Research Topic : Caste Fromation in Ancient India

Rough Draft

http://www.ushistory.org/civ/8b.asp

If a Hindu person were asked to explain the nature of the caste system, he or she might start to tell
the story of Brahma — the four-headed, four-handed deity worshipped as the creator of the universe.

According to an ancient text known as the Rigveda, the division of Indian society was based on
Brahma's divine manifestation of four groups.

Priests and teachers were cast from his mouth, rulers and warriors from his arms, merchants and
traders from his thighs, and workers and peasants from his feet.

What does "Caste" Mean?

Even today, most Indian languages use the term "jati" for the system of hereditary social structures in
South Asia. When Portuguese travelers to 16th-century India first encountered what appeared to them
to be race-based social stratification, they used the Portuguese term "casta" — which means "race" —
to describe what they saw. Today, the term "caste" is used to describe stratified societies based on
hereditary groups not only in South Asia but throughout the world.

Although born into the Kshatriya caste, Mahatma Gandhi spent much of his life working to bring the Untouchables
equality. It was Gandhi who first named the Untouchables "Harijans," meaning "children of God."

Others might present a biological explanation of India's stratification system, based on the notion that
all living things inherit a particular set of qualities. Some inherit wisdom and intelligence, some get
pride and passion, and others are stuck with less fortunate traits. Proponents of this theory attribute
all aspects of one's lifestyle — social status, occupation, and even diet — to these inherent qualities
and thus use them to explain the foundation of the caste system.

The Origins of the Caste System

According to one long-held theory about the origins of South Asia's caste system, Aryans from central
Asia invaded South Asia and introduced the caste system as a means of controlling the local
populations. The Aryans defined key roles in society, then assigned groups of people to them.
Individuals were born into, worked, married, ate, and died within those groups. There was no social
mobility.
 This Indian immigrant is still conscious of his Brahman heritage. Here he is shown standing in front of an altar in
his home in the United States.

The Aryan Myth

The idea of an "Aryan" group of people was not proposed until the 19th century. After identifying a
language called Aryan from which Indo-European languages are descended, several European linguists
claimed that the speakers of this language (named Aryans by the linguists) had come from the north
— from Europe.

Thus, according to this theory, European languages and cultures came first and were therefore
superior to others. This idea was later widely promoted by Adolf Hilter in his attempts to assert the
"racial superiority" of so-called light-skinned people from Europe over so-called dark-skinned people
from the rest of the world — and thus provide justification for genocide.

But 20th-century scholarship has thoroughly disproved this theory. Most scholars believe that there
was no Aryan invasion from the north. In fact, some even believe that the Aryans — if they did exist
— actually originated in South Asia and spread from there to Europe. Regardless of who the Aryans
were or where they lived, it is generally agreed that they did not single-handedly create South Asia's
caste system.

Thus, it has been impossible to determine the exact origins of the caste system in South Asia. In the
midst of the debate, only one thing is certain: South Asia's caste system has been around for several
millennia and, until the second half of the 20th century, has changed very little during all of that time.

Time for Class

In ancient India, the ranked occupational groups were referred to as varnas, and the hereditary
occupational groups within the varnas were known as jatis. Many have immediately assumed that
ascribed social groups and rules prohibiting intermarriage among the groups signify the existence of a
racist culture. But this assumption is false. Varnas are not racial groups but rather classes.

Four varna categories were constructed to organize society along economic and occupational lines.
Spiritual leaders and teachers were called Brahmins. Warriors and nobility were called Kshatriyas.
Merchants and producers were called Vaishyas. Laborers were called Sudras.

The Untouchables

In addition to the varnas, there is a fifth class in Hinduism. It encompassed outcasts who, literally, did
all the dirty work. They were referred to as "untouchables" because they carried out the miserable
tasks associated with disease and pollution, such as cleaning up after funerals, dealing with sewage,
and working with animal skin.
Brahmins were considered the embodiment of purity, and untouchables the embodiment of pollution.
Physical contact between the two groups was absolutely prohibited. Brahmins adhered so strongly to
this rule that they felt obliged to bathe if even the shadow of an untouchable fell across them.

Struggling against Tradition

Although the political and social force of the caste system has not disappeared completely, the Indian
government has officially outlawed caste discrimination and made widespread reforms. Particularly
through the efforts of Indian nationalists such as Mohandas Gandhi, rules preventing social mobility
and cross-caste mingling have been loosened.

Gandhi renamed the untouchables Harijans, which means "the people of God." Adopted in 1949, the
Indian Constitution provided a legal framework for the emancipation of untouchables and for the
equality of all citizens.

In recent years, the Untouchables have become a politically active group and have adopted for
themselves the name Dalits, which means "those who have been broken."

http://adaniel.tripod.com/origin.htm#

The Beginning of the caste system

There are different theories about the establishment of the caste system. There are
religious-mystical theories. There are biological theories. And there are socio-historical
theories.

The religious theories explain how the four Varnas were founded, but they do not explain
how the Jats in each Varna or the untouchables were founded. According the Rig Veda, the
ancient Hindu book, the primal man - Purush - destroyed himself to create a human
society. The different Varnas were created from different parts of his body. The Brahmans
were created from his head; the Kshatrias from his hands; the Vaishias from his thighs and
the Sudras from his feet. The Varna hierarchy is determined by the descending order of the
different organs from which the Varnas were created. Other religious theory claims that
the Varnas were created from the body organs of Brahma, who is the creator of the world.

The biological theory claims that all existing things, animated and inanimated, inherent
three qualities in different apportionment. Sattva qualities include wisdom, intelligence,
honesty, goodness and other positive qualities. Rajas include qualities like passion, pride,
valour and other passionate qualities. Tamas qualities include dullness, stupidity, lack of
creativity and other negative qualities. People with different doses of these inherent
qualities adopted different types of occupation.

According to this theory the Brahmans inherent Sattva qualities. Kshatrias and Vaisias
inherent Rajas qualities. And the Sudras inherent Tamas qualities.

Like human beings, food also inherents different dosage of these qualities and it affects its
eater's intelligence. The Brahmans and the Vaisias have Sattvic diet which includes fruits,
milk, honey, roots and vegetables. Most of the meats are considered to have Tamasic
qualities. Many Sudra communities eat different kinds of meat (but not beef) and other
Tamasic food. But the Kshatrias who had Rajasic diet eat some kinds of meat like deer
meat which is considered to have Rajasic qualities. Many Marathas who claim to be
Kshatrias eat mutton. The drawback of this theory is that in different parts of India the
same food was sometimes qualified to have different dosage of inherent qualities. For
example there were Brahmans who eat meat which is considered Tamasic food.

