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A

SEMINAR REPORT

ON
ALTERNATE FUELS
Submitted in Partial fulfillment of Bachelor’s Degree in Technology
of the Rajasthan Technical University,
Kota.

[Session: 2009-10]

Submitted by:
PARTHASARTHI MAHARANA
ME06038
FINAL YEAR
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Submitted To:

Mr. D.N. NARESH Mr. PRAVEEN MISHRA


Head of Department Coordinator,
Mechanical Engineering Mechanical Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING


JAIPUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE
KUKAS, JAIPUR.

ABSTRACT

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Alternative fuel, also known as non-conventional fuels, is any material or substance,
other than petroleum (oil), which is consumed to provide energy to power an engine.
Some alternative fuels are biodiesel, ethanol, butanol, chemically stored electricity
(batteries and fuel cells), hydrogen, methane, natural gas, wood, and vegetable oil. The
need for the development of alternative fuel sources has been growing, due to concerns
that the production of oil will no longer supply the demand.

In a battery or fuel cell powered vehicle, the "fuel" is the set of chemicals which is
oxidized and reduced to provide the electricity. In some circumstances, however,
electricity may be provided directly to a mobile electric engine, such as an electrified
trolley or train, or a magnetically levitated train. In such cases, electricity itself may be
treated as an alternative "fuel," since it replaces fuel energy used in transportation.
Electricity will be treated as a "fuel" in this article.

PREFACE

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An Engineering student gains his theoretical knowledge only through the books. But theoretical
knowledge attained is not sufficient for absolute mastery in any field. Theory given in our books
is of little use if we cannot implement it practically. It has been experienced that theoretical
knowledge is volatile in nature; however practical knowledge makes solid foundation in our
mind.

Succeeding chapters give detailed information about the organization and its working and my
learning.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is a matter of great pleasure & privilege for me to present this report on Alternate Fuels. I with
full pleasure converge my heartiest thanks to Mr. D.N NARESH, Head Department of
Mechanical Engineering, JAIPUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE KUKAS, JAIPUR.

I would also like to thank all the teachers of college for providing me with the entire knowledge
database that I needed for this report.

PARTHASARTHI MAHARANA

VIII SEM

FINAL YEAR

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CERTIFICATE
This is to certified that the seminar report entitled “ALTERNATE FUELS” is submitted by
Parthasarthi Maharana student of final year B.Tech (Mechanical engineering), JAIPUR
ENGINEERING COLLEGE , KUKUS, JAIPUR was completed under the guidance of Mr.
D N Naresh and his seminar report is found satisfactory and I found them sincere towards their
work.

Mr.DN Naresh Mr.Praveen Mishra

Head Dept.of Mechanical engg. Cordinator

Dept. of Mechanical engg,

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CONTENTS

S.NO TOPICS PAGE


NO.
1 INTRODUCTION 7
2 ALTERNATE FUEL TYPES 8-17
3 ETHANOL FUEL 18-22
4 ALTERNATE FUEL VEHICLE 23-26
5 BENEFITS OF ALTERNATE FUEL 27
6 CONCLUSION 28
7 REFERENCES 29

1. INTRODUCTION

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Alternative fuels, also known as non-conventional or advanced fuels, are any materials or
substances that can be used as fuels, other than conventional fuels. Conventional fuels include:
fossil fuels (petroleum (oil), coal, propane, and natural gas), and nuclear materials such as
uranium. Some well known alternative fuels include biodiesel, bioalcohol (methanol, ethanol,
butanol), chemically stored electricity (batteries and fuel cells), hydrogen, non-fossil methane,
non-fossil natural gas, vegetable oil and other biomass sources. The main purpose of fuel is to
store energy , which should be in a stable form and can be easily transported to the place of
production . Almost all fuels are chemical fuels. The major environmental concern, according to
an Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC] report, is that "Most of the observed
increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is in the ground under
earth.Biofuels are also considered as renewable source . Although renewable energy is used
mostly to generate electricity, it is often assumed that some form of renewable energy or at least
it is used to create alternative fuels.Biomass in the energy production industry is living and
recently dead biological material which can be used as fuel or for industrial production.Methanol
and Ethanol fuel are typically primary sources of energy; however, they are not convenient fuels
for storing and transporting energy. These alcohols can not be used in "internal combustion
engine as alternative fuels"Hydrogen as a fuel has been suggested to have the capability to create
a hydrogen economy.ydrogLiquid nitrogen is another type of emissionless fuel.The air engine is
an emission-free piston engine using compressed air as fuel. Unlike hydrogen, compressed air is
about one-tenth as expensive as fossil oil, making it an economically attractive alternative
fuel.Compressed natural gas (CNG) is a cleaner burning alternative to conventional petroleum
automobile fuels. The energy efficiency is generally equal to that of gasoline engines, but lower
compared with modern diesel engines. CNG vehicles require a greater amount of space for fuel
storage than conventional gasoline power vehicles because CNG takes up more space for each
GGE (Gallon of Gas Equivalent). Almost any existing gasoline car can be turned into a bi-fuel
(gasoline/CNG) car. However, natural gas is a finite resource like all fossil fuels, and production
is expected to peak gas soon after .

