighteenth century.
China, early eighteenth century. Height Length 14". American Museum of Natural
without base 2.7". American Museum History (Anthropology). Drummond
of Natural History (Anthropology). Collection, 70.3.2511
Drummond Collection, 70.3.26.98
A wish-granting scepter, this decorative
Carved from a single piece of deep-red, piece was used to promote good wishes at
transparent amber, sitting in an ivory base, special occasions like birthdays and
the fish is recognizable as a carp by the barbel weddings. It apparently was made from a
near the mouth. Carp are associated with single piece of opaque, mottled reddish-
martial arts and with perseverance because brown amber, although the stem was broken
of their ability to struggle against the current and repaired in four places. Along the stem
of a river; this one leaps from waves. Carving are intertwined branches. Bracket fungi
appears on both sides and includes inscribed (Lingzhi), which signify longevity or
scales and waves. The tail is more complete immortality, are carved at the base and near
on one side. The hole near the mouth the neck, with flowers and buds between.
indicates that the piece was also worn as The neck is branched into two limbs, just
a pendant. beneath the crowning "bouquet" of bracket
fungus, on which sit a smaller bracket
fungus, a magnolia flower, bud, and leaves.
Partly protruding from between the two
branches is a bat, with the head and one
wing showing. Many ruyi come from the
Qing dynasty.
Carved from a large piece of deep yellow-orange, transparent amber are two scenes in deep relief. On one side (opposite)
a mother looks down on her child; they each hold a flower. Flowers and leaves are carved along the edges, and a large
flower appears near the middle. The other side portrays a stag kneeling beside a gnarled tree in blossom. A peacock is
perched in the tree, its tail curled over its back. A hole at the bottom indicates that the piece originally had a base.
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(1966/ 1967): 215-302, 203-73. Grabowska, J. Amber in Polish History. 'Analysis of European Amber by
Bellman, E. "Recovery and Treatment Edinburgh, 1978. Carbon-13 Nuclear Magnetic Reso-
of Amber at Palmnicken (East Grimaldi, David A., Curt W. Beck, and nance Spectroscopy." Archaeometry
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Berendt, G. Der im Bernstein befindlichen tology of the Fossil Resins from Inquiry." Science 163 (1969): 1157-64.
Organischen Reste Der Vorwelt. New Jersey." American Museum Larsson, Sven G. Baltic Amber: A Paleo-
Berlin, 1845. Novitates 2948 (1989): 28 pp. biological Study. Entomonograph
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Spring Books, 1953. Doberstein. "Electron Microscopic Laufer, Berthold. "Historical Jottings
Buffum, Arnold. The Tears of the Heliades, Studies of Mummified Tissues in on Amber in Asia." Memoirs of the
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"Die Dominkanischen Bernstein- arbeitung vom Mittelalter bis zum Shedrinsky, Alexander, M., David A.
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210 • Bibliography
INDEX
Pages numbers in italics refer to captions. medieval and Renaissance, 160-64 bacterium from, 132
mosaics, 133, 144, 166, 167, 186, 191; DNA from, 128, 130