The social historical theory explains the creation of the Varnas, Jats and of the
untouchables. According to this theory, the caste system began with the arrival of the
Aryans in India. The Aryans arrived in India around 1500 BC. The fair skinned Aryans
arrived in India from south Europe and north Asia. Before the Aryans there were other
communities in India of other origins. Among them Negrito, Mongoloid, Austroloid and
Dravidian. The Negrito have physical features similar to people of Africa. The Mongoloid
have Chinese features. The Austroloids have features similar the aboriginals of Australia.
The Dravidians originate from the Mediterranean and they were the largest community in
India. When the Aryans arrived in India their main contact was with the Dravidians and
the Austroloids. The Aryans disregarded the local cultures. They began conquering and
taking control over regions in north India and at the same time pushed the local people
southwards or towards the jungles and mountains in north India.

The Aryans organized among themselves in three groups. The first group was of the
warriors and they were called Rajayana, later they changed their name Rajayana to
Kshatria. The second group was of the priests and they were called Brahmans. These two
groups struggled politically for leadership among the Aryans. In this struggle the
Brahmans got to be the leaders of the Aryan society. The third group was of the farmers
and craftsmen and they were called Vaisia. The Aryans who conquered and took control
over parts of north India subdued the locals and made them their servants. In this process
the Vaisias who were the farmers and the craftsmen became the landlords and the
businessmen of the society and the locals became the peasants and the craftsmen of the
society.

In order to secure their status the Aryans resolved some social and religious rules which,
allowed only them to be the priests, warriors and the businesmen of the society. For
example take Maharashtra. Maharashtra is in west India. This region is known by this
name for hundreds of years. Many think that the meaning of the name Maharashtra is in
its name, Great Land. But there are some who claim that the name, Maharashtra, is
derived from the Jat called Mahar who are considered to be the original people of this
region. In the caste hierarchy the dark skinned Mahars were outcasts. The skin color was
an important factor in the caste system. The meaning of the word "Varna" is not class or
status but skin color.

Between the outcasts and the three Aryan Varnas there is the Sudra Varna who are the
simple workers of the society. The Sudras consisted of two communities. One community
was of the locals who were subdued by the Aryans and the other were the descendants of
Aryans with locals. In Hindu religious stories there are many wars between the good
Aryans and the dark skinned demons and devils. The different Gods also have dark
skinned slaves. There are stories of demon women trying to seduce good Aryan men in
deceptive ways. There were also marriages between Aryan heroes and demon women.
Many believe that these incidences really occurred in which, the gods and the positive
heroes were people of Aryan origin. And the demons, the devils and the dark skinned
slaves were in fact the original residence of India whom the Aryans coined as monsters,
devil, demons and slaves.

As in most of the societies of the world, so in India, the son inherited his father's profession.
And so in India there developed families, who professed the same family profession for
generation in which, the son continued his father's profession. Later on as these families
became larger, they were seen as communities or as they are called in Indian languages,
Jat. Different families who professed the same profession developed social relations
between them and organized as a common community, meaning Jat.

Later on the Aryans who created the caste system, added to their system non-Aryans.
Different Jats who professed different professions were integrated in different Varnas
according to their profession. Other foreign invaders of ancient India - Greeks, Huns,
Scythains and others - who conquered parts of India and created kingdoms were integrated
in the Kshatria Varna (warrior castes). But probably the Aryan policy was not to integrate
original Indian communities within them and therefore many aristocratic and warrior
communities that were in India before the Aryans did not get the Kshatria status.

Most of the communities that were in India before the arrival of the Aryans were
integrated in the Sudra Varna or were made outcast depending on the professions of these
communities. Communities who professed non-polluting jobs were integrated in Sudra
Varna. And communities who professed polluting professions were made outcasts. The
Brahmans are very strict about cleanliness. In the past people believed that diseases can
also spread also through air and not only through physical touch. Perhaps because of this
reason the untouchables were not only disallowed to touch the high caste communities but
they also had to stand at a certain distance from the high castes.
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/5133/8/08_chapter%202.pdf

The meaning and origin of the word caste:- The word "Caste" owes its origins to the Spanish word
'Casta' which means 'breed, race, strain or a complex of hereditary qualities.' The Portuguese applied
this term to the classes of people in India, known by the name of 'jati.' The English word 'Caste' is an
adjustment of the original term 'Casta.'1 According to Henry Maine "Castes started as natural division of
occupational classes and eventually upon receiving the religious sanction became solidified into the
existing caste system. The caste system comes into being when it becomes an integral part of religious
dogma which divides the people into superior and inferior groups with different responsibilities,
functions and standards of living." Martindale and Monochest defined Caste as "an aggregate of persons
whose share of obligations and privileges are fixed by birth, sanctioned and supported by religion and
usage."According to Anderson and Parker2 "Caste is that extreme form of social class organisation in
which the position of individuals in the status hierarchy is determined by descent and birth." According
to Williams, "Caste is a system in which 92 an individual's rank and its accompanying rights and
obligations are ascribed on the basis of birth into a particular group." Magasthenes, the Greek traveller
in the third century B.C. to India, mentions two of the features characterising the institution of caste. He
says "It is not permitted to contract marriage with a person of another caste or to undertake an
occupation other than ancestral nor for the same person to undertake more than one, except if he is of
the Caste of Philosophers, when permission is given on account of dignity.3