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2. Alternative Fuel Types

• Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG, commonly known as propane)


• Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
• Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
• Methanol (M85)
• Ethanol (E85)
• Biodiesel (B20)
• Electricity
• Hydrogen

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Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

Fuel Source

Liquefied petroleum gas, as the name suggests, is partly a byproduct of petroleum refining; in
California the state's oil refineries are the main source, but nationwide well under half of LPG
comes from petroleum refining, and the rest from natural gas processing. It consists of
hydrocarbons that are vapors, rather than liquids, at normal temperatures and pressures, but
which turn liquid at moderate pressures; its main constituent is propane, and it is sometimes
referred to by that name.

Availability

Since everything from barbecue grills to portable heaters runs on LPG, and since it is used for
home heating in rural areas where natural gas pipelines don't run, there is an extensive
distribution network nationwide, and has been for many years.

Advantages

Because it's so widely available, LPG is the least "alternative" of alternative fuels if "alternative"
equates to inconvenience. In order to liquefy the fuel, it is stored in sturdy tanks at about 20
times atmospheric pressure; since these are much tougher than typical sheet-metal or plastic
gasoline tanks, and since they have a built-in shutoff valve to seal the tank if the fuel lines start
leaking, LPG is safer than gasoline.It is also somewhat cheaper than gasoline in most places at
most times Because LPG enters the engine as a vapor, it doesn't wash oil off cylinder walls or
dilute the oil when the engine is cold, and it also doesn't put carbon particles and sulfuric acid
into the oil. Thus an engine that runs on propane can expect a longer service life and reduced
maintenance costs. Its high octane rating (around 105) means that power output and/or fuel
efficiency can be increased, without causing detonation ("knocking"), in a vehicle that isn't
required to run on gasoline as well.

Disadvantages

LPG is, again, in some ways the least "alternative" of alternative fuels; because its source is
partly petroleum, it does less to help relieve the petroleum dependency problem than some other
alternative fuels, and given the dominance of the petroleum source in California it is not even
considered an alternative fuel for some state incentive programs Its somewhat lower energy
content compared to gasoline means you need a slightly bigger tank to get the same driving
range; the tank will also be heavier because it has to be strong enough to withstand the LPG
storage pressure. Mostly because of the special fuel tank, a vehicle that runs on LPG will
typically be somewhat more expensive (around $1000-2000) than an equivalent gasoline-

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powered vehicle. Finally, the refueling procedure on an older-style tank involves the release of
some raw fuel vapors into the air, though these are much less reactive than gasoline vapors.

2.2 Compressed natural gas

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is a fossil fuel substitute for gasoline (petrol), diesel, or
propane fuel. Although its combustion does produce greenhouse gases, it is a more
environmentally clean alternative to those fuels, and it is much safer than other fuels in the event
of a spill.CNG is made by compressing natural gas, to less than 1% of its volume at standard
atmospheric pressure. It is stored and distributed in hard containers, at a normal pressure of 200–
248 bar , usually in cylindrical or spherical shapes.CNG is used in traditional gasoline internal
combustion engine cars that have been converted into bi-fuel vehicles . Natural gas vehicles are
increasingly used in Europe and South America due to rising gasoline prices.In response to high
fuel prices and environmental concerns, CNG is starting to be used also in tuk-tuks and pickup
trucks, transit and school buses, and trains.CNG's volumetric energy density is estimated to be
42% of LNG's , and 25% of diesel's.

Advantage

Due to the absence of any lead or benzene content in CNG, the lead fouling of spark plugs is
eliminated. CNG-powered vehicles have lower maintenance costs when compared with other
fuel-powered vehicles. CNG fuel systems are sealed, which prevents any spill or evaporation
losses. Increased life of oils is another advantage. Other practical advantage observed is the
increased life of lubricating oils, as CNG does not contaminate and dilute the crankcase oil. CNG
mixes easily and evenly in air being a gaseous fuel. CNG is less likely to auto-ignite on hot
surfaces, since it has a high auto-ignition temperature (540 °C) and a narrow range (5%-15%) of
inflammability.

CNG produces significantly lesser emissions of pollutants like carbon dioxide (CO2),
hydrocarbons(UHC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx) and
particulate matter (PM), as compared to petrol . Due to lower carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides
emissions, switching to CNG can help mitigate greenhouse gas emissions.[12] The ability of CNG
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions over the entire fuel lifecycle will depend on the source of the
natural gas and the fuel it is replacing.

Drawbacks
Compressed natural gas vehicles require a greater amount of space for fuel
storage than conventional gasoline power vehicles. Since it is a compressed
gas, rather than a liquid like gasoline, CNG takes up more space for each
gasoline gallon equivalent (GGE). Therefore, the tanks used to store the CNG
usually take up additional space in the trunk of a car or bed of a pickup truck

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which runs on CNG. This problem is solved in factory-built CNG vehicles that
install the tanks under the body of the vehicle, thanks to a more rational
disposition of components, leaving the trunk free . CNG-powered vehicles are
considered to be safer than gasoline-powered vehicles.