A 176, 192 in forgeries, 140
acacia, 98, 106 paints and pigments, 14 beetles, 19, 29
Africa, 16, 19, 42, 64, 137, 149 perfume bottle, ISO leaf, 81
Agathis trees, 16; 16, 22 room, 166, 186-91; 187, 188 wood-boring and bark (ambrosia), 82,
Alaska, 25 saint figure, 171 105, 122; 82, 124
altars, 144, 166, 167, 179, 186; 172 scene carvings, 207 Bement, Clarence, 140, 141
"ambalming," 125 scepters, 199; 199 Berendt, G. C, 57; 61
amblypygids, 63, 95 shaving basin with soap dish and Bernstein, Leonard, 144
ambroid, 133-37; 134 brush,192 Bible, 15
ancient world, 145-57 skull, 194 birds:
Greece, 15, 149, 153, 156, 157 snuffboxes, 179; 177 feathers from, 32, 113; 9, 30, 113
Rome, 15, 149, 153, 157; 155, 157 vase, 157 woodpeckers, 113, 116
angiosperms, 21-22 Virgin figure, 169 Bitterfeld amber mines, 57; 58
Anselmus of Lozenstein, 160 "water pot," 208 Boswellia trees, 15
anthers, 122 winged deity with a youth, 151 bottles:
ants, 28, 90, 92-97; 30, 90, 92, 93 winged female head, 151 Chinese, 202, 204, 205
araucarian trees, 16, 22, 24, 28, 54; 24 woman figure, 170 perfume, 180
Agathis, 16; 16, 22 workshops for, see workshops bowls, 166, 179, 182
Arkansas, 46; 39, 45 see also jewelry Chinese, 208
art and decoration, 42, 143-202; 4, 50 Arabia, 15 snuff, 177
altars, 144, 166, 167, 179, 186; 172 Aristotle, 153 box with four counters, 178
in ancient world, see ancient world arthropods, 35, 46, 79, 82, 99, 116, 137 Brazil, 19
Asian, 194-202; 194, 197, 199, 201, 202, Asia, 14, 40-42, 194-202 brooches, 134, 153, 185
204, 205, 207, 208 assassin bug, 93-97 Bronze Age, 146-48, 156; 148
banqueting group, 153 Axel Heiburg Island, 43, 54; 43, 44 Buddha, 202
bottles, 180, 202, 204, 205 Buffum, Arnold, 42, 182
bowls, 166, 179, 182; 177, 208 Burmese amber (burmite), 41-42, 149,
box with four counters, 178 B 194, 202; 40, 41, 144
calligraphic character, 197 Bacon, Francis, 117 butterfly, 87
candlesticks, 179; 180 bacteria, 132; 131
carp carving, 199 Baltic amber, 42, 43, 46, 47-61, 62, 72,
cases for needles or toothpicks, 179; 147, 160, 202; 49, 50, 51, 54, 69 c
178 ambroid made from, 134 cabinets, 166, 167, 179
chests, 133, 144, 166, 167, 179, 186; 4, in art and decoration, 145; 4, 50, 144, caddis fly, 27
176, 192 146, 182; see also art and decoration Caesalpinioidea trees, 19
crucifix, 190; 172 collecting of, 160 calligraphic character carving, 197
cruets, 176 features and types of, 53 Callitris trees, 14
cups, 147, 202; 147, 148 forgeries in, 140; 139 Canada, 25, 43
dishes, 179; 192 inclusions in, 55-61, 117, 137; 54, 56 candlesticks, 179; 180
dragons, 197 location and geology of, 47-53 carp carving, 199
European, 166-82, 194 origins of, 53-55, 153, 194; 43 Carpenter, Frank, 25
game boards, see game boards preservational fidelity of, 122 carvings, see art and decoration; sculpted
goddess figure, 197 Teutonic Knights and, 160-64 figures
horse figure, 145; 146 Baltic coast, 47; 47 cases for needles or toothpicks, 179; 178
human figures, 146 beads and necklaces, 145, 148, 156, 157; caterpillars, 35, 36, 87-90; 36
knives and forks, 179; 178 50, 185 cedar trees, 14, 46
lion figure, 177 Paternoster and rosary, 160, 163, 164; centipede, 66
lotus root, flower, leaf, and goldfish 164 chandeliers, 182
