A.

INDIGENOUS AND THREATENED SPECIES OF THE PHILIPPINES

Common Local
Scientific name Distribution Order
name(s) name(s)

Native to the Indian Ocean and

Acanthastrea spp. Scleractinia
the western Pacific Ocean

Palawan flying Endemic to Palawan and

Acerodon leucotis Chiroptera
fox neighboring islands

Acrocephalus Streaked reed- Native to China, Taiwan, and the

Passeriformes
sorghophilus warbler Philippines

Native to the Indian Ocean and

Acropora spp. Table corals Scleractinia
the western Pacific Ocean

Blue-capped
Actenoides hombroni Endemic to Mindanao Coraciiformes
kingfisher

Banded eagle Native to the Indian Ocean and

Aetomylaeus nichofii Myliobatiformes
ray the western Pacific Ocean

Endemic to Miniloc Island and El

Aioliops brachypterus Perciformes
Nido Island

Alionycteris Mindanao
Endemic to the Philippines Chiroptera
paucidentata pygmy fruit bat

Native to the Indian Ocean and

Alveopora spp. Scleractinia
the western Pacific Ocean

Native to the Indian Ocean and

Anacropora spp. Briar corals Scleractinia
the western Pacific Ocean
 Common Local
Scientific name Distribution Order
name(s) name(s)

Ansonia mcgregori Endemic to Mindanao Anura

Endemic
Ansonia muelleri Anura
to Mindanao andDinagat Island

Anthracoceros Palawan Endemic to

Coraciiformes
marchei hornbill the Palawanarchipelago

Anas luzonica Philippine duck Endemic to the Philippines Anseriformes

Anonymomys Mindoro
Endemic to the Philippines Rodentia
mindorensis climbing rat

Found in Palawan in the

Asian small-
Aonyx cinerea Philippines. Native to South Carnivora
clawed otter
Asiaand Southeast Asia

Large Mindoro
Apomys gracilirostris Endemic to Mindoro Rodentia
forest mouse

Long-nosed
Apomys sacobianus Luzon forest Endemic to the Philippines Rodentia
mouse

Archboldomys Mt. Isarog Endemic to Mt. Isarog,Camarines

Rodentia
luzonensis shrew-mouse Sur

Found in Palawan in the

Arctictis binturong Binturong Binturong Philippines. Native to South Carnivora
Asiaand Southeast Asia

Endemic to Quezon
Argiolestes realensis Odonata
Province onLuzon
 Common Local
Scientific name Distribution Order
name(s) name(s)

Native to the Indian Ocean and

Astreopora spp. Star corals Scleractinia
the western Pacific Ocean

B. BEST ZOO AND WILDLIFE PARKS OF THE WORLD: LOCATION, HOW THEY ARE MANAGED, HOW
ANIMALS ARE CONFINED

1. Victorian menagerie
are over, but modern zoos are much more than a collection of animals and
I am a lifelong fan of good zoos (note the adjective) and have visited dozens of zoos, safari parks
and aquaria around the world. I also spent a number of years working as a volunteer keeper at
two zoos in the U.K. and my own interests now span to the history of zoological collections and
their design, architecture and research so it is probably fair to say I’m firmly in the pro-zoo
camp.

However, I am perfectly willing to recognise that there are bad zoos and bad individual exhibits.
Not all animals are kept perfectly, much as I wish it were otherwise, and even in the best
examples, there is still be room for improvement. But just as the fact that some police are
corrupt does not mean we should not have people to enforce the law, although bad zoos or
exhibits persist does not mean they are not worthwhile institutes. It merely means we need to
pay more attention to the bad and improve them or close them. In either case, zoos (at least in
the U.K. and most of the western world) are generally a poor target for criticism in terms of
animal welfare – they have to keep the public onside or go bust and they have to stand up to
rigorous inspections or be closed down. While a bad collection should not be ignored, if you are
worried the care and treatment of animals in captivity I can point to a great many farms,
breeders, dealers and private owners who are in far greater need or inspection, improvement or
both.

If you are against animals in captivity full stop then there is perhaps little scope for discussion,
but even so I’d maintain that some of the following arguments (not least the threat of
extinction) can outweigh arguments against captivity. Moreover, I don’t think anyone would
consider putting down a 10000 km long fence around the Masai Mara to really be captivity,
even if it restricts the movement of animals across that barrier. But at what point does that
become captivity? A 10000 m fence? 1000 m fence? What if veterinary care is provided or extra
food as in many reserves or as part of conservation projects. I’m not pretending that an animal
in a zoo is not in captivity, but clearly there is a continuum from zoos and wildlife parks, to game
reserves, national parks and protected areas. Degree of care and degree of enclosure make the
idea of ‘captivity’ fluid and not absolute.
What I would state with absolute confidence is that for many species (but no, not all) it is
perfectly possible to keep them in a zoo or wildlife park and for them to have a quality of life as
high or higher than in the wild. Their movement might be restricted (but not necessarily by that
much) but they will not suffer from the threat or stress of predators (and nor will they be killed
in a grisly manner or eaten alive) or the irritation and pain of parasites, injuries and illnesses will
be treated, they won’t suffer or die of drought or starvation and indeed will get a varied and
high-quality diet with all the supplements required. They can be spared bullying or social
ostracism or even infanticide by others of their kind, or a lack of a suitable home or environment
in which to live. A lot of very nasty things happen to truly ‘wild’ animals that simply don’t
happen in good zoos and to cast a life that is ‘free’ as one that is ‘good’ is, I think, an error.