2.3 Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

Fuel Source

Liquefied natural gas for vehicles comes from the same sources as compressed natural gas
(CNG). Unlike liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), which is changed from a vapor to a liquid at room
temperature by application of pressure, LNG has to be cooled to very low temperatures in order
to cause it to liquefy; this makes it hard to transport via tanker, and it is usually liquefied at the
dispensing station.

Availability

As with CNG, LNG benefits from decades of infrastructure development because of heavy
domestic, industrial, and utility use of natural gas.

Advantages

LNG has all the emissions advantages as CNG. In addition, the liquefaction process amounts to a
distillation, so the fuel is essentially pure methane, which prevents variations in fuel quality that
I'm told can occur for CNG . Also, LNG is a somewhat less bulky and heavy way to store natural
gas than as CNG in high-pressure tanks.

Disadvantages

Though LNG tanks are less bulky and heavy than CNG tanks, they are still more so than tanks
for liquid fuels like gasoline, diesel, or alcohols. They are also more complex and expensive
because they have to insulate the fuel very well in order to prevent it from warming up and
boiling off too fast. Even with modern, rocket-science insulation materials and techniques, a
LNG tank will begin venting fuel if left to sit for several days, so the fuel is best used in high-
duty-cycle applications like delivery trucks.

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2.4 Methanol (M85)

Fuel Source

Methanol is typically made from natural gas; though it is possible to produce it by fermenting
biomass , this is not economically competitive yet. Because it is easier to transport natural gas to
a distant market by converting it to methanol, which is a liquid at ordinary temperatures and
pressures, than by chilling and liquefying it or by building a long pipeline, some petroleum-
exporting countries are looking at exporting their "waste" natural gas by converting it to
methanol; however, most of the natural gas that goes into methanol in the United States is still
domestically produced. Most fuel methanol is sold as a blend of 85% methanol with 15%
unleaded premium gasoline, whence "M85". In the not-too-distant future, "neat" (100%)
methanol may be the preferred means of storing hydrogen for fuel-cell electric vehicles, but this
technology is still in the R&D stage.

Availability

There have been efforts to introduce M85 into various fuel markets. The methanol industry's
efforts to enter the transportation fuels market recently have been largely focused on a derivative
compound called methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), an additive used in oxygenated gasoline,
though concerns about water table contamination have caused this to lose favor.

Advantages

Alcohol fuels like M85 are perhaps the most "transparent" alternative fuels to the user.The fuel
system of a car or truck only needs to be slightly changed in order for it to run on M85, and
recently automakers have been offering M85 vehicles at no extra cost over their gasoline
counterparts, though at present automakers seem to be more interested in ethanol .Modern M85
vehicles are flex-fuel vehicles, which means that any mixture of M85 and gasoline in the fuel
tank can be used by the engine; a fuel-composition sensor tells the engine computer what
percentage of methanol is in the fuel, and it adjusts the injectors and ignition accordingly. Thus
an M85 vehicle is a gasoline vehicle if M85 is not available, but you can top it off with M85
whenever you get back into an area where it can be found, and you don't have to carry two
separate fuel systems to do this.

Disadvantages

Methanol is more corrosive than gasoline; this is why an automaker needs to change some of the
materials in the fuel-handling systems of both the vehicle and the refueling station to materials
that can withstand attack by the fuel. Special oil additives are necessary in order to protect the
engine. Also, because the mixture of air to fuel is much richer than gasoline , there is more liquid
fuel available to wash oil off of cylinder walls during a cold start. Some early methanol users
experienced durability problems, but development work has been making steady progress.

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2.5 Ethanol (E85)

Fuel Source

Ethanol, or grain alcohol, is produced by fermenting biomass, commonly corn . It is thus


inherently a renewable resource, and contributes nothing in itself to greenhouse-gas loading of
the atmosphere . As an alternative motor vehicle fuel, it is usually blended in a mixture of 85%
ethanol, 15% unleaded gasoline, whence E85. It is also used in up to 10% blends with gasoline to
oxygenate the gasoline, and this mixture can be used by most modern gasoline vehicles.

Availability

E85 is, in many ways, like M85, the other alcohol fuel made with methanol instead of ethanol
blended with 15% gasoline. There is no national distribution network on the scale of those for
gasoline, diesel, and natural gas.

Advantages

Ethanol,is a renewable resource that contributes nothing in itself to global warming concerns.
Like methanol, it can be blended with any amount of gasoline in the tank of a flex-fuel vehicle,
which is what automakers are selling these days. In fact, starting with the 1999 model year, some
automakers are making every one of certain vehicle models capable of using E85 in any mixture
with gasoline, at no extra charge. Thus buyers will not have to do anything extra at all to have a
vehicle capable of using an alternative fuel, though they will still have to find an E85 fueling
station to take advantage of that capability.

Disadvantages

The main disadvantage of E85 is the price of the fuel, even with the available subsidies.
However, research is under way to enable the fermentation of lower-grade feedstocks ,which
should help a lot. Ethanol is somewhat corrosive, though less so than methanol, and concerns
about vapor lock, cold starts, and flame visibility like those for methanol have led to the same
standard blend of 85% alcohol with 15% gasoline.