The origins of caste system:- Though there are several theories, opinions and beliefs in this regard, the
exact origin of caste cannot be traced. Indo-Aryans reached India about 2500 B.C. The Caste System took
its birth after the arrival of Aryans in India. But it can be decidedly said that the Varnashram Vyavastha
did exist before Caste System. 1. Racial Theory:- According to Dr. Majumdar, the caste system took its
birth after the arrival Aryans in India. In order to maintain their separate existence, the Indo-Aryans used
for certain groups and orders of people the favourite word 'Varna,' 'Colour.' Thus mainly two prominent
groups Aryan and Dasa varna became known not by their occupations or other characteristics but by
their colour. Rigvedic literature stresses very significantly the difference between the Aryan and Dasa,
not only in their colour but also in their speech, religious practices and features. The name of the fourth
class, the 'Shudra' occurs only once in the Rig Veda.5 It seems class represented domestic servants,
approximately very nearly to the position of slaves. The Shudra is described as "the servant of another,"
"to be expelled at will," and "to be slain at will." The Panchavimsa Brahmana defines his position still
more precisely when it declares that the Shudra, even if he be prosperous, cannot but be servant of
another, washing his superior's feet being his main business.6 Other three classes - Brahmins, Kshatra
and Vis are frequently mentioned in the Rig Veda. Brahmin was poet-priest and Kshatriya was warrior
chief and all the common people were Vis. The Shudra class represented domestic Servants.7 96 2.
Political Theory:-8 According to this theory, Caste System is a cleaver device invented by the Brahmins in
order to place themselves on the highest ladder of social hierarchy. 'Caste' is a Brahminic child of Indo-
Aryan culture cradled in the land of the Ganges and thence transferred to other parts of India, says Dr.
G.S. Ghurye. The Brahmin post Vedic literature mentions certain mixed classes i.e. "Sankara Jat" and also
group of outcaste classes 'Antyavasin.' The first three classes are called 'Dwija' because they have to go
through the initiation ceremony which is symbolic of re-birth. The Shudra was called 'Ekjati' (one born).
The word "Jati" hence means the numerous sub-divisions of a "Varna." The God created Shudra to be
the slave of all. He is given the name of "Padaja" (born from the feet). He is to be supported, to be fed,
to be clothed with the remnants and castaways of food and raiment by the three Varna.9 Then
distinction began to be made between things pure and impure.

3. Occupational Theory:-10 (i) Better and Respectable Profession = Superior. (ii) Dirty Profession =
Inferior The persons or castes engaged in better and respectable profession used to consider them
superior and the persons or castes engaged in manual and dirty profession were treated as inferior in
the social setup of the day which is continuing till date world over but in India touchme-not-ism entered
into the social setup whereas the same seems to be absent elsewhere in the world. Nesfield says that,
"function and function alone is responsible for the origin of Caste Structure in India." With 97 function
differentiation there came in occupational differentiation and numerous sub-castes such as Lohar,
Sonar, Chamar, Bhangi, Barhai, Patwa, Teli, Nai, Tamboli, Kahar, Garadia etc. came into existence. 4.
Traditional Theory:-11 The traditional theory is based on Divine origin. It says that Varna and Caste are
not man-made but the same are created by God and such references are available in Hindu scriptures
like Rigveda,12 in its 10th Mandal, Hymn No.90, Verse No.12 and in Bhagavad Gita,13 Chapter No.4, Slok
No.13. Both in Rigveda and Bhagavad Gita, the theory of Divine creation is put in the mouth of God.
Bhagavad Gita is very specific about the creation of Varnas when it mentions that "Chaturvanas" are
created by the God. "I have created four varnas" declared Lord Krishna on the battle field of
Kurukshetra, on an open ground while exhorting Arjun to fight against the Kauravas. The Lord says,
"According to the three modes of material nature and the work associated with them, the four divisions
of human society are created by Me. And although I am the creator of this system, you should know that
I am yet the non-doer, being unchangeable."14 Actually if one go though the entire text of Chapter-4
and all Slokas preceding and succeeding the above Sloka No.13 of Gita, one would certainly feel that this
is a subterfuge interpolated intelligently and cleverly by some one eminent from priestly class as no
relevance is noticeable in preceding and succeeding Slokas with the Sloka No.13 in question. Thus it
seems that some clandestine efforts might have been made by someone to put such words in the mouth
of the Lord Almighty to create an impression that the Varna system is the creation of God 98 and not
man-made and give it a divine status in order to ensure that the same is never challenged by the victim
varna or caste and adherence to the same remains complete and unquestionable. Same may appear
true in the case of Rigveda's Verse (Sloka) No.12, Hymn No.90, known as "Purush Sukta" of 10th Mandal
which says that all Varnas are produced from different parts of the body of the God. The Almighty God,
in above Verse No.12 of the Rigveda said that the "Brahmin, Kshatriya , Vaishya and Shudra were
produced by Him respectively from His mouth, arms, thighs and the feet". The preceding and succeeding
slockas of Slock No.12 mentioned above do not bear any relevance with this slock No.12. So the
repugnancy of the said Verse No.12 of Rigved can easily be understood even by a man of ordinary
prudence and intelligence. Either it might be interpolation or it might be the conscious efforts of
someone to incorporate it at original stage as it stands and seen to-day. The divine theory of creation of
Varnas says that the Brahmins are born from His mouth, the Kshatriyas from His arms, the Vaishays from
His thighs and the Sudras are created from the feet of the Lord, the Purna-Purusha. He created Brahmins
with Gayatri Mantra (Metre), the Kshatriyas with Trishutubh, the Vaishyas with Jagati and the Sudras
without any metre. The first three Varnas are twice born (Dwij), the first birth being from the mother
and the second from the investiture with the sacred girdle. In the second birth Savitri is the mother and
the teacher is the father because he gives instruction in the Vedas. Therefore, the first three Varnas are
born twice while the Sudra is born only once. "It is popularly held that in the beginning, there were only
three Varnas and the fourth Varna of the Shudra is an outcome of the fight between Brahmins and
Kshatriyas for the Supremacy in the 99 Varna hierarchy."15 The Sudras are therefore also called
"Padaja." i.e. born from the feet and therefore the lowest ones. Such divinity ascribed to Varna System
and Caste System successfully survived through centuries and ages in India and drew strength from such
divine theory and lived on its sustenance. 5. Guild Theory:-16 As per Guild theory, specific occupation,
trade, business, calling, commerce indulged in by a group of people created a class or caste which
followed same means of livelihood which resulted in social bond knitting them together for all social and
economic common goal, aims and objectives. This is a system by which the resources, methods and
profits of each industry should be controlled by a council of its members. In India such guild used to be
formed of individuals of the same caste or varna which in a way supported Varna System and Caste
System, rather perpetuated the same providing all nourishment to the system with pride and glory. 6.
Religious Theory:-17 The Hindu religion, as mentioned above, through its priestly class, propagated the
divinity of the Varna and Caste System emphasising the same to be the creation of God and hence
unchangeable and life-long and leaving no scope for modification, amendment or change in the same
system. As the same is creation of God, man has no right to effect any change, whatsoever, in the Varna
or Caste System was the main thrust of religious theory. This theory was further supported and
strengthened by 100 the theory of "Karma" and "Rebirth" i.e. "Punarjanma." The Shudras are suffering
the sins of their previous birth was the justification offered by the scriptures and propagated by the
'dwij' varnas. 7. Evolution Theory:-18 This theory believes that the Caste System did not come into
existence all of a sudden. Number of factors played their parts which are as under:- (1) Hereditary
occupation. (2) The desire of Brahmins to keep themselves pure. (3) The lack of rigid unitary control of
the State. (4) The unwillingness of the rulers to enforce a uniform standard of law and custom and their
readiness to recognise the varying customs of different groups as valid. (5) Belief in re-incarnation and
the doctrine of Karma. (6) Ideas of exclusive family, ancestor worship and the sacramental meal. (7)
Clash of antagonistic cultures particularly of the Patriarchal and Matriarchal System. (8) Clash of races,
colour prejudices and conquest. (9) Deliberate economic and administrative policies followed by the
various conquerors particularly by the British. (10) Geographical isolation of the Indian Peninsula. (11)
Static nature of Hindu Society. (12) Foreign invasions. (13) Rural social structure. (14) Hindu traditional
mind-set of social exclusion making large section of society as untouchable and unapproachable.
http://www.cfalls.org/userfiles/1166/Classes/5213/Caste%20System%20in%20Ancient%20India.pdf