carving, 194 bees, 28, 30, 79, 90, 97, 117, 118, 122; 28, chessboards, 179; 144, 175
man carrying a burden, 4 118, 119, 121 chess pieces, 174
Index'211
chests, 133, 144, 166, 167, 179, 186; 4, Dipterocarp trees, 40, 46; 39 forgeries, 16, 133, 137-41; 134, 136, 139
176, 192 dishes, 179; 192 forks and knives, 179
China, 42, 194-202; 194, 197, 199, 201, DNA, 117, 124, 126-32; 126 wedding, 178
202, 204, 205, 207, 208 Dobberman, Jacob, 182 fossil resin, see copal
Chopin, Frederic, 144 Dominican amber, 14, 19, 62-72, 79, fossils, 12, 79, 98; 29
clarification, 133, 191 140; 4, 66, 68, 69, 72, 74, 77, 79 cone, 21, 44
cockroaches, 129, 130; 36, 129 forgeries of, 140; 134, 139 flower, 28-30; 29
cocoons, 97; 97 inclusions in, 62, 64, 68, 72, 79, Metasequoia branch, 22
Colden, Cadawallader, 14-15 98-116; 66, 72, 74, 77, 79 fossils, amber, 12, 16, 22, 43-46, 79-132;
collembola, 98 preservational fidelity of, 122 29
Colombia, 19; 19 reconstructing ancient forest from, Baltic, 55-61, 117, 137; 54, 56
Columbus, Christopher, 62 98-116 crab, 66
Commiphora trees, 15 dragon carving, 197 DNA in, 117, 124, 126-32; 126, 129
cones, fossilized, 21, 44, 54, 61 dragon pendant, 201 Dominican and Mexican, 62, 64, 68,
conifer trees, 12, 21, 22, 24 Drummond, Isaac, 202 72, 79, 98-116; 63, 66, 72, 74, 77, 79
araucarian, see araucarian trees Drummond, James R, 202 feathers, 32, 113; 9, 30, 113
Conwentz, Hugo, 57; 58 frogs, 113, 116; 111
Cook, John, 14, 15 insect, see insect fossils
Copaifera trees, 19 E lizards, 61, 113, 137, 149; 108, 109, 111
copal (fossil resin), 14, 16-19, 21, 28, 42, earrings, 157; 180, 185 menagerie, 99; 98, 100
64, 72, 122, 137, 149; 19 Egypt, 14, 15, 117 plant, see plant fossils
forgeries from, 133, 137, 140 eighteenth-century amber, 166, 167, preservation of soft internal tissues
use of term, 16 182, 186 in, 117-25
crab, 66 Ellesmere Island, 43; 43 reconstructing ancient forest from,
crazing, 16, 72; 151, 155, 168, 180 embalming, 15, 124 98-116
Cretaceous amber, 22, 24, 25, 28, 30, encrustation, 167 reptile skin, 113; 111
35-36, 38, 42, 43 England, 47, 50, 145, 146, 147, 166 vertebrates, 14, 61, 113-16, 137
collecting of, 33, 34 Eocene epoch, 38, 42, 43, 46, 52, 129 France, 25, 166
Cretaceous period, 21-22, 28; 21 Etruscans, 148, 153, 156, 157; 151, 153, frankincense, 15, 19
forest in, 24 154, 155, 185 frass, 90, 105
crucifix, 190; 172 European amber, 25, 42 Frederick I, King of Prussia, 166, 186
cruets, 176 in art and decoration, 166-82, 194 Frederick William I, King of Prussia,
Cupressaceae trees, 22, 27, 28, 46 see also Baltic amber 166, 186
cups, 147, 202 evolution, 21-22, 126, 130, 131, 141; 129 Frick, Clemens, 190
Hove tumulus, 147; 147,148 exine, 122 Frick, Heinrich Wilhelm, 190
cycads, 21, 22; 24 extinctions, 130 frogs, 113, 116; 111
in forgeries, 140, 141; 139
fungi, 27, 105, 122; 124
D F
Dahn, Felix, 52 feathers, 32, 113; 9, 30, 113
dammar, 14 fern, 77 G
Dammara australis trees, 16 fig trees, 100 game boards, 166, 167, 179
damselflies, 98; 79 fir trees, 14 chessboards, 179; 144, 175
Danzig, 166, 167, 179, 186; 172, 176, 192 fish carvings, 194, 199 chess pieces, 174
Denmark, 50 fleas, 116; 115 with crown on a pillow, 185
deposits, amber, 12, 16, 21-72; 21 flies, 85, 87, 97 gecko lizards, 113, 137; 108
in Africa, 16, 19, 42 Camus, 116; 113 geological time scale, 13