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2.6 Biodiesel

Biodiesel is the most common biofuel in Europe. It is produced from oils or fats using
transesterification and is a liquid similar in composition to fossil/mineral diesel. Its chemical
name is fatty acid methyl ester. Oils are mixed with sodium hydroxide and methanol (or ethanol)
and the chemical reaction produces biodiesel and glycerol. One part glycerol is produced for
every 10 parts biodiesel. Feedstocks for biodiesel include animal fats, vegetable oils, soy
rapeseed, jatropha, mahua, mustard, flax, sunflower, palm oil, hemp, field pennycress, pongamia
pinnata and algae. Pure biodiesel (B100) is by far the lowest emission diesel fuel. Although
liquefied petroleum gas and hydrogen have cleaner combustion, they are used to fuel much less
efficient petrol engines and are not as widely available.

Biodiesel can be used in any diesel engine when mixed with mineral diesel. The majority of
vehicle manufacturers limit their recommendations to 15% biodiesel blended with mineral diesel.
In some countries manufacturers cover their diesel engines under warranty for B100 use,
although Volkswagen of Germany, for example, asks drivers to check by telephone with the VW
environmental services department before switching to B100. B100 may become more viscous at
lower temperatures, depending on the feedstock used, requiring vehicles to have fuel line heaters.
. Electronically controlled 'common rail' and 'pump duse' type systems from the late 1990s
onwards may only use biodiesel blended with conventional diesel fuel. These engines have finely
metered and atomized multi-stage injection systems are very sensitive to the viscosity of the fuel.
Many current generation diesel engines are made so that they can run on B100 without altering
the engine itself, although this depends on the fuel rail design. NExBTL is suitable for all diesel
engines in the world since it overperforms DIN EN 590 standards.

Since biodiesel is an effective solvent and cleans residues deposited by mineral diesel, engine
filters may need to be replaced more often, as the biofuel dissolves old deposits in the fuel tank
and pipes. It also effectively cleans the engine combustion chamber of carbon deposits, helping
to maintain efficiency. In many European countries, a 5% biodiesel blend is widely used and is
available at thousands of gas stations. Biodiesel is also an oxygenated fuel, meaning that it
contains a reduced amount of carbon and higher hydrogen and oxygen content than fossil diesel.
This improves the combustion of fossil diesel and reduces the particulate emissions from un-
burnt carbon.

Biodiesel is safe to handle and transport because it is as biodegradable as sugar, 10 times less
toxic than table salt, and has a high flashpoint of about 300 F (148 C) compared to petroleum
diesel fuel, which has a flash point of 125 F (52 C).

In the USA, more than 80% of commercial trucks and city buses run on diesel. The emerging US
biodiesel market is estimated to have grown 200% from 2004 to 2005. "By the end of 2006
biodiesel production was estimated to increase fourfold to more than 1 billion gallons".

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2.7 Electricity

Fuel Source

Electricity can be made by many means, from the burning of high-sulfur coal to pollution-free
photovoltaic cells . Electric vehicles are generally divided into battery and hybrid classes,
depending on whether the electricity is generated off-board and stored in a battery or generated
by a small on-board powerplant. Hybrid electric vehicles can be designed to run on any fuel,
including gasoline or diesel as well as alternative fuels, and can best be thought of as highly-
efficient gasoline, diesel, or alternative-fueled vehicles.

Availability

Electricity is the most readily available form of energy in the United States; the network of
power plants and transmission lines reaches even where natural-gas pipelines don't. Conventional
cars converted to run on electricity usually are built to plug into ordinary 110-volt wall sockets
and/or 220-volt appliance outlets, but modern production electric vehicles are mostly being built
with specialized connectors that can speed up the "refueling" process and increase safety.

Advantages

Electric vehicles have the potential to be by far the cleanest means of transportation, and even in
the near term it takes a very advanced natural-gas-powered vehicle like the Honda Civic GX to
give them a run for their money in terms of low pollution. The reason is twofold. First, electric
generators and motors are very efficient; even accounting for losses in producing electricity from
some fuel, transmitting it over power lines, recharging a battery with it, and feeding it out of the
battery to the motor, you still can go a lot farther by burning a given amount of fuel to generate
electricity for an electric car than by using it directly in an internal combustion engine.
Moreover, the same electric motor that expends energy to speed a vehicle up can be run as a
generator to absorb energy and slow the vehicle down; this is called regenerative braking, and it
allows energy to be recovered and put back into the battery that, in a conventional vehicle,
simply gets wasted as heat in the brakes. Thus, to go a given distance, you will burn a lot less
fuel and generate a lot less pollution if you use it to generate electricity for an electric vehicle
than if you use it in a conventional internal-combustion powertrain.

Second, electric generation is generally done in the cleanest possible manner for a given fuel,
and power utilities keep their generators in top condition as a matter of course. It is true that
charging an electric vehicle from the power mix in some parts of the country results in replacing
gasoline in the car with coal in a powerplant, which generally burns dirtier, as the power source;
however, modern coal-burning powerplants are a lot cleaner than they used to be, and accounting
for the efficiency with which the energy is used, you still come out ahead in almost all pollutants.