So a good zoo will provide great care and protection to animals in their care. These are good
things for the individuals concerned, but what do zoos actually bring to the table for the visitors
and the wider world? This is, naturally, what I want to focus on, but it is I hope worth having
dealt with the more obvious objections and misapprehensions.

One of only a few hundred Sumatran tigers left in the world, this individual is part of a captive
breeding program that is linked to conservation efforts - protecting wild areas and reintroducing
animals to them. Photograph: /Dave Hone
Conservation – reservoir and return. It’s not an exaggeration to say that colossal numbers of
species are going extinct across the world, and many more are increasingly threatened and risk
extinction. Moreover, some of these collapses have been sudden, dramatic and unexpected or
were simply discovered very late in the day. Zoos protect against a species going extinct. A
species protected in captivity provides a reservoir population against a population crash or
extinction in the wild. Here they are relatively safe and can be bred up to provide foundation
populations. A good number of species only exist in captivity and still more only exist in the wild
because they have been reintroduced from zoos, or the wild populations have been boosted by
captive bred animals. Quite simply without these efforts there would be fewer species alive
today and ecosystems and the world as a whole would be poorer for it. Although reintroduction
successes are few and far between, the numbers are increasing and the very fact that species
have been saved or reintroduced as a result of captive breeding shows their value. Even
apparently non-threatened species and entire groups can be threatened suddenly (as seen with
white nose syndrome in bats and the Chytridiomycosis fungus in amphibians) it’s not just
pandas and rhinos that are under threat

Education. Many children and adults, especially those in cities will never see a wild animal
beyond a fox or pigeon, let alone a lion or giraffe. Sure television documentaries get ever more
detailed and impressive, and lots of natural history specimens are on display in museums, but
that really does pale next to seeing a living creature in the flesh, hearing it, smelling it, watching
what it does and having the time to absorb details. That alone will bring a greater understanding
and perspective to many and hopefully give them a greater appreciation for wildlife,
conservation efforts and how they can contribute. All of that comes before the actual direct
education that can take place through signs, talks and the like that can directly communicate
information about the animals they are seeing and their place in the world. This was an area
where zoos were previously poor and are now increasingly sophisticated in their communication
and outreach work. Many zoos also work directly to educate conservation workers in foreign
countries or send keepers abroad to contribute their knowledge and skills to zoos and preserves
helping to improve conditions and reintroductions all over the world.

Research. If we are to save many wild species and restore and repair ecosystems we need to
know about how key species live, act and react. Being able to study animals in zoos where there
is less risk and less variables means real changes can be effected on wild populations with far
fewer problems. Knowing say the oestreus cycle of an animal or their breeding rate helps
manage wild populations. Things like capturing and moving at-risk or dangerous individuals is
bolstered by knowledge in zoos about doses for anaesthetics, and experience at handling and
transporting animals. This can make a real difference to conservation efforts and to reduce
human-animal conflicts, and collectively provide a knowledge base for helping with the
increasing threats of habitat destruction and other problems.

All in all with the ongoing global threats to the environment it’s hard for me to see zoos as
anything other than being essential to the long-term survival of numerous species. Not just in
terms of protecting them and breeding them for reintroduction, but to learn about them to aid
those still in the wild, as well as to educate and inform the public about these animals and their
world: to pique their interest so that they can assist or at least accept the need to be more
environmentally conscious. Sure there is always scope for improvement, but these benefits are
critical to many species and potentially at least, the world as a whole, and the animals so well
kept and content, that I think there can be few serious objections to the concept of good zoos
what they can do. Without them, the world would be, and would increasingly become, a much
poorer place.

2. Wellington Zoo, North Island, New Zealand

New Zealand’s very first zoo is one of the biggest, situated on 32-sprawling acres with more
than 500 animals and 100 different species—many of which are endangered species native to
New Zealand, including Sumatran tigers, the miniature Sun Bear, the smallest of the bear
species. The zoo is also involved with a group in parts of Asia called “Free the Bears”, lions, and
many more. The zoo is dedicated to quality, sustainable enclosures for its population, which
include solar heating and power, and intimate one-on-one encounters with the animals to
educate on the importance of natural preservation.
 3. Toronto Zoo, Ontario, Canada
The Toronto Zoo houses 5000 animals from 460 species around the world. This zoo
boasts some truly unique exhibits—such as camel rides, sting ray touch tanks. Plus, enclosures
for numerous endangered baby additions like Gaur (a type of Indian bison), spider monkeys,
Grevy’s Zebras, African Elephants, Greater Kudu (a type of antelope), Western lowland gorillas,
and pygmy hippo. Not to mention many native animals to Canada, such as Grizzly bear, Moose,
Wood Bison, raccoons, lynx, and cougar.
Australia Zoo, Sunshine Coast, Australia
Of course the wildest and most adventurous zoo on earth would have to have been
founded by none other than the late Steve Irwin, Australia’s Crocodile Hunter. The zoo
encourages hands-on encounters with various snakes, koalas, kangaroos, wombats, tigers,
elephants, as well as viewings of over 1000 different animals. Make a reservation if you really
want to make the most of your day!