Caste System in Ancient India By Vickie Chao About 3,600 years ago, a group of cattle herders from
Central Asia settled into India. This group of people, called the Aryans, brought with them their beliefs,
customs, and writing system (Sanskrit). They introduced a rigid caste structure that divided people into
four classes. Under this setup, Brahmins or priests made up the highest caste. They held a tremendous
amount of power over everybody else. They were the only ones who could both study and teach the
holy texts, known as the Vedas. They were also the only ones who could perform sacrifices and other
religious rites. Because of their authority, people of other castes often gave them generous donations.
By giving Brahmins (also spelled as Brahmans) valuable goods, people of other castes believed that they
would be rewarded in their next life. Next to the Brahmin class was the Kshatriya (pronounced "shuh-
TREE-uh") class. It consisted of warriors and rulers. Kshatriyas' main duties were to govern and defend
the country. Though they could learn the Vedas as Brahmins did, they could not teach the holy texts. As
Kshatriyas were responsible for the national defense, they underwent extensive military training. They
were the experts in archery, swordsmanship, and hand-to-hand combat. The Aryans categorized farmers
and merchants as their society's third caste, called the Vaishya (pronounced "VYSH-yuh"). Vaishyas were
expected to tend cattle, to farm, or to trade. Like Kshatriyas, they could only learn, but not teach, the
Vedas. Beneath the Brahmin, the Kshatriya, and the Vaishya castes was the Shudra (also spelled as
Sudra) caste. It represented the majority of the populace. People in this caste did menial, labor-intensive
work. They took on the duties of servants, craftsmen, or laborers. Shudras received little informal
education. They were not allowed to learn the Vedas, so they could not participate in the initiation
ceremony that boys of the three upper castes were entitled to when they began learning the holy texts.
The ancient Indians believed that a person who had the initiation ceremony was "twice-born." The first
was, of course, the person's physical birth. The second was his spiritual birth. As Shudras could not learn
the Vedas, they would never experience a spiritual birth. Thus, they had only one birth. Though Shudras
were the lowest of the four classes, they were still better off than the so-called outcastes. The outcastes,
as the name suggests, were people who did not belong to any of the four castes. They did work that
nobody else wanted to do. They swept the streets. They collected garbage. They cleaned up toilets. And
they disposed of dead animals or humans. The outcastes could not live in cities or villages. They led a
lonely, humiliated life. When they ate, they could only take meals from broken dishes. When they
traveled, they needed to move off the path if someone from a higher caste was approaching. When they
entered a marketplace, they had to strike a piece of wood to announce their presence, so that other
people could avoid them. The outcastes were not allowed to drink from a public well. They were not
allowed to enter a temple. And they were not allowed to study. Given that they stirred fear and were
despised everywhere they went, nobody in the ancient Indian society wanted to see, hear, or touch
them. This group of people in India suffered the worst fate. They simply became known as the
untouchables! The Aryans' caste system came from local legends. When Brahma, the god of creation,
made humans, his mouth became the Brahmins, his arms the Kshatriyas, his legs the Vaishyas, and his
feet the Shudras. Tales aside, the caste system was a very important element in ancient India. It
followed a specific set of guidelines (called the Laws of Manu) that dictated every person's behavior. The
guidelines set rules from the type of jobs a person could hold to the type of foods a person could eat.
According to the Laws of Manu, each caste was represented by a color. White was for the Brahmins, red
for the Kshatriyas, yellow for the Vaishyas, and blue for the Shudras. Marrying someone within a
person's own caste was norm. Marrying someone outside of a person's caste was rare, but possible.
Children born from an inter-caste marriage needed to follow a different set of rules to determine what
caste they belonged to. The ancient Indians believed that each person had an eternal soul that could be
reborn in a new body after death. While that person could never move from one caste to another in this
life, he or she Name could be reborn to a different caste in the next life. If the person did a lot of good
deeds (such as giving Brahmins generous donations) in this life, he or she would have the chance of
being reborn to a higher caste in the next life. If the person did a lot of horrible things (such as
committing a crime) in this life, he or she would risk being reborn to a lower caste in the next life. The
caste system had been prevalent in India's society for thousands of years. It was deeply embedded in
the country's dominant religion, Hinduism. Though discriminations on the basis of a person's caste had
already been outlawed in the 1900s, they still exist today. Because of this, the caste system has
continued to be a sensitive issue in modern India. It is a topic better approached with extreme caution!
Caste System in Ancient India