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Disadvantages

The biggest real disadvantage of electric vehicles, at present, is their higher price; even today,
though, if you need a vehicle to do a lot of stop-and-go driving and idling, which wastes a lot of
fuel and is very hard on an internal combustion engine, you can save enough in fuel and repairs
to make an electric vehicle pay for itself even without the substantial tax credits and other
subsidies that are available. This kind of driving is typical of city delivery vans, and, come to
think of it, of a lot of urban commuting.

The biggest perceived disadvantage of electric vehicles is their range. Modern freeway-capable
electric vehicles have ranges between recharges of perhaps 60 to 120 miles, which won't get you
very far down the interstate.

still concerned about range between recharges, advanced batteries like the nickel metal-hydride
ones in my digital camera have already been put in modern electric vehicles like the Honda EV
Plus and the GM EV1, and even more advanced ones like the lithium-ion pack in my portable
computer are being developed; both of these will extend driving ranges compared to the
inexpensive but low-capacity lead-acid battery. Also, high-powered quick chargers that can
"refuel" an electric vehicle's battery pack in minutes rather than hours have been tested.

2.8 Hydrogen

Fuel Source

Hydrogen does not occur free in nature; it can be made by "re-forming" natural gas or another
fossil fuel, or by using electricity to split ("electrolyze") water into its components of oxygen and
hydrogen. In this sense, hydrogen is like electricity: the energy to generate it can be obtained
from sources ranging from the burning of high-sulfur coal to pollution-free photovoltaic cells .

Availability

There is not currently a bulk hydrogen distribution infrastructure on anything like the scale of
that for fossil fuels, though studies have been undertaken of the possibility of sending it through
the existing natural-gas pipeline network . Because hydrogen can be made from natural gas by
re-forming or from water by electrolysis, and natural gas, electricity, and water are readily
available, it might be simpler to make the hydrogen at the point of sale, rather than ship it there.

Advantages

Hydrogen has been called the "most alternative" of the alternative fuels: if it is made by
electrolysis of water using electricity from a nonpolluting source like wind or solar power, then
no pollutants of any kind are generated by burning it in an internal combustion engine except for
trace amounts of nitrogen oxides, and if it is used in a fuel cell then even these disappear.

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Furthermore, no greenhouse gases are generated because there's no carbon in the fuel. All that
comes out the vehicle's exhaust is drinkable water! Using hydrogen as the "battery" to store
energy from a nonpolluting, renewable source would result in a truly unlimited supply of clean
fuel. The advantage of using hydrogen to store energy rather than a battery pack is that a
hydrogen tank can be refilled in minutes rather than recharged in hours, and it takes less space
and weight to store enough hydrogen to drive a given distance on a single refueling than it does
to carry enough battery capacity to go the same distance on a single recharging

Disadvantages

Hydrogen is currently very expensive, not because it is rare but because it's difficult to generate,
handle, and store, requiring bulky and heavy tanks like those for compressed natural gas (CNG)
or complex insulating bottles if stored as a cryogenic (super-cold) liquid like liquefied natural
gas (LNG). It can also be stored at moderate temperatures and pressures in a tank containing a
metal-hydride absorber or carbon adsorber, though these are currently very expensive. It is
possible to store a hydrogen-bearing fuel like natural gas, methanol, or even gasoline aboard the
vehicle and re-form it to get hydrogen as needed; this simplifies storage and refueling, but adds
cost and complexity to the drivetrain. It is not a very good fuel for an internal combustion
engine, being prone to preignition, though BMW, Mazda, and Ford have done some tests; the
most efficient way to use it is in fuel cell vehicles, but these are still in the demonstration stage.

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3.Ethanol fuel
Ethanol fuel is ethanol (ethyl alcohol), the same type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It
can be used as a transport fuel, mainly as a biofuel additive for gasoline. World ethanol
production for transport fuel tripled between 2000 and 2007 from 17 billion to more than 52
billion litres. From 2007 to 2008, the share of ethanol in global gasoline type fuel use increased
from 3.7% to 5.4%.

Ethanol is widely used in Brazil and in the United States, and together both countries were
responsible for 89 percent of the world's ethanol fuel production in 2008. Most cars on the road
today in the U.S. can run on blends of up to 10% ethanol, and the use of 10% ethanol gasoline is
mandated in some U.S. states and cities.Bioethanol, unlike petroleum, is a form of renewable
energy that can be produced from agricultural feedstocks. It can be made from very common
crops such as sugar cane, potato, manioc and maize. However, there has been considerable
debate about how useful bioethanol will be in replacing gasoline. Concerns about its production
and use relate to the large amount of arable land required for crops, as well as the energy and
pollution balance of the whole cycle of ethanol production. Recent developments with cellulosic
ethanol production and commercialization may allay some of these concerns.

Cellulosic ethanol offers promise as cellulose fibers, a major and universal component in plant
cells walls, can be used to produce ethanol. According to the International Energy Agency,
cellulosic ethanol could allow ethanol fuels to play a much bigger role in the future than
previously thought.

Chemistry

1.Structure of ethanol molecule. All bonds are single bonds

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Glucose (a simple sugar) is created in the plant by photosynthesis.