4. Yokohama Zoo, Japan

Japan’s Yokohama Zoo, lovingly referred to as “Zoorasia” was established in 1999. A
massive 100 acres in size, this lush, sprawling zoo gives extended room to it’s over 1500 animals
from 150 species. In fact, the zoo is largely green in design, consisting of 7 separate ecological
areas—the Asian Tropical Forest, Central Asian Highland, Oceanian Grassland, Japanese
Countryside, African Tropical Rainforest, and the Amazon Jungle—all designed to mimic natural
habitats. Because it’s so large, binoculars are given to each guest upon entrance for optimal
spotting of the inhabitants.

5. Welsh Mountain Zoo, Colwyn Bay, North Wales

This 37 acre hillside park was established by naturalist Robert Jackson in 1963. Today,
the Zoological Society of Wales has taken the helm and operates the zoo more like conservation
lands for native wildlife within. Guests are treated to wooded acres, tree lined paths, and rolling
hills teeming with grey heron, grass snakes, and badgers. The must-see exhibits are the modern
Eurasian Otter showcase—outfitted with a river, and waterfall for happy otters to slide and
frolic about—and that of the California Sea Lions and the Humboldt Penguin.

6. Berlin Zoo, Germany

The Berlin Zoo is the oldest and most-visited zoo in all of Germany. In collaboration with
its associated aquarium, the area is made up of 84 acres and home to over 17,000 animals. The
zoo was established with the help of King Frederick William IV of Prussia, who populated the zoo
with 850 animals from his very own private collection. It suffered massive damage during World
War II, when most of the zoo and almost a hundred animals were destroyed. However, the zoo
was rebuilt and the survivors—a pair of lions, hyenas, a bull Elephant, almost a dozen baboons,
and a chimpanzee—moved into more natural enclosures and tours, one of which became the
Animals of the Bible tour, showcasing animals from biblical reference.
 7. Philadelphia Zoo, Pennsylvania, USA

America’s very first zoo is the Philadelphia Zoo, established in 1874. Today the zoo enjoys a
reputation for breeding endangered species in captivity as well as simulated natural habitats for its
animal population. Home to over 1300 animals, this urban zoo boasts one of the most state-of-the-art
primate exhibits in the world, PECO Primate Reserve, a 2.50acre, indoor and outdoor areas that houses
10 different primate species—including gibbons, lowland gorillas, Sumatran Orangutans, lemurs, and
Silverbacks. Cat lovers will purr at the sight of Big Cat Falls, which houses 12 endangered species of
felines such as African Lions, Amur Tigers, jaguars, Snow Leopards, and cougars. If you don’t get your fill
during the day, stay for a rare overnight experience camps for kids!

8. Bronx Zoo, New York City, USA

This rather small zoo in the midst of a metropolis is one of the oldest and best zoos in the USA.
So much so that the Wildlife Conservation Society established its veterinarian society here, where
primary care is provided for over 15,000 animals located at various zoos across America. The Bronx Zoo
is particularly renowned for its animal enrichment programs. Both educational and hands-on in nature,
visitors can witness zoo keepers training and interacting with animals—such as the monkey and tiger
population—as well as various feedings, animal behavior, and health care for polar bears and various
other resident animals.

creatures is almost guaranteed.

PARKS
1. Costa Rica

Costa Rica is home to more than 500,000 species, making it one of the 20 countries with the
highest biodiversity in the world. Due to the wide variety of habitat within the small country (about
the size of West Virginia) including tropical rainforest, deciduous forest, coastline (both Atlantic and
Pacific), cloud forest, and mangrove forest, a wide variety of mammals, amphibians, reptiles, birds,
and insects call Costa Rica home. Listen for the bay of the Mantled Howler Monkey, look closely for
the camouflaged coat of the sleepy Sloth, and hope you’re lucky enough to spot the colorful plumage
of a Resplendent Quetzal.

2. Yellowstone National Park

Yellowstone National Park has the largest concentration of watchable wildlife in the lower 48
states. Depending on what type of wildlife you want to see, you’ll have better luck finding it certain
parts of the Park. For example, you’re likely to run into the resident elk herd who has taken up
residence in the Mammoth area, munching on the tender green shoots of grass that grow around the
hotel and visitor center. You just might see a grizzly bear while cruising through the open valleys of
the Park at sunset or a black bear when weaving around U-turns over Washburn Pass. The only
continuously free-ranging bison herd in the lower 48 since prehistoric times will almost always be
found in Hayden Valley, often right in the middle of the road. Last but not least, spotting a wolf in
Lamar Valley at sunrise is a special treat!