http://www.historyteacher.net/GlobalStudies/Readings/reading-castesystem.pdf

The caste system In ancient India, society was organized so that each specialized job was performed by a
specific group, or caste. The interdependence of all of the various castes was recognized, and each one
was considered necessary to the society as a whole. In the earliest known mention of caste, perhaps
dating from about 1000 B.C.E., the metaphor (symbol) of the human body was used to describe Indian
society. This metaphor stresses the idea of hierarchy as well as that of interdependence. The brahman,
or priestly, caste represents society's head; the kshatriya, or warrior, caste are its arms; the vaishya
caste—traders and landowners—are the legs; and the sudra caste—the servants of the other three—are
the feet. These four castes—brahman, kshatriya, vaishya, and sudra—are the classical four divisions of
Hindu society. In practice, however, there have always been many subdivisions (J'atis) of these castes. 1.
THE FOUR VARNA: The word caste comes from the Portuguese word castas, meaning "pure." This
Portuguese word expresses one of the most central values of Indian society: the idea of ritual purity. In
India, however, the word varna, or "color," denotes the fourfold division of Indian society. The word
varna may have been used because each of the four castes was assigned a specific color as its emblem.
In Hindu religious texts, the dharma—the law, or duty—of each varna is described. It was thought that
this dharma was an inherited, or inborn, quality. Consequently, people thought that if intermarriages
took place, there would be much confusion as to the dharma of the next generation of children. As a
result of such concerns, marriage between different castes was strictly prohibited. The practice of
marrying only a person of "one's own kind" is called endogamy and is still a central rule in many Hindu
communities. The Brahmans. The brahman caste is assigned the highest status of the four varnas but
also must live by the strictest rules. In their very name, brahmans are identified with the supreme being,
and so are expected to uphold this high honor by their conduct. In addition, they must observe many
detailed rules concerning ritual purity in their personal lives. They must avoid contact with dirt, for
instance, and may not eat foods such as meat that are considered to be polluted. Because of the strict
rules that the brahmans observe, they cannot perform many of the tasks necessary to everyday life.
They cannot obtain their own food, for instance, or use violence to defend themselves. Thus, they must
depend on other castes to perform these essential services. This is one way in which the
interdependence of the castes is evident. Without the other castes, there could be no brahmans. In
terms of occupation, the first duty of a brahman is to study the Vedas, the ancient scriptures of India. A
young brahman boy begins this period of study after going through a special ceremony marking his
spiritual rebirth. Kshatriya and vaishya boys also go through this ceremony of "rebirth" at age 10 or 11.
After the ceremony, each boy is given a sacred thread to wear around his neck as a symbol of
membership in the "twice-born" castes. After ten or more years of study, a brahman may become a
priest of a temple, or he may instruct boys of the twice-born castes in Sanskrit and the Vedas. If there is
no employment available as a priest or teacher, a brahman may enter certain other occupations. He
must be careful, however, to observe all of the rules and rituals of his caste. The Kshatriyas. The
kshatriya caste includes soldiers, generals, and kings. Their traditional role is to defend the society from
invaders and robbers, and they are expected to be both brave and high-minded. The kshatriyas must
study the ancient Hindu scriptures under the guidance of a Brahman teacher and are expected to follow
many of the same rules of ritual purity that the brahman caste observes. The Vaishyas. The job
specialties of the vaishya caste are agriculture and cattle raising. The vaishyas also carry on trading
activities; for example, they bring farm products to market and lend money to keep various enterprises
going. Like the brahmans and the kshatriyas, the vaishyas are a twice-born caste. The Sudras. In ancient
law, the sudras were given only one occupation: to serve the members of the twice-born castes. As
servants to the other three castes, the sudras performed many of the tasks that involve "pollution," such
as agricultural labor, leather working, disposing of garbage, and laundering. In time, however, many
sudras became wealthy farmers or artisans in their own right. When a sudrajati, or subcaste, improved
its status in this way, it was also able to adopt many of the rituals and habits of the twice-born castes.
Menial tasks then became the dharma of the "out-casts" of society—the untouchables, or harijans. The
Untouchables, or Harijans. Inevitably, there were certain people who failed to live up to their caste
dharma or who violated the rules concerning marriage between castes. Such people and their children
were considered outcasts from Hindu society. They had to live apart from other castes and were given
the jobs that no one else wanted to perform. Because of their contact with things considered unclean or
polluted, the outcasts were believed to be deeply tainted. They came to be thought of as "untouchable"
because people believed that their touch—or even the sight of them—would compromise a brahman's
purity. The untouchables were not admitted into Hindu temples and instead formed religious sects of
their own. Over the centuries, they also organized into sub-castes much like those of orthodox Hindu
society. In the 20th century, Mahatma Gandhi made it one of his life's goals to bring the untouchables
back into Hindu society. He renamed them the harijans, or "children of God," and tried to convince
orthodox Hindus to admit them into their temples and their everyday lives. However, other leaders
doubted that upper-caste Hindus would ever treat the harijans as equals. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, a
distinguished scholar who had been born an "untouchable," was a leading spokesman for this view. He
used the term scheduled castes when referring to this group, for he believed that the term harijans was
demeaning. The scheduled castes, he said, should withdraw from Hinduism altogether and join another
religion, such as Buddhism, which does not recognize caste distinctions. After India became an
independent nation in 1947, its new constitution outlawed the practice of "untouchability." The
constitution also established affirmative action programs to ensure that the scheduled castes would
have access to higher education and better jobs. In contrast to similar legislation in the United States,
these clauses actually guarantee that a certain percentage of university and job openings will be
assigned to disadvantaged groups. Because of these programs, there has been a marked improvement
in the status of the scheduled castes. Yet discrimination continues, and the condition of the former
"untouchables" is still a major social issue today. 2. THE HIERARCHY OF JATIS, OR SUB-CASTES:: While
the term varna refers to the classic, or ideal, division of society, people use the word Jati when speaking
of the thousands of sub-castes that exist in practice. The jatis perform the many specialized jobs that are
considered essential to society—farming, metalworking, pottery making, carpentry, weaving,
laundering, marketing, and many others. Relations among these various castes are governed by
elaborate rules. Each one is very much aware of its status and duties in regard to- the others. The
members of each jati are believed to inherit the caste dharma necessary to carry out their role in
society. In practice, however, each person becomes aware of all the complicated rules regarding dharma
during childhood—usually by observing the behavior of family members. These rules concern not only
the caste specialty but also the many other services and courtesies that are owed to other castes. The
quality of ritual purity is the most important factor in determining the rank of a jati in society. If a jati is
to maintain or improve its status, its members must accept food and water only from people of their
own caste or a higher caste. (For this reason, brahman priests are often employed as cooks during
religious festivals.) A jati must also avoid contact with castes who are considered to be pollution-prone.
Mobility of Castes. In practice, there have always been more possibilities for upward (or downward)
movement within the caste system than the classic rules of varna would suggest. To achieve a higher
place in the social hierarchy, the members of a jati often take the following steps: enter an occupation
that involves less contact with pollution; follow stricter rules of purity in daily life; and learn Sanskrit, the
classic language of the holy scriptures. 3. THE CONTINUITY OF THE CASTE SYSTEM: Countless reformers
have attempted to abolish or reform the caste system. However, these reform movements have had
little effect. Today, the caste system continues to be the main form of government in villages
throughout India. In large part, its continuity depends on two central concepts: caste dharma and
karma. In Hindu society, caste dharma is considered to be a divine law. In the words of Mahatma
Gandhi, caste dharma is "the duty one has to perform" and "the law of one's being." Many Hindus
believe that this obligation tends to enhance the spiritual development of the individual. Because of it,
each person learns from an early age to overcome selfish desires and instead focus on group goals and
ideals. The concept of karma helps to explain differences in status that might otherwise be considered
unfair. Because one's caste membership is thought to be a result of actions in a previous life, a person
tends to accept this status rather than complain about it. By the same token, a successful performance
of caste duty will improve one's karma and perhaps lead to improved status in the next life. The caste
system also returns certain practical benefits to the individual. Being a member of a jati gives each
person a sense of identity and of belonging to a well-defined group within society. The members of a jati
have much in common. They share a job specialty and abide by the same rules concerning diet and
religion. Because of the rules of endogamy, each jati is also an extended family, for most members are
related by blood. Caste in India's Cities. In the modern cities of India, people daily come in contact with
hundreds of strangers in public transportation and in the workplace. In this context, the traditional caste
rules of the villages cannot be observed. But many city dwellers nevertheless retain a strong sense of
caste identity. Thus, one phenomenon of modern India is the device known as "compartmentalization."
During the day, a person may learn to be unconcerned with caste rules. But at home, and in the
company of other caste members, the ancient ceremonies and rules continue to be respected. Source:
India: Its Culture and People. Anne Ferguson Jensen. New York: Longman Publishing Group, 1991, pp.
31-36. Brahman A late hymn from the Rig-Veda, a classical Hindu poem: When the gods made a sacrifice
with the Man as their victim . . . . When they divided the Man, into how many parts did they divide him?
What was his mouth, what were his arms, what were his thighs and his feet called? The brahman was
his mouth, of his arms were made the warrior. His thighs became the vaishya, of his feet the sudra was
born. With Sacrifice the gods sacrificed the Sacrifice, these were the first of the sacred laws. These
mighty beings reached the sky, where are the eternal spirits, the gods.