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light → C6H12O6 + 6 O2

During ethanol fermentation, glucose is decomposed into ethanol and carbon dioxide.

C6H12O6 → 2 C2H5OH+ 2 CO2 + heat

During combustion ethanol reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and heat:

C2H5OH + 3 O2 → 2 CO2 + 3 H2O + heat

After doubling the combustion reaction because two molecules of ethanol are produced for each
glucose molecule, and adding all three reactions together, there are equal numbers of each type
of molecule on each side of the equation, and the net reaction for the overall production and
consumption of ethanol is just:

light → heat

The heat of the combustion of ethanol is used to drive the piston in the engine by expanding
heated gases. It can be said that sunlight is used to run the engine.

Glucose itself is not the only substance in the plant that is fermented. The simple sugar fructose
also undergoes fermentation. Three other compounds in the plant can be fermented after
breaking them up by hydrolysis into the glucose or fructose molecules that compose them. Starch
and cellulose are molecules that are strings of glucose molecules, and sucrose is a molecule of
glucose bonded to a molecule of fructose. The energy to create fructose in the plant ultimately
comes from the metabolism of glucose created by photosynthesis, and so sunlight also provides
the energy generated by the fermentation of these other molecules.

Ethanol may also be produced industrially from ethene (ethylene). Addition of water to the
double bond converts ethene to ethanol:

CH2=CH2 + H2O → CH3CH2OH

This is done in the presence of an acid which catalyzes the reaction, but is not consumed. The
ethene is produced from petroleum by steam cracking.

When ethanol is burned in the atmosphere rather than in pure oxygen, other chemical reactions
occur with different components of the atmosphere such as N2. This leads to the production of
nitrous oxides NOx , a major air pollutant.

Ethanol is a renewable energy source because the energy is generated by using a resource,
sunlight, which is naturally replenished. Creation of ethanol starts with photosynthesis causing a
feedstock, such as sugar cane or corn, to grow. These feedstocks are processed into ethanol.

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About 5% of the ethanol produced in the world in 2003 was actually a petroleum product. It is
made by the catalytic hydration of ethylene with sulfuric acid as the catalyst. It can also be
obtained via ethylene or acetylene, from calcium carbide, coal, oil gas, and other sources. Two
million tons of petroleum-derived ethanol are produced annually. The principal suppliers are
plants in the United States, Europe, and South Africa. Petroleum derived ethanol (synthetic
ethanol) is chemically identical to bio-ethanol and can be differentiated only by radiocarbon
dating.

Bio-ethanol is usually obtained from the conversion of carbon based feedstock. Agricultural
feedstocks are considered renewable because they get energy from the sun using photosynthesis,
provided that all minerals required for growth (such as nitrogen and phosphorus) are returned to
the land. Ethanol can be produced from a variety of feedstocks such as sugar cane, bagasse,
miscanthus, sugar beet, sorghum, grain sorghum, switchgrass, barley, hemp, kenaf, potatoes,
sweet potatoes, cassava, sunflower, fruit, molasses, corn, stover, grain, wheat, straw, cotton,
other biomass, as well as many types of cellulose waste and harvestings, whichever has the best
well-to-wheel assessment.

Currently, the first generation processes for the production of ethanol from corn use only a small
part of the corn plant: the corn kernels are taken from the corn plant and only the starch, which
represents about 50% of the dry kernel mass, is transformed into ethanol. Two types of second
generation processes are under development. The first type uses enzymes and yeast to convert
the plant cellulose into ethanol while the second type uses pyrolysis to convert the whole plant to
either a liquid bio-oil or a syngas. Second generation processes can also be used with plants such
as grasses, wood or agricultural waste material such as straw.

The basic steps for large scale production of ethanol are: microbial (yeast) fermentation of
sugars, distillation, dehydration (requirements vary, see Ethanol fuel mixtures, below), and
denaturing (optional). Prior to fermentation, some crops require saccharification or hydrolysis of
carbohydrates such as cellulose and starch into sugars. Saccharification of cellulose is called
cellulolysis (see cellulosic ethanol). Enzymes are used to convert starch into sugar.

3.1 Fermentation

Ethanol is produced by microbial fermentation of the sugar. Microbial fermentation will


currently only work directly with sugars. Two major components of plants, starch and cellulose,
are both made up of sugars, and can in principle be converted to sugars for fermentation.
Currently, only the sugar (e.g. sugar cane) and starch (e.g. corn) portions can be economically
converted. However, there is much activity in the area of cellulosic ethanol, where the cellulose
part of a plant is broken down to sugars and subsequently converted to ethanol.

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3.2 Distillation

2.Ethanol plant in West Burlington, Iowa

For the ethanol to be usable as a fuel, water must be removed. Most of the water is removed by
distillation, but the purity is limited to 95-96% due to the formation of a low-boiling water-
ethanol azeotrope. The 95.6% m/m (96.5% v/v) ethanol, 4.4% m/m (3.5% v/v) water mixture
may be used as a fuel alone, but unlike anhydrous ethanol, is immiscible in gasoline, so the water
fraction is typically removed in further treatment in order to burn in combination with gasoline in
gasoline engines.