in Asia, 40-42 crane, 86 gnats, 85, 117; 87
Baltic, see Baltic amber Dolichopodidae, 85 goddess, Chinese, 197
Dominican, see Dominican amber eggs of, 87 Goeppert, H. R., 53; 61
in Europe, see European amber in forgeries, 141; 139 Greece, ancient, 15, 153, 156, 157
in Japan, 16, 32; 33 fruit, 87 legend in, on origin of amber, 149
in marine sediments, 13; 12 horseflies, 116
Mesozoic, see Mesozoic era larvae, 111
Mexican, see Mexican amber parasitic, 96 H
in the Middle East, 35-36 flower fossils, 98; 54, 58, 61, 98 Hagen, Hermann, 55
in North America, 25-30, 43-46 in clay, 28-30; 29 hairs, 113, 116; 114
in Siberia, 35; 34 Hymenaea, 103, 104 halictid bees, 79
Tertiary, see Tertiary period flowering plants: Hallstatt Culture, 148
see also mines, amber evolution of, 21-22 Hamamelidaceae trees, 28, 30
Diodorus, 153 pollen from, 30, 122; 29, 118, 121 Heise, Jacob, 182
Dionysus, mask of, 157 Fontebasso, Francesco Salvatore, 190 Hennig, Willi, 141; 139
212' Index
horse carving, 145; 146 intaglio, 167, 179 Martinez, Ramon "Rubio," 68
horseflies, 116 Iron Age, 146, 148, 156 mask of Dionysus, 157
Hove tumulus cup, 147; 147, 148 mastic, 14
Hymenaea trees, 14, 19, 64, 68, 122; 19, Maucher, Christoph, 179
64, 103, 104 J Maya, 14, 19
hyphae, 27 Japan, 16, 32, 194, 202; 33 medicines, 14-15, 53
jewelry, 156, 157 medieval amber, 160-64
beads and necklaces, see beads and menageries, 99; 98, 100
I necklaces Mesolithic period, 145; 145, 146
imitation amber, 133, 137 brooches, 134, 153, 185 Mesozoic era, 21-36; 22
incense, 15, 19, 62 Castellani, 185 Jurassic period, 22; 21, 22
inclusions, see fossils, amber earrings, 157; 180, 185 see also Cretaceous amber; Cretaceous
inlays, 167, 179, 186; 192 with insect inclusions, 182 period
in amber room, 186, 191 pendants, see pendants Metasequoia tree, 22
insect fossils, 14, 19, 30, 32, 57, 61, 72, ring, 155 Mexican amber, 14, 62-72, 105, 140; 62,
79-97, 98, 99, 100, 105, 108, 116, sun spangles in, 133; 134 63, 66
137; 36, 95 Jui-Ruyi, 199 preservational fidelity of, 122
ants, 28, 90, 92-97; 30, 90, 92, 93 Jurassic Park, 128, 130 midges, 61, 85, 87, 137; 86
arthropods, 35, 46, 79, 82, 99, 116, 137 Jurassic period, 22; 21, 22 phlebotomine, 116
bees, see bees Middle East, 35-36
beetles, see beetles millipedes, 36, 93; 36, 95
butterfly, 87 K Milton,John, 149
caddis fly, 25-27 Kant, Immanuel, 126 mines, amber:
caterpillars, 35, 36, 87-90; 36 kauri gum, 16-19, 137; 16, 134 Bitterfeld, 57; 58
centipede, 66 knives and forks, 179 in Burma, 41; 40
cocoons, 97; 97 wedding, 178 in Dominican Republic, 68, 72; 68, 72
damselflies, 98; 79 Koch, Erich, 190, 191 in Mexico, 68
DNAin, 126-32; 126, 129 Konigsberg, 166, 167, 179, 182, 186, 190, Palmnicken, 50, 52-53, 55, 191; 52
eggs, 87; 86 191 Miocene epoch, 38, 40, 42, 68, 113, 129
exhumation of, 117 Kornilowitch, Nicolai, 117, 118 mites, 82, 97; 36
fleas, 116; 115 phoretic, 79
flies, see flies mitochondria, 118-22
forgeries of, 137, 141; 134, 139 L monkey pendant, 155
gnats, 85, 117; 87 lacewings, 25; 93 mosaics, 133, 144, 166, 167; 176, 192
in jewelry, 182 lacquers, 14 in amber room, 186, 191
lacewings, 25; 93 Larsson, Sven, 57 mosquitoes, 85, 116; 115
larvae, 87; 56,111 larvae, 87 moths, 35-36, 87-90, 97
in menageries, 99; 98, 100 fly, 111 inchworm, 87