https://www.contemporaryresearchindia.net/Pdf/September-2015/21.pdf

105 CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN INDIA (ISSN 2231-2137): VOL. 5: ISSUE: 3 THE HISTORY AND
STRUCTURE OF THE CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA P. Pratheesh, Asst. Professor, St. Michael’s College,
Cherthala Abstract: This paper as entitled-“The History and Structure of Caste Systemin India”, talks
about the caste system, as prevalent in Indian society, its features, different theories regarding its origin
and other issues related to it. But most importantly, it focusses on the characteristics of caste which are
still continuing today, its features which have changed partially and also which have undergone
complete changes. This paper also focusses on various Indian intellectual interrogations which talked
about caste as an evil meant to be destroyed and eliminated from our society. Introduction The Indian
Caste System is historically one of the main dimensions where people in Indian are socially
differentiated through class, religion, region, tribe, gender, and language.1 The Indian Caste System is
considered a closed system of stratification, which means that a person’s social status is obligated to
which caste they were born into. There are limits on interaction and behavior with people from another
social status. Although scholars continue to debate the precise origins of the caste system, there is
general agreement among historians and anthropologists that it has existed in India for as long as two
thousand years.2 The ancient Hindu scriptures, the Veda, describe a strict social hierarchy that bears
some resemblance to the modern Indian caste system.3 According to the Veda, the universe is
organized into a strict classification scheme and a set of hierarchical relationships that are reflected in
the organization of society.4 The relationship between the caste system and the structure of the
universe provided a deep religious justification for the stratification of society according to caste, and its
compartmentalization into sovereign communities with the power to govern their own affairs.5 The
caste stratification constitutes one of the most fundamental features of India’s social structure. In Hindu
society, caste divisions play a part in both actual social interactions and in the ideal scheme of values.
Members of different castes are expected to behave differently and to have different values and ideals.
These stratifications are sanctioned by the Hindu religion. Traditionally, the caste system of stratification
in India was legitimized through classical Hindu religious texts, especially as interpreted by Brahmans6.
The caste system was rationalized in ancient India on various grounds. One of them was the justification
in the Vedas7 . The caste system would not have found approval among the Vedic people unless there
was some reference to it in the Vedas. The Purushu Sukta in the 10th Mandala of the Rigveda describes
how the castes came into existence: from different parts of the Purusha, the Cosmic Soul, at the time of
a grand sacrifice performed by the gods (Jayarama V). As per it, the Brahmins came out of his mouth,
the Kshatriyas from his arms, the Vaiyshas from his thighs, and the Shudras from his feet. But the
historians accepted the occupation based theory of caste. According to this theory, the caste system
divides society into discrete groups that are traditionally associated with a certain profession and that
strongly prohibit marriage outside of the caste. These groups exist in a hierarchical relationship to one
another, and a person born into a caste remains within it unless he or she is expelled from it8 . By
tradition, moving from one caste to another was extremely difficult if not impossible; the caste identity
that one received at birth could not typically be altered by any means9 . The caste groups 106
CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN INDIA (ISSN 2231-2137): VOL. 5: ISSUE: 3 commonly known as
“untouchables” are at the very bottom of the caste system and have traditionally been subject to
discrimination and severe forms of oppression by the higher castes10. The relationships among the
castes, especially between higher castes and the untouchables, frequently take the form of physical
distance. The caste hierarchy is founded on the belief that the lower castes can pollute the higher
castes, and the fear that members of the higher castes who have contact with the lower castes will be
spiritually damaged11 . The meaning and origin of the word caste:- The word caste was first used by the
Portuguese to denote the social classification in India, as they thought that the system was meant to
preserve the purity of blood15. The word "Caste" owes its origins to the Spanish word 'Casta' which
means 'breed, race, strain or a complex of hereditary qualities.' The English word 'Caste' is an
adjustment of the original term 'Casta.' According to Henry Maine "Castes started as natural division of
occupational classes and eventually upon receiving the religious sanction became solidified into the
existing caste system. The caste system comes into being when it becomes an integral part of religious
dogma which divides the people into superior and inferior groups with different responsibilities,
functions and standards of living." Martindale and Monochest defined Caste as "an aggregate of persons
whose share of obligations and privileges are fixed by birth, sanctioned and supported by religion and
usage."According to Anderson and Parker "Caste is that extreme form of social class organisation in
which the position of individuals in the status hierarchy is determined by descent and birth." Origins and
History of Indian Caste System The origin of the Indian caste system has not definite and many theories
behind it. Some of them are religious, while others are biological. The religious theories explain that
according to the Rig Veda, the holy scripture of the Hindus, the primal man, Purush, destroyed himself
to create a human society and the different parts of his body created the four different varnas
(Purushasukta Mandala). The Brahmins were from his head, the Kshatriyas from his hands, the Vaishyas
from his thighs, and the Shudras from his feet. The Varna hierarchy is determined by the descending
order of the different organs from which the Varnas were created12. For example, Brahmans, who were
derived from the head of Purush, are considered the intelligent and most powerful varna because of
their wisdom and education and are a representation of the brain. In the same way, Kshatriyas,
considered the warrior caste, were created by arms, which represent strength. Another religious theory
claims that the Varnas were created from the body organs of Brahma, who is the creator of the world in
Hinduism. The biological theory claims that all existing things inherit three one of three categories of