3. Galápagos Islands

Located 600 miles off the western coast of Ecuador, the Galápagos Islands are of volcanic
origin and have never been connected with the mainland. Therefore, for species to have arrived here,
they had to have flown, swam, or floated. Most often, larger mammals reside at the top of the food
chain, and these animals were not able to make the journey to the islands. Now with a lack of
predators in the Galápagos, many of the animals appear tame, never learning to fear humans. Snorkel
alongside the Marine Iguana, the only iguana adapted to life in the water. Walk quietly amongst the
Islands’ population of Galápagos Giant Tortoise, many of which live more than 150 years! Spot one of
the many species of birds including Darwin’s finches, Blue-footed Boobies, Frigatebirds, Albatrosses,
Galápagos Penguins, and Flightless Cormorants.

4. Namibia

The first African country to incorporate protection of the environment into its constitution, Namibia
has 26 parks and reserves set aside making its abundant wildlife one of its greatest tourist assets. A
country on the forefront of wildlife conservation, the government has made it possible for people
living in communal areas to manage their natural resources through communal conservancies. Many
populations of Namibian wildlife have decreased over the years due to human-wildlife conflicts (e.g.
lions preying on livestock or human-elephant conflicts around water resources), and communal
conservancies are helping battle wildlife destruction through education, ecotourism, and protection of
habitat and migration routes. Due to communal conservancies, non-profit organizations, the
government and other entities, populations of cheetahs, black rhinos, lions, zebras, and other native
wildlife have been restored to the world’s richest dry land.

5. Amazon River Basin

Home to more species of plants and animals than any other terrestrial ecosystem on the
planet, one-third of all species in the world are thought to reside in the Amazon Rainforest. Home to
reptiles, amphibians, primates, tapirs, capybaras (the largest rodent in the world), and even jaguars,
you will know doubt have some sort of wildlife encounter on your journey through the Amazon. Its
3,000 freshwater fish species number more that what’s been counted in the entire Atlantic Ocean! A
birder’s paradise, the Amazon Rainforest contains more species than any other ecosystem on the
planet and contains over 4,000 species of butterflies. In the river itself you may spot a curious
manatee or the Amazon River dolphin (also known as the pink river dolphin or boto). The diversity of
wildlife in the Amazon region is truly staggering and worth a trip in and of itself to South America.

6. Antarctica

Antarctica, a continent of extremes, holds the title of coldest, driest, and windiest location on
earth! It’s surprising that wildlife can thrive in such extreme temperatures and climate. Seals, whales,
penguins and a large diversity of seabirds migrate to Antarctica to breed and feed on the endless
supply of krill, fish, and crustaceans. Considered to be the continent’s signature species, seventeen
types of penguins can be found in Antarctica; however, only four types (the Emperor, Adelie,
Chinstrap, and Gentoo penguins) actually breed on the continent itself. Antarctic Seals thrive due to
the lack of their predator, the polar bear as well as the nutrient-rich feeding areas surrounding
Antarctica. Considered a whale sanctuary, two types of whales, baleen and toothed, travel great
distances from their northern temperate breeding waters to Antarctica’s nutrient-dense waters to
feed.

7. Alaska

Also known as the Great Land, Alaska is home to both land and sea species wildlife, and it’s
easy to see both even on a short trip to the largest state in the U.S. With the largest state park system
in America and 65% of the state being managed by the Federal government (including its 15 national
parks), Alaska is an unspoiled safe haven for wildlife ranging from bald eagles to beluga whales. Even
in Anchorage, Alaska’s largest town of 300,000 residents, you’re likely to spot one of the 1,000 moose
that call the city home. Land animals to search for include black, grizzly, and polar bears; moose;
caribou; mountain goats; Dall sheep; foxes; and coyotes. Off the coast, look for Humpback and Killer
whales; dolphins; sea otters; seals; sea lions; bald eagles; and many types of bird life including puffins,
kittiwakes, and oystercatchers.

8. Kenya

Kenya is home to an amazing array of wildlife, but perhaps none as popular as “The Big Five.”
This so-called “Big-Five” includes the lion, the largest of Africa’s big cats; elephant, the world’s largest
land mammal; buffalo, one of the most feared animals; rhinoceros (white and black), both of which
are endangered; and leopard, a very elusive animal, hunting at night and spending its days resting in
trees. Of course many other types of animals can be found all around Kenya including zebras, giraffes,
cheetahs, jackals, oryx, hyenas, baboons, monkeys, kudus, gazelle, antelope, hippos, wildebeest and
more. The most popular wildlife park in Kenya, the Masai Mara Game Reserve is where you can
witness the incredible migration of millions of zebra and wildebeest from July through October.