midges, 61, 85, 87, 116, 137; 86 owl "fly," 56 mummification, 117
millipedes, 36, 93; 36, 95 Laufer, Berthold, 194 mushroom, 30, 106
mites, 79, 82, 97; 36 leaf fossils: Myanmar (Burma), 41, 149, 194, 202; 40,
mosquitoes, 85, 116; 115 in amber, 98, 122; 58, 106, 123 41, 144
moths, 35-36, 87-90, 97; 87 DNA from, 126-28 Myeloxylon, 21
muscles in, 118-22 leafhopper nymphs, 97 myrrh, 15, 19
owl "fly," 56 Lebanon, 35, 36 myths, about amber, 149, 194
phoresy and, 79, 82 legume trees, 16, 19
praying mantises, 93, 129 lignite, 13, 46, 68; 12
preservation of soft internal tissues lion figure, 177 N
in, 117-25 liverwort, 125; 106 Native Americans, 14
sandflies, 116; 36, 114 lizards, 61, 149; 109, 111 Natural History of Lac, Amber, and Myrrh,
spiders, 14, 61, 85, 87, 93, 97; 95, 96, 98 in forgeries, 137, 140; 134, 139 The (Cook), 14, 15
stick insect, 81 gecko, 113, 137; 108 necklaces, see beads and necklaces
termites, see termites lotus root, flower, leaf, and goldfish nematode worm parasites, 97
ticks, 116; 114 carving, 194 Neocomian amber, 35
treehopper, 81 Louis XIV, King of France, 166 Neolithic period, 145, 146
wasps, see wasps New Jersey, 25, 28, 30; 27, 28, 29, 30
insects, 14, 21-22, 57, 68, 105 New Zealand, 16-19; 16
feces of, 90, 105 M forest in, 24
parasitic, 92, 93, 97; 96, 97 "Madonna," Chinese, 197 Nicholas II, Czar, 190; 185
pollination by, 30; 29 Malaysia (Sarawak), 40; 38, 39 nineteenth-century amber, 182
reproduction in, 79, 85 marcasite, 27 North America, 25-30, 43-46
social, 90-93, 105 Martial, 79 no-see-ums, 116
Index' 213
o c l a r i f i c a t i o n i n , 133, 191 h o r s e , 145; 146
O l i g o c e n e e p o c h , 38, 42, 64, 113 s u n s p a n g l e s i n , 133; 134 h u m a n , 146
o r i g i n s o f amber, 12-19 properties of amber, 12-19 l i o n , 177
legends a b o u t , 149, 194 P r u s s i a , 166, 1 6 7 - 7 9 man carrying a burden, 4
o w l "fly," 56 a m b e r r o o m f r o m , 166, 1 8 6 - 9 1 ; 187, s a i n t , 171
188 V i r g i n , 169
Pseudolarix t r e e s , 4 6 , 5 4 - 5 5 ; 43 w i n g e d d e i t y w i t h a y o u t h , 151
P p s e u d o s c o r p i o n s , 36, 82; 36, 82 w i n g e d f e m a l e h e a d , 151
paints, 14 p t e r i d o s p e r m s , 21 w o m a n , 170
Paleobiology of Baltic Amber, The Pterophyllum, 21 seed, w i n g e d , 103
( L a r s s o n ) , 57 p u t t i , 182; 192 S e n d e l i o , N a t h a n a e l , 49, 136
P a l e o l i t h i c p e r i o d , 146 p y r i t e , 2 5 ; 27, 74 s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y a m b e r , 166, 167,
Palestine, 15 179,182,186
P a l m n i c k e n a m b e r m i n e , 50, 5 2 - 5 3 , 55, s h a v i n g b a s i n w i t h soap d i s h a n d b r u s h ,
191; 52 R 192
p a n e l , w o o d , w i t h a m b e r i n s e r t s , 168 R a s t r e l l i , V a r f o l o m e i , 186 Shorea t r e e s , 39
parasites, 9 2 , 9 3 , 9 7 ; 96, 97 R e d l i n , M i c h e l , 179 S i b e r i a , 3 5 ; 34
parasitoids, 97 Renaissance a m b e r , 1 6 0 - 6 4 S i c i l i a n a m b e r ( s i m e t i t e ) , 42; 4
P a t e r n o s t e r b e a d s a n d r o s a r i e s , 160, 163, reptiles: sirens, 153
164; 164 s k i n o f , 113; H i s k u l l , 194
P a t e r n o s t e r m a c h e r s , 160, 163 see also l i z a r d s s l o t h s , 113
p e n d a n t s , 1 5 6 - 5 7 ; 182 r e s i n i t e , 16 s n u f f b o x e s , 179; 177