3.3 Dehydration

There are basically five dehydration processes to remove the water from an azeotropic
ethanol/water mixture. The first process, used in many early fuel ethanol plants, is called
azeotropic distillation and consists of adding benzene or cyclohexane to the mixture. When these
components are added to the mixture, it forms a heterogeneous azeotropic mixture in vapor-
liquid-liquid equilibrium, which when distilled produces anhydrous ethanol in the column
bottom, and a vapor mixture of water and cyclohexane/benzene. When condensed, this becomes
a two-phase liquid mixture. Another early method, called extractive distillation, consists of
adding a ternary component which will increase ethanol's relative volatility. When the ternary
mixture is distilled, it will produce anhydrous ethanol on the top stream of the column.

With increasing attention being paid to saving energy, many methods have been proposed that
avoid distillation all together for dehydration. Of these methods, a third method has emerged and
has been adopted by the majority of modern ethanol plants. This new process uses molecular
sieves to remove water from fuel ethanol. In this process, ethanol vapor under pressure passes
through a bed of molecular sieve beads. The bead's pores are sized to allow absorption of water
while excluding ethanol. After a period of time, the bed is regenerated under vacuum to remove
the absorbed water. Two beds are used so that one is available to absorb water while the other is
being regenerated. This dehydration technology can account for energy saving of 3,000
btus/gallon (840 kJ/l) compared to earlier azeotropic distillation.

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3.4 Fuel economy

In theory, all fuel-driven vehicles have a fuel economy that is directly proportional to the fuel's
energy content. In reality, there are many other variables that come in to play that affect the
performance of a particular fuel in a particular engine. Ethanol contains approx. 34% less energy
per unit volume than gasoline, and therefore in theory, burning pure ethanol in a vehicle will
result in a 34% reduction in miles per US gallon, given the same fuel economy, compared to
burning pure gasoline. Since ethanol has a higher octane rating, the engine can be made more
efficient by raising its compression ratio. In fact using a variable turbocharger, the compression
ratio can be optimized for the fuel being used, making fuel economy almost constant for any
blend. . For E10 (10% ethanol and 90% gasoline), the effect is small (~3%) when compared to
conventional gasoline, and even smaller (1-2%) when compared to oxygenated and reformulated
blends. However, for E85 (85% ethanol), the effect becomes significant. E85 will produce lower
mileage than gasoline, and will require more frequent refueling.

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Alternative fuel vehicle

3.Toyota Prius, a hybrid vehicle.

An alternative fuel vehicle is a vehicle that runs on a fuel other than "traditional" petroleum
fuels (petrol or diesel); and also refers to any technology of powering an engine that does not
involve solely petroleum (e.g. electric car, hybrid electric vehicles, solar powered). Due to a
combination of heavy taxes on fuel, particularly in Europe; tightening environmental laws,
particularly in California; the potential for peak oil, and the possibility of further restrictions on
greenhouse gas emissions, work on alternative power systems for vehicles has become a high
priority for governments and vehicle manufacturers around the world.

Hybrid electric vehicles such as the Toyota Prius are not actually alternative fuel vehicles, but
through advanced technologies in the electric battery and motor/generator, they make a more
efficient use of petroleum fuel.. The first hybrid vehicle available for sale in the United States
was the Honda Insight, achieving around 70 miles per gallon (3.4 liters per 100 km). Other
research and development efforts in alternative forms of power focus on developing fuel cells
and even the stored energy of compressed air.

4.1 Air Engine car

The air engine is an emission-free piston engine that uses compressed air as a source of energy.
The first compressed air car was invented by a French engineer named Guy Nègre, working The
expansion of compressed air may be used to drive the pistons in a modified piston engine.
Efficiency of operation is gained through the use of environmental heat at normal temperature to
warm the otherwise cold expanded air from the storage tank. This non-adiabatic expansion has
the potential to greatly increase the efficiency of the machine. The only exhaust is cold air (−15
°C), which could also be used to air condition the car. The source for air is a pressurized carbon-
fiber tank holding air at 3,000 lbf/in² (20 MPa). Air is delivered to the engine via a rather
conventional injection system. Unique crank design within the engine increases the time during

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which the air charge is warmed from ambient sources and a two stage process allows improved
heat transfer rates.

4.2 Battery-electric

4.General Motors EV1, battery-electric vehicle

Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), also known as All Electric Vehicles (AEVs), are electric
vehicles whose main energy storage is in the chemical energy of batteries. BEVs are the most
common form of what is defined by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) as zero
emission (ZEV) passenger automobiles, because they produce no emissions while being driven.
The electrical energy carried onboard a BEV to power the motors is obtained from a variety of
battery chemistries arranged into battery packs. For additional range genset trailers or pusher
trailers are sometimes used, forming a type of hybrid vehicle. Batteries used in electric vehicles
include "flooded" lead-acid, absorbed glass mat, NiCd, nickel metal hydride, Li-ion, Li-poly and
zinc-air batteries.