9. Grand Teton National Park

Grand Teton National Park is home to a wide variety of animal populations, and some species
are more likely to be seen depending on the time of year you go. The Tetons lie in the heart of the
Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem encompassing over twenty million acres and considered to be one of
the few remaining, nearly intact temperate ecosystems on Earth. The largest elk herd in North
America migrates between Grand Teton National Park in the summer and the National Elk Refuge
southeast of the Park in the winter. The Yellow-Bellied Marmot whistling at you from its granite rock
perch of the Teton Mountain Range in July will be hibernating come December. Moose, found in
riparian areas along the Snake and Gros Ventre river drainages in the summer time, snacking on
willows and young, nutrient-dense vegetation may be found buckled down either conserving energy
or feeding on bark or young sprouts in the forest in the winter.

10. South Dakota

South Dakota’s first and largest state park, Custer State Park is home to wildlife big and small
from the burly, brawny bison to the peeking, passive prairie dog. Somewhere in between these two
mammals is the infamous begging burro, a donkey that is not native to the Black Hills. These animals
are descendants from the herd of burros that once hauled visitors to the top of Harney Peak. Once the
rides discontinued, the burros were released into Custer State Park where they have become a
popular visitor attraction. Also found in the state park are big horn sheep, pronghorn (also known as
antelope), wild turkeys, elk, and mountain goats.

C. NUTRITION OF THE FOLLOWING WILDLIFE: PSITTACINES, REPTILES, NON-HUMAN PRIMATES,

FELIDAE AND CANIDAE

PSITTACINES
pet bird population consists largely of psittacine species, primarily passerines and other genera such as
those that include toucans. Psittacines eat mainly a plant-based diet and can be classified overall as
florivores. The content of the diet—fruit, nectar, seeds, or a combination—varies by species. Some
species ingest a percentage of insects or carrion. Although requirements and dietary sensitivities vary
among psittacine species, the pelleted and extruded diets that have been produced for parrots have
tremendously improved the nutritional intake and subsequent health and quality of life of these birds.
However, pelleted diets differ in content and quality and must be evaluated individually. Extruded
pellets in different shapes and sizes are available for maintenance and breeding purposes. Many pellets
contain omega-3 fatty acids as well as probiotics.

Psittacine nutrition has been the focus of research throughout the past several decades. Several myths
of psittacine nutrition have been debunked during this period. Grit, while probably necessary for some
passerines and Columbiformes to aid in mechanical digestion, is not needed by psittacines. If seeds are
consumed by psittacines, they are hulled before ingestion. Monkey chow biscuits are nutritionally
incomplete, and some brands tend to harbor bacteria or promote excessive gram-negative bacterial
growth when included in bird diets. Strictly seed diets, regardless of supplementation, are suboptimal
for psittacine species. Deficiencies of vitamin A, protein (the amino acids lysine and methionine, in
particular), calcium, and other nutrients are seen in most psittacine species on seed-based diets.
Conversely, excessive vitamins, such as vitamin A, are added to some pelleted diets, which can have
equally detrimental effects.

Protein

Protein (amino acid) requirements of psittacines have not been well established. The amino acid
deficiencies most consistently noted in psittacine birds on seed-based and table-food diets are lysine
and methionine. Fiber content must always be considered when determining dietary protein
requirements, because increased fiber causes increased fecal protein “loss.” Birds with low-fiber, more
readily digestible diets (such as nectar-feeding lories and lorikeets) may do well on diets with easily
digestible protein levels as low as 3%–5%. Adult maintenance levels of protein for budgerigars and
cockatiels (7%–12%) are lower than those for African Grey parrots (10%–15%). Protein requirements for
growth and for egg-laying hens are higher than maintenance levels in all birds. Periods of heavy molt
also greatly increase protein requirements, particularly the need for the sulfur-containing amino acid
cysteine, because feathers average 25% of the total body protein content of birds.

Excessively high dietary protein has the potential to cause renal insufficiency and gout in birds with
preexisting renal impairment or a genetic predisposition to gout. Cockatiels with no preexisting renal
disease have been shown to tolerate extremely high dietary protein levels (up to 70%) with no renal
impairment. A genetic predisposition to renal disease/gout has been documented in some strains of
poultry and may be seen in other avian species.

Sudden, dramatic increases in dietary protein may overload the kidneys, producing hyperuricemia and
visceral gout. When increased dietary protein is indicated, it should be increased gradually to avoid renal
damage.

Fat

Dietary fat provides essential fatty acids, energy, and hormone precursors. It also contributes to egg yolk
formation and aids in absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. Diets should contain 5%–12% fat, depending on
the species, the general condition of the psittacines, and the physiologic stage and brood condition. At
least 1% of the dry diet should consist of PUFA (eg, linoleic acid). Excessive dietary fat leads to obesity,
metabolic diseases, cardiac disease, and atherosclerosis (also see Pet Birds). The fat requirements of
psittacines for reproduction are generally lower than those of poultry, because the psittacines' altricial
young do not require the same quantity of fatty acids as do the precocial young of chickens. However,
diets that are borderline deficient often manifest as problems in either the psittacine hen or the chicks
during reproduction.