a m b e r a n d g o l d , 154 r e s i n , 12, 13, 1 4 - 1 5 , 19, 2 4 , 6 8 , 105, 108, S p e n g l e r , L o r e n z , 182, 190; 185
C h i n e s e , 201 124; 12, 19, 194 s p h i n x p e n d a n t , 154
d r a g o n , 201 a n t i b i o t i c p r o p e r t i e s of, 124-25 s p i d e r s , 14, 6 1 , 85, 87, 93, 97; 95, 96, 98
m o n k e y , 155 f o s s i l , see c o p a l s p r i n g t a i l s , 98
s i r e n , 153 f r a n k i n c e n s e , 15 Stantien, W i l h e l m , 52
s p h i n x , 154 m y r r h , 15 S t a n t i e n a n d Becker, 52, 55
p e r f u m e , 15 r i n g , 155 S t a t e n I s l a n d , N.Y., 2 7 - 2 8
p e r f u m e b o t t l e , 180 R o g g e n b u c h , F r i e d r i c h , 190 s t i c k i n s e c t , 81
Peter I ( t h e G r e a t ) , C z a r , 166, 186, 190 R o g g e n b u c h , J o h a n n , 190 s u c c i n i c a c i d , 42, 53, 54, 147, 153; 43
p h a s m i d , 81 R o h d e , A l f r e d , 190 s u c c i n i t e , see B a l t i c a m b e r
phoresy, 79, 82 R o m a n i a n amber, 42 s u n s p a n g l e s , 133; 134
p i g m e n t s , 14 R o m e , a n c i e n t , 15, 149, 153, 157; 155, s u s p e n d e d a n i m a t i o n , 131-32
" P i l t d o w n Fly," 1 4 1 ; 139 157 s y s t e m a t i c s , 126, 130
Pinaceae trees, 2 2 , 27 r o o m , a m b e r , 166, 1 8 6 - 9 1 ; 187, 188
see also p i n e t r e e s r o s a r i e s , 160, 163, 164; 164
pine trees, 12, 14, 15, 2 2 , 53, 54 R o y a l A m b e r W o r k s , 163 T
Pseudolarix, 4 6 , 5 4 - 5 5 ; 43 r u m a n i t e , 42 t a b e r n a c l e s , 179
Pistacea trees, 14 R u s s i a , 166; 22 T a c i t u s , C o r n e l i u s , 153
p l a n t fossils, 24, 4 3 , 46", 57, 9 8 , 137 a m b e r r o o m i n , 166, 1 8 6 - 9 1 ; 187, 188 t a n k a r d s , 179, 182
acacia, 98, 106 S i b e r i a , 3 5 ; 34 T a x o d i a c e a e trees, 22, 24, 27
cones, 54, 61 Tears of the Heliades, or Amber as a Gem,
f e r n , 77 The ( B u f f u m ) , 42, 182
f l o w e r s , 9 8 ; 54, 58, 61, 98, 103, 104 S t e r m i t e s , 19, 25, 35, 40, 85, 90, 9 2 , 105,
leaves, 98, 122; 58, 106, 123 s a i n t figure, 171 129; 74, 85, 126, 129
l i v e r w o r t , 125; 106 s a n d a r a c , 14 D N A f r o m , 1 2 8 - 3 1 ; 126, 129
in m e n a g e r i e s , 98 s a n d f l i e s , 116; 36, 114 n a s u t e , 90, 105
m u s h r o o m , 30, 106 S a r a w a k , M a l a y s i a , 40; 38, 39 t e r p e n e s , 14, 124
p r e s e r v a t i o n o f soft i n t e r n a l tissues scale i n s e c t s , 27 T e r t i a r y p e r i o d , 22, 2 4 , 28, 30, 3 8 - 4 6
i n , 117, 122 s c a l l o p s h e l l , 140; 139 E o c e n e e p o c h , 3 8 , 4 2 , 4 3 , 4 6 , 52, 129
w i n g e d seed, 103 scenes, c a r v e d , 207 M i o c e n e e p o c h , 38, 4 0 , 4 2 , 6 8 , 113,
p l a n t s , f l o w e r i n g , e v o l u t i o n of, 2 1 - 2 2 s c e p t e r s , 199; 199 129
Pleistocene e p o c h , 113 S c h a c t , E r n s t , 186 O l i g o c e n e e p o c h , 38, 42, 6 4 , 112
P l i n y t h e Elder, 133, 137, 149, 153, 157 S c h m i d t , F r i e d r i c h , 190; 172 P l i o c e n e e p o c h , 19
Pliocene a m b e r , 19 S c h m i d t , S t e n z e l , 179 Tetraclinus t r e e s , 14
p o l l e n , 30, 122; 29, 118, 121 S c h r e i b e r , G e o r g , 179; 172 Teutonic Knights, 160-64