qualities. Varna means different shades of texture or color and represents mental temper. There are
three Gunas: Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. Sattva is white, Rajas is red, and Tamas is black. These in
combination of various proportions constitute the group or class of people all over the world with
temperamental differences13 . Sattva qualities include characteristics related to wisdom, intelligence,
honesty, goodness, and other positive qualities. Rajas include qualities such as passion, pride, and valor.
Tamas are considered to acquire qualities that include dullness, stupidity, lack of creativity, and other
negative qualities14. People with varying amount of these inherent qualities end up adopting the
appropriate occupation. According to this theory, the Brahmans usually inherit the Sattva qualities. They
are serene and self-controlled and possess the quality of austerity. They are considered to have purity,
uprightness and forbearance. Brahmans also have the will to acquire knowledge, wisdom, and faith. The
Kshatriyas and Vaishyas inherit the Raja qualities, and the Shudras inherit the Tamas qualities. The type
of one’s actions, the quality of ego, the color of knowledge, the texture of one’s understanding, the
temper of fortitude, and the brilliance of one’s happiness defines one’s Varna. 107 CONTEMPORARY
RESEARCH IN INDIA (ISSN 2231-2137): VOL. 5: ISSUE: 3 Historically, it is believed that the caste system
began with the arrival of the Aryans in India around 1500 BC. The literary records of the IndoAryan
culture contain the earliest mention and a continuous history of the factors that make up the caste
system. The Aryans came from Asia Minor with fair skin that contrasted with the indigenous Dravedians
in India. When they arrived, their main contact was with the Dravidians. Unfortunately, the Aryans
completely disregarded their local cultures and began conquering regions all over north India. At the
same time, the local people were pushed south towards jungles of mountains in north India. The Aryans
possessed a particular principle of social ordering called Varna Vyavastha, which was based on the four
hierarchical divisions of function in society. They were placed in order of decreasing importance:
religious and educational functions, military and political functions, economic functions, and menial
functions. The Aryans organized themselves in three groups. The first group, Rajayana (later changed to
Kshatriya) were the warriors, which were followed by the Brahmans, who were the priests. These two
groups constantly struggled for political leadership among the Aryans. Eventually, the Brahmans became
the leaders of the Aryan society. The final group consisted of the farmers and craftmen, and were called
the Vaishyas (Daniel). The Aryan conquerors subdued the locals and made them servants. In this
process, the Vaishyas became the landlords and businessmen of the society and the locals became the
peasants and craftsmen (Daniel). The origins of caste system The origin of the Indian caste system has
many theories behind it. Some of them are religious, while others are biological. Though there are
different theories, opinions and beliefs about caste, the exact origin of caste cannot be traced.
IndoAryans reached India about 1500 B.C. The Caste System took its birth after the arrival of Aryans in
India. But it can be decidedly said that the Varnashram Vyavastha did exist before Caste System.
According to Dr. Majumdar (Racial Origin Theory), the caste system took its birth after the arrival Aryans
in India. In order to maintain their separate existence, the Indo-Aryans used for certain groups and
orders of people the favourite word 'Varna,' 'Colour.' Thus mainly two prominent groups Aryan and Dasa
varna became known not by their occupations or other characteristics but by their colour. Rigvedic
literature stresses very significantly the difference between the Aryan and Dasa, not only in their colour
but also in their speech, religious practices and features16 . According to Political Origine Theory, Caste
System is a cleaver device invented by the Brahmins in order to place themselves on the highest ladder
of social hierarchy. 'Caste' is a Brahminic child of IndoAryan culture cradled in the land of the Ganges
and thence transferred to other parts of India, says Dr. G.S. Ghurye. The Brahmin post Vedic literature
mentions certain mixed classes i.e. "Sankara Jat" and also group of outcaste classes 'Antyavasin.' The
first three classes are called 'Dwija' because they have to go through the initiation ceremony which is
symbolic of re-birth. The Shudra was called 'Ekjati' (one born). The word "Jati" hence means the
numerous subdivisions of a "Varna." The God created Shudra to be the slave of all. The Occupational
Theory states that caste is the outcome of occupational division and specialisation. The persons or
castes engaged in better and respectable profession used to consider them superior and the persons or
castes engaged in manual and dirty profession were treated as inferior in the social setup of the day
which is continuing till date world over but in India touchme-not-ism entered into the social setup
whereas the same seems to be absent elsewhere in the world17. Nesfield says that, "function and
function alone is responsible for the origin of Caste Structure in India." The traditional theory is based on
Divine origin. It says that Varna and Caste are not manmade but the same are created by God and such
references are available in Hindu scriptures like Rigveda, in its 10th Mandala, Hymn No.90, Verse 108
CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN INDIA (ISSN 2231-2137): VOL. 5: ISSUE: 3 No.12 and in Bhagavad Gita,13
Chapter No.4, Slok No.13. Both in Rigveda and Bhagavad Gita, the theory of Divine creation is put in the
mouth of God. Bhagavad Gita is very specific about the creation of Varnas when it mentions that
"Chaturvanas" are created by the God. "I have created four varnas" declared Lord Krishna on the battle
field of Kurukshetra, on an open ground while exhorting Arjun to fight against the Kauravas. As per Guild
theory, specific occupation, trade, business, calling, commerce indulged in by a group of people created
a class or caste which followed same means of livelihood which resulted in social bond knitting them
together for all social and economic common goal, aims and objectives. The Evolutionary theory
believes that the Caste System did not come into existence all of a sudden. Number of factors played
their parts which are as under:- 1. Hereditary occupation. 2. The desire of Brahmins to keep themselves
pure. 3. The lack of rigid unitary control of the State. 4. The unwillingness of the rulers to enforce a
uniform standard of law and custom and their readiness to recognise the varying customs of different
groups as valid. 5. Belief in re-incarnation and the doctrine of Karma. 6. Ideas of exclusive family,