Vitamin A and Carotenoids:

Vitamin A is necessary for vision, reproduction, immunologic integrity, and growth, and for the
maintenance of epithelial cells in respiratory, GI, and renal tissues. Vitamin A deficiency has historically
been noted in psittacines on all-seed diets, so supplementation is commonly recommended. However,
indiscriminate supplementation leads to vitamin A toxicosis, as well as to decreased absorption of other
fat-soluble vitamins and carotenoids. In nature, psittacines do not consume vitamin A but obtain vitamin
A precursors such as carotenoids from various plants. Pelleted diets should contain vitamin A at levels of
5,000–8,000 IU/kg of feed. Higher amounts should be avoided. The source of vitamin A added to bird
feed is not regulated, and significant quality control issues have been documented. Ideally, a quality
pelleted diet for psittacines will contain multiple carotenoids and other vitamin A precursors, with a
minimum level of vitamin A.

Some carotenoids in birds are precursors for the body's formation of vitamin A. Carotenoids also act as
antioxidants and are necessary in some species (such as canaries and flamingos) for feather
pigmentation.

Vitamin D:

The primary function of vitamin D is to increase absorption of calcium and phosphorus. Vitamin D can be
obtained either directly from the diet or from UVB (285–315 nm) light exposure. Vitamin D deficiency is
probably rare in nature because of exposure to sunlight. Birds living in polar conditions get their vitamin
D during the winter by consuming diets with high amounts of vitamin D (eg, fish, plankton). In the
absence of natural sunlight, the minimum oral vitamin D requirement for African Greys is likely to be
500–1,000 IU/kg.

Vitamin D deficiency may be caused by dietary deficiency or lack of exposure to UVB radiation. Limited
studies have shown that species variation in psittacines for UVB light requirements exist. Unfortunately,
many birds are housed totally indoors, and owners often mistakenly assume either that the birds do not
need direct sunlight or that the sunlight the birds receive through glass will supply UVB radiation.
Owners of pet birds should be encouraged to expose their bird to direct sunlight (with appropriate
cautions regarding excessive heat) or to purchase and properly use UVB bulbs. However, pet bird
owners must consider that the further away from the equator, the less UVB is generated, especially in
late autumn, winter, and early spring. Some research indicates that UVA and/or UVB can affect vitamin
D synthesis in some bird species, the finding of food, well-being, and feather colors. However, more
research is needed to determine how much UVA and/or UVB is needed for each bird species.

Vitamin D toxicity is caused by excessive supplementation. Some psittacine species, notably macaws, are
sensitive to excessive dietary vitamin D and may develop soft-tissue calcification and renal failure. Toxic
levels for psittacines have not been established, but levels that may be toxic for poultry begin at 2,800
IU/kg of feed.

REPTILES
Easy Environment

Children do well with animals whose habitats are easy to maintain. Animals that don't require
heat lamps or UV lamps will be easier for your child to care for. Corn snakes, king snakes and
many gecko species need no special lighting. Geckos and snakes also don't need a big enclosure
compared to other reptiles. Many geckos and small snakes are happy in a 20-gallon aquarium.
Turtles and tortoises require UV and heat lamps. Aquatic turtles will also require regular water
changes and monitoring of water quality and temperature. Turtles and tortoises need roaming
room outside their aquarium. Large animals like iguanas, monitor lizards and pythons -- such as
the Burmese and reticulated python -- grow too large for many homes to accommodate, often
needing an entire small room to move about in.

Gentle Pets

Some reptiles do better with handling than others. Small snakes have no claws and rarely bite
their owners. Corn snakes, ball pythons and California king snakes are good choices for kids
because of their laid back attitude and manageable size. Corn and king snakes grow to about 5
feet long, and ball pythons reach 4 feet in length, but are thicker and more muscular. Bearded
dragons are easy to tame and are docile, verging on lazy. Delicate reptiles aren't recommended
for children because the animal could get injured. True chameleons and anoles can get stressed
from handling, which can affect their health. Tokay geckos are quick to bite, have strong jaws
with sharp teeth, and can inflict serious damage.

Feeding Reptiles

Your child may be put off by feeding live animals to a pet reptile, especially when cute, fuzzy
mice are on the menu. If this is a primary concern, a vegetarian reptile could be the best choice.
The drawback is that vegetarian animals require a more varied diet that involves more
preparation and planning than reptiles that eat insects and small animals. Certain species of
tortoises can live on a vegetarian diet. Geckos, blue-tongued skinks and bearded dragons can
eat produce along with store-bought reptile food, but it's preferable for them to eat live
invertebrates at least once a week. Captive bred snakes should take well to eating pre-killed
prey, such as frozen and thawed mice.

Interesting Animals

A pet that's active at the same time of day as your child and doesn't spend most of its time
hiding has a higher chance of receiving the care and attention it needs. Blue-tongued skinks are
lively creatures that like to explore their environment. Leopard geckos are nocturnal so they
may not hold much interest for your child until the evening, but are fun to watch as they climb
and scamper. Bearded dragons are largely inactive and may not hold your child's interest for
long. Turtles and tortoises are active pets but live for 50 or more years, a very long time
commitment for a young child to make.