p o l y e s t e r r e s i n , 133, 1 3 7 - 4 0 ; 134, 139 scorpion, 4 T i b e t , 199; 194
P o l y m e r a s e C h a i n R e a c t i o n ( P C R ) , 128 Scotland, 47 t i c k s , 116; 114
Pope, A l e x a n d e r , 98 s c u l p t e d figures, 166 t r e e h o p p e r , 81
p r a y i n g m a n t i s e s , 93, 129 b a n q u e t i n g g r o u p , 153 trees, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19, 22, 24, 153
processed a m b e r , 133 g o d d e s s , 197 Agathis, 16; 16, 22
214 • Index
araucarian, see araucarian trees V weevils, 130, 132
Baltic, 53-55 varnishes, 14, 16, 19, 25, 53 Welpendorf, Johann, 190
Boswellia, 15 vase, 157 Wessex Culture, 147-48
cedar, 14, 46 velvet "ant," 66 Wolffram, Gottfried, 186
conifer, see conifer trees Venezuela, 19 wood, 28, 72
Cupressaceae, 22, 27, 28, 46 vertebrates, 14, 21, 61, 113-16, 137 wood panel with amber inserts, 168
dipterocarp, 40, 46; 39 in forgeries, 137, 140 woodpeckers, 113, 116
fig, 100 Virgin figure, 169 workshops, 166
Hymenaea, 14, 19, 64, 68, 122; 19, 64, Danzig, 166, 167, 179, 186; 172, 176, 192
103, 104 Konigsberg, 166, 167, 179, 182, 186,
kauri, 16-19; 16 w 190, 191
legume, 16, 19 Washington, 46
pine, see pine trees wasps, 97, 100; 97 Y
Pseudolarix, 46, 54-55; 43 in forgery, 134 Yeltsin, Boris, 191
Shorea, 39 mutillid, 66
Triassic amber, 21 paper, 90, 92; 90 z
Turau, Gottfried, 186; 176 "water pot," decorative, 208 Zaddach, George, 50
Turow, Nicholas, 179 wedding knife and fork, 178 Zanzibar, 19
Index'21S
PHOTOGRAPH/ILLUSTRATION CREDITS
Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadel- Elizabeth Bonwich/Peling Melville: Museum of Comparative Zoology,
phia: 23, 39, 43 119, 120, 121, 123, 124, 125 Harvard (Frank Carpenter): 30, 56
American Museum of Natural History: Malcolm McKenna: 44 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston: 6, 142,
165, 168, 169, 170, 171, 174, 175,
Jacklyn Beckett: 2, 10, 18, 19, 21, 22, Library Services (Joel Sweimler): 17, 176, 177, 178 middle and bottom,
26, 28, 38, 44, 48, 50, 54, 55, 62, 63, 24, 49, 59, 60, 136, 146, 161, 162, 163 180, 181, 184
70, 74, 75, 77, 78, 80, 81, 84, 86, 88,
92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 103, 104, 107, Matthew Harnick: 108 Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen: 145
108, 110, 111, 131, 134
Booth Museum, Brighton: 147, 148 The Natural History Museum, London:
Denis Finnin: 7, 27, 33, 45, 51, 73, 100, 41, 139, 183
146, 150, 151, 153, 154 middle and From Chhibber, H. L. The Mineral
bottom, 155, 159, 195, 196, 197, Resources of Burma. London: Macmillan Paleontological Institute, Moscow:
198, 199, 200, 201, 203, 204, 205, & Co., 1934 J. Sukacheva: 34 top and middle
206, 207, 208 A. Ponomarenko: 34 bottom, 35
Cornell University (William L. Crepet
Edward Bridges: 67, 71, 83, 85, 86, 87, and Kevin Nixon): 29 Rolf Reinicke: 52, 58
89,91, 102, 104, 106, 109, 115, 127,
135, 138, 139 Ekaterininsky Palace Museum, Saint Smithsonian Institution, National
Petersburg: 187 Museum of Natural History: 64
David Grimaldi: 12, 13, 28, 31, 36, 37,
39, 65, 66, 69, 76, 77, 80, 82, 86, 93, Stas V Chabdutkin: 173, 176, 185, Victoria and Albert Museum, London:
95,97, 99, 100, 101, 112, 113, 114, 188, 189, 192, 193 172
115, 118, 129, 135, 146
Kuji Amber Museum (Kazuhisa Sasaki):
32
216 •Credits