ancestor worship and the sacramental meal. 7. Clash of antagonistic cultures particularly of the
Patriarchal and Matriarchal System. 8. Clash of races, colour prejudices and conquest. 9. Deliberate
economic and administrative policies followed by the various conquerors particularly by the British. 10.
Geographical isolation of the Indian Peninsula. 11. Static nature of Hindu Society. 12. Foreign invasions.
13. Rural social structure. 14. Hindu traditional mind-set of social exclusion making large section of
society as untouchable and unapproachable. Features of Caste System 1. Segmental division of society:-
Primarily Hindu Society is divided into four Varnas and many castes and sub-castes and thus totally
stands not only segmented but fragmented vehemently based on the idea of high and low, superior and
inferior, pure and impure, touchable and untouchable. There are two main characteristics on which the
caste system is based:- (i) Hereditary - All such caste based distinctions or divisions are hereditary and
irrevocable and unchangeable. (ii) By Birth - The caste status is not an achieved status but an ascribed
one for which an individual does not have to put any effort. 2. Social and religious hierarchy: The
Shudras are socially as well as religiously neglected and are not treated as human-beings but are treated
even worse than dogs and cats i.e. even less than sub-human beings. Servitude is proclaimed to be a
permanent condition of Shudras. According to Kautilya, "a Shudra, if he violates a Brahmin female, shall
be burnt to death. If he intentionally reviles or criminally assaults a Brahmin, the offending limbs shall be
cut." 3. Restrictions on feeding and social interaction The various restrictions were put on Shudras and
Ati-Shudras in the matters of residence, marriage, feeding etc. and the social theory of social exclusion
worked as its peak in Indian Social context. Here theory of pollution also played its detrimental role. In
Kerala a Nair may approach a Namboodiri Brahmin but must not touch him while a Tiyan must keep a
distance of 36 steps from the Brahmin and a Pulayan may not approach him within 96 (ninety six)
paces18. A Pulayan must not come near any of the Hindu Castes. 4. Endogamy: A person born in a caste
remains in it for life and dies in it. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, the architect of Indian Constitution had declared
that though he was born Hindu, he would not die as Hindu. He changed his religion from Hindu to
Buddhism at the fag end of his life but the fact remained that though he 109 CONTEMPORARY
RESEARCH IN INDIA (ISSN 2231-2137): VOL. 5: ISSUE: 3 changed his religion, he could not change his
caste which remained a 'Mahar' only. Endogamy is, closely linked with Caste System as it does not
permit marriage out of the same caste or tribe and thus endogamy is essence of caste system19 . 5. Lack
of unrestricted choice of occupation Everyone had to do his own caste occupation only and thus there
was total absence of upward social mobility in such a social structure. The Shudras had to stick to only
the menial jobs prescribed for them and they cannot even think of changing the same even though they
might have interest and inclination for other occupation. 6. Civil and religious disabilities Under the
Marathas and the Peshwas, the Mahar and Mangs were not allowed within the gates of Poona between
03-00 P.M. to 09-00 A.M. because before nine and after three bodies cast too long shadow which falling
on members of the higher castes defiles them20. Sawai Madhavrao Peshwa's time, Mahars were treated
as Ati-Shudra - beyond Shudra. Conclusion Untouchability was born out of caste system which is a blot
on the Hindu society. Individual Caste solidarity was there but the national solidarity was retarded due
to the caste system. Dirks suggested that, it was under the British that “caste” became a single term
capable of expressing, organizing, and above all “systematizing” India’s diverse forms of social identity,
community, and organization. In short, colonialism made caste what it is today21. Gandhi talked about
caste as an ugly growth of a body or like weeds of a crop for which one will not destroy whole body for
the sake of it. Therefore, according to him, only untouchability has to be removed and then caste system
will be purified because for him, it was the duty aspect rather than ranking aspect which provided a
functional legitimacy to the Varna system. There are contrasting views and debates on whether “caste”
in the strict sense of the term does exist in contemporary India, or it has withered away. There are
various points of views on the issue. There are two views regarding the present and future of the caste
system. One view is that caste system is fast changing and is weakening though it is not being
disintegrated or abolished. To this school of thought, belonged early scholars of the 1950s, 60s and 70s
like D.N Majumdar, Gardner Murphy, Pauline Kolenda and Max Weber and scholars of 1980s and 1990s
like R.K Mukherjee, M.N Srinivas among others. The other view is that caste system is not transforming
itself fast and the changes are gradual. To this school belonged scholars like G.S. Ghurye, I.P Desai, K.M
Kapadia, Louis Dumont, Andre Beteille, Yogendra Singh and others. The Indian caste system has played a
significant role in shaping the occupations and roles as well as values of Indian society. Religion has been
the constant push towards this stratification system for centuries, beginning with the Aryans and
continuing down a long road of unfortunate discrimination, segregation, violence, and inequality.
Hinduism was the backbone of the puritypollution complex, and it was the religion that influenced the
daily lives and beliefs of the Indian people. Even after sixty-eight years of independence, Indians
continue to be in the grip of caste consciousness. End Notes 1. Deshpande, Manali S., HISTORY OF THE
INDIAN CASTE SYSTEM AND ITS IMPACT ON INDIA TODAY .p14. 2. Oliver Mendelsohn & Marika Vicziany,
THE UNTOUCHABLES. p 48-49 3. Brian K. Smith, CLASSIFYING THE UNIVERSE: THE ANCIENT INDIAN
VARNA SYSTEM AND THE ORIGINS OF CASTE. P 46 4. SMITH, supra note 13, at 49. 5. Id. 110
CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN INDIA (ISSN 2231-2137): VOL. 5: ISSUE: 3 6. Deshpande, Manali S., op.cit
7. Ibid. 8. Marc Galanter, COMPETING EQUALITIES: LAW AND THE BACKWARD CLASSES IN INDIA.p6 9. Id
10. Oliver Mendelsohn & Marika Vicziany, p20 11. Marc Galanter, p14 12. Deshpande, Manali S., p18 13.
Lahiri, R. K. "CASTE SYSTEM IN HINDUISM”. p15 14. Daniel, Aharon. "CASTE SYSTEM IN MODERN INDIA".
p5 15. Swapnil, Singh., THE CASTE SYSTEM: CONTINUITIES AND CHANGES, p2 16. Ghurye G.S., CASTE
AND RACE IN INDIA, p10 17. Ibid 18. Ghurye, G.S. CASTE, CLASS AND OCCUPATION. p1 19. Westermarck,
E., A HISTORY OF HUMAN MARRIAGE, p59 20. Ketkar, S.V., THE HISTORY OF CASTES IN INDIA. p12 21.
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