Avoiding Disease

All reptiles may have salmonella in their digestive systems, so they're not recommended for
children under 5 years old. Children may become sick when they touch the reptile or the
animal's habitat and then put their hands in their mouths. Teach your children to wash their
hands thoroughly before and after handling their pet and always supervise any interactions
with the pet reptile.

FELIDAE

Extensive testing of the digestive capability of exotic felids is lacking. Barbiers et al. (1982) evaluated the
digestibility of a commercially-prepared raw horsemeat-based diet (17.7% CP; 15.6% fat) by captive
exotic felids. One male and one female of the following species were utilized in that study: cougar (Felis
concolor), leopard (Panthera pardus), African lion (Panthera leo) and tiger (Panthera tigris). Chromium
sesquioxide was added to the diet at approximately 0.3% of wet weight to determine total tract
apparent nutrient digestibility. Total feces were collected for 3 days following 2 consecutive days of
consuming the marked diets. Barbiers et al. (1982) reported 83.1-89.7% CP digestibility values and 94.5-
99.0% ether extract digestibility values. CP values were higher than those presented by Wynne (1989),
who noted an average of 79.2% digestibility. Fat digestibility also was higher than those of Wynne (1989)
who reported 91.5% digestibility (average for all species). Barbiers et al. (1982) noted that all animals
were fed one large meal per day, but did not specify if food refusals were analyzed for chromium to
determine accurate food consumption data. These factors, in addition to low animal numbers, likely
added to intra- and inter-species variation. Another study (Wynne, 1989) evaluated the digestibility of a
commercially prepared raw beef and horse meat loaf diet (43.4% CP; 28.5% fat) by African lions (P. leo,
n = 4), tigers (P. tigris, n = 4), puma (Felis concolor, n = 4) and leopards (P. pardus, n = 4). Animals were
fed the diet for a minimum of two months prior to the collection period. Animals were fasted on day 1,
subsequently fed 2-4% of bodyweight on days 2-7, and total feces were collected on days 2-7. Wynne
(1989) noted average CP and fat digestibilities of approximately 79.2% and 91.5%, respectively, for all
species, but did not observe differences among species or sex. In general, all species utilized the diet
well. Protein digestibility, however, was inversely related to body size, suggesting that the diet may not
be best suited for the smaller species studied (pumas and leopards). Wide variation within species
suggested that larger populations should be studied. Because the number of each species is often small
in each zoological park and the populations may become transient across zoos to maintain genetic
diversity when mating, such studies are diffi cult to conduct. The dangers of handling a raw meat diet
(i.e., bacterial contamination) have convinced some zoo nutritionists to feed small exotic felids a dry,
extruded diet as a full or partial substitute for raw meat. Irradiation of raw meat does not affect diet
consumption or fecal consistency, but may prove too expensive and/or time consuming for zoos (Crissey
et al., 2001). Crissey et al. (1997) measured the ability of sand cats (n = 8; F. margarita) to digest a raw
meat versus a kibble diet. Following a 7-day adaptation phase, total tract DM, CP and energy
digestibilities were determined on days 8-12 of each period. Apparent total tract DM (83.5 ± 4.8% raw;
72.7 ± 12.3% dry), energy (89.6 ± 5.2% raw; 76.8 ± 14.5% dry) and CP digestibilities (92.4 ± 5.3% raw;
77.9 ± 13.5% dry) were lower numerically when cats consumed the dry, extruded diet. Blood
metabolites, including taurine and retinol concentrations, were within normal ranges for cats; however,
values were highly variable among cats (Crissey et al., 1997). The authors concluded that although
digestibility appeared to decrease when cats were fed the dry, extruded diet, it served as a suitable
replacement for small cats. This study had several limitations. First, all cats consumed the raw meat diet
during the fi rst period followed by the dry, extruded diet during the second period, thereby not
allowing statistical analysis. Second, individually-housed cats were fed two times daily during the fi rst
period and ad libitum after 7 days of the second period. Between periods, cats were adapted to the dry
diet over the course of 6 months. In a zoological and home setting, diet may affect nutritional status and
feeding behavior. Large felids in the wild often gorge after making a kill, but then may not consume
another meal for several days. This behavior is unlike that of the domestic cat who eats several small
meals throughout the day. To evaluate changes in nutrient digestibility and behavior of captive lions (P.
leo), a modifi ed feeding schedule was tested (Altman et al., 2005). Lions (n = 5; mean bodyweight =
157.9 kg) were slowly transitioned from a 6 days fed / 1 day fast feeding schedule (week 0) to a 3 days
fed/ 4 days fast schedule (weeks 7 and 8). The end of the study (weeks 9 and 10) constituted the gorge
and fast period where lions were on a 3 days fed/ 4 days fast schedule, where the fast days were
selected at random, and could consist of any number of consecutive fasting days. The last two weeks
were compared with week 0 for all analyses conducted. Over the course of that study, apparent DM, fat
and CP digestibilities numerically increased from the 6 days fed/ 1 day fast period to the 3 days fed/ 4
days fast period. During that time, lions had an average bodyweight decrease of 7%, although body
condition score of these animals was not reported. Although the authors noted that the decreased
bodyweight was a benefi t of the study because animals were a healthier weight (lighter) during the 3
days fed/ 4 days fast period, the change in bodyweight confounds the digestibility data (Altman et al.,
2005). Behavior was not changed, with most of the time spent resting. However, there was a decrease in
pacing during days of fasting. Stereotypic behaviors, such as pacing, are a common problem in zoos and
any decrease in these behaviors are benefi cial to the animal. Using nutrition or feeding strategy as a
tool for enrichment may improve animal well-being and behavior. Apparent total tract nutrient
digestibility (Table) and fermentative end-products were determined (Vester et al., 2008) using fi ve
species of captive exotic felids, including bobcats (Lynx rufus; n = 2), jaguars (Panthera onca; n = 4),
cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus; n = 5), Malayan tigers (P. tigris corbetti; n = 4), and Amur tigers (P. tigris
altaica; n = 5). Due to limited space for disposal of fecal output by large animal numbers and public
proximity to the caging in zoos, decreasing fecal putrefactive compounds is of importance. All animals
were fed a raw beef-based diet commercially prepared and intended for non-domestic felid species
(Nebraska Brand Special Beef Feline). It was noted that fat digestibility was greater in Amur tigers,
Malayan tigers and bobcats (96%) compared with cheetahs and jaguars (94%; Vester et al., 2008).
Energy digestibility was greater in bobcats and Malayan tigers at 93.5 and 92.9%, respectively,
compared with cheetahs and jaguars (91.6%). Fecal pH was greater in bobcats compared with all other
species evaluated. Fecal indole concentrations were Apparent total tract nutrient digestibility by large
exotic felids fed a beef-based raw diet (Vester et al., 2008) ----------------------Species-----------------------
Bobcat Jaguar Cheetah Malayan Amur tiger tiger Number 2 4 5 4 5 Bodyweight, kg 13.3 58.0 41.2 105.3
122.6 Apparent total tract digestibility, % DM 89.5 87.9 87.3 88.9 87.8 Organic matter 89.3 87.7 87.0
88.7 87.5 CP 93.9 92.5 92.6 93.2 92.5 Fat 95.1b 93.9a 94.0a 96.1b 96.2b Fiber 50.8 46.7 48.6 47.0 42.4
Energy 93.5b 91.6a 91.6a 92.9b 92.6ab a,b,cMeans within a row lacking a common superscript letter are
different (P < 0.05). Reference Issue & Buyers Guide 258 58 8/24/2009 10:23:21 AM September 16,
2009, Feedstuffs 59 Nutrition & Health Dietary allowances for pet greater in cheetahs and jaguars
compared with bobcats and Malayan tigers. Fecal ammonia concentrations were greater in cheetahs
compared with all other species. This was the fi rst study to report fecal fermentative end-products in
captive exotic felids. We concluded that several small yet signifi cant differences exist among exotic felid
species. Interestingly, apparent total tract digestibility and fecal end-products of bobcats were closely
associated to that of Malayan and Amur tigers, while jaguars and cheetahs had similar values in many of
these measurements. This relationship may have been due the wild-type diet for each of these species.
Bobcats are considered generalists and consume various types of prey, while tigers consume large
mammalian prey, including gaur and buffalo, which may have a closer nutritional profi le to the raw
beef-based diet compared with prey commonly consumed by wild jaguars and cheetahs. Therefore, the
wild-type diet of each species may be an important consideration when formulating a diet for these
species. Domestic cat as a model To our knowledge, there is no published research directly comparing
domestic cats to exotic felids fed the same diet(s). Because of their close evolutionary lineage, the
domestic cat serves as a model for determining nutrient and energy requirements and feeding methods
for captive felid populations. To set feeding guidelines, nutritionists often utilize blood metabolite
concentrations and digestibility estimates of domestic cats. Digestibility of raw meat diets varies widely
among studies, and information on diet composition and quality often is limited (Barbiers et al., 1982;
Wynne, 1989; Crissey et al., 1997). A survey of diets fed to cheetahs in North America reported that
most zoos fed a commercially-prepared canine diet (Nebraska Brand), a commercially-prepared feline
diet (Nebraska Brand) or a chicken-based diet (Dierenfeld, 1993). The use of commercially-available raw
diets is common among zoos to provide a complete diet, although some prefer to feed skeletal muscle
with supplemental vitamins and minerals. Bechert et al. (2002) compared blood metabolites of captive
cheetahs (n = 12) to those of domestic cats to determine if a raw meat diet adequately met their
nutritional needs. A commercially-prepared raw meat diet (Nebraska Brand Canine Diet) or skeletal
meat (beef, horse, venison or turkey drumstick) with vitamin supplementation was fed for one year.
Blood metabolite concentrations indicated that the commercial diet provided excessive concentrations
of vitamins A and E but met all other needs. Studies similar to Bechert et al. (2002) are limited due to
the diffi culty of collecting blood samples from exotic felids. The diets utilized in digestibility trials with
domestic felids often contain a greater fat and protein content than is required by the domestic cat.
These diets appear to be highly variable, even