. Despite the poor sales of the early battery-powered vehicles, development of various battery-
powered vehicles continued through the 1960 (notably General Motors with the EV1), but cost,
speed and inadequate driving range continued to make them impractical. Battery powered cars
have primarily used lead-acid batteries and NiMH batteries. Lead-acid batteries' recharge
capacity is considerably reduced if they're discharged beyond 75% on a regular basis, making
them a less-than-ideal solution. NiMH batteries are a better choice, but are considerably more
expensive than lead-acid. Lithium-ion battery powered vehicles such as the Venturi Fetish have
recently demonstrated excellent performance and range, but they remain very expensive.

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4.3 Solar

5.Nuna solar powered car, which has travelled up to 140km/h (84mph).

A solar car is an electric vehicle powered by solar energy obtained from solar panels on the car.
Solar panels cannot currently be used to directly supply a car with a suitable amount of power at
this time, but they can be used to extend the range of electric vehicles. They are raced in
competitions such as the World Solar Challenge and the North American Solar Challenge. These
events are often sponsored by Government agencies such as the United States Department of
Energy keen to promote the development of alternative energy technology such as solar cells and
electric vehicles. Such challenges are often entered by universities to develop their students
engineering and technological skills as well as motor vehicle manufacturers such as GM and
Honda.

Ammonia fueled vehicles

Ammonia GreenNH3 is being used with success by developers in Canada , since it can run in
spark ignited or diesel engines with minor modifications,also the only green fuel to power jet
engines,, and despite its toxicity is reckoned to be no more dangerous than petrol or LPG It can
be made from renewable electricity, and having half the density of petrol or diesel can be readily
carried in sufficient quantities in vehicles. On combustion it has no emissions other than nitrogen
and water vapour.The Canadian group GreenGas dot cc have developed a machine to make the
GreenNH3 from zero carbon energy sources so as not to have any link to carbon. That would be
as opposed to brownNH3 which can be made from carbon things like coal or natural gas.

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4.4 Hydrogen

6.The 2009 Honda FCX Clarity

A hydrogen car is an automobile which uses hydrogen as its primary source of power for
locomotion. These cars generally use the hydrogen in one of two methods: combustion or fuel-
cell conversion. In combustion, the hydrogen is "burned" in engines in fundamentally the same
method as traditional gasoline cars. In fuel-cell conversion, the hydrogen is turned into electricity
through fuel cells which then powers electric motors. With either method, the only byproduct
from the spent hydrogen is water.

Honda introduced its fuel cell vehicle in 1999 called the FCX and have since then introduced the
second generation FCX Clarity. Limited marketing of the FCX Clarity, based on the 2007
concept model, began in June 2008 in the United States, and it was introduced in Japan in
November 2008. The FCX Clarity is available in the U.S. only in Los Angeles Area, where 16
hydrogen filling stations are available, and until July 2009, only 10 drivers have leased the
Clarity for US$600 a month .Honda stated that it could start mass producing vehicles based on
the FCX concept by the year 2020.

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4. BENEFITS OF ALTERNATE FUELS
Alternative fuels are domestically-produced fuels made of other natural
resources like fossil fuels and nuclear materials. It was at first promoted to
reduce the nation's dependability towards imported oil, as the federal
government urged all citizens nation wide to replace their intake of
conventional fuel with alternative. Some of the more distinguished
alternative fuels include ethanol, biodiesel, natural gas, propane, hydrogen,
and other biomass sources.

Alternative fuel offers a number of benefits. One of the most distinct advantages is that
alternative fuel burns a lot cleaner than normal petroleum oil, potentially up to 90%.
Consequently, alternative fuel-powered vehicles experience a great reduction in chemical
emissions like carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, sulfur, and other organic compounds, resulting
to lesser environmental pollution. But the undying population increase is simply inevitable. As
the number of population increases, so does the number of vehicles, leaving the level of fuel
emissions to remain high.

All types of alternative fuels each posses their own advantages and setbacks. And most of these
setbacks involve the selling price. For instance, compressed natural gas does burn cleanly,
causing the price to increase by a landslide. Although in some events, the cost of both fuel and
maintenance is cheaper, while engine is more lasting. There is a slight discrepancy between the
price of alternative fuel and normal petroleum fuel, though alternative fuel is more flexible and
likely to change in any given time of the season. Ethanol and biodiesel, which fall under the
biomass fuel category, can be easily renewed, and they generate less harmful air pollutant and
greenhouse gas but the price fluctuates frequently due to government subsidies.

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6.CONCLUSION

The need for development of the alternate fuels like methane,hydrogen,natural gas,wood and
vegetable oil is growing due to limited stock of oil. And the production of oil will no longer
supply the demand.

Although renewable energy is used mostly to generate electricity, it is often assumed that some
form of renewable energy is used to create alternative fuels. Methanol and ethanol are primary
source of energy. Hydrogen fuels has been suggested to create a hydrogen economy.Liquid
nitrogen and compressed air are also a type of emissionless fuel.

Although the alternate fuels produce less harmful air pollutants and green house gases than the
conventional fuel but their price vary according to the government subsidies.

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7. REFERENCES
1. http://www.google.com

2. http://www.autointell.com

3. http://www.popularmechanics.com

4. http://www.hydrogencarsnow.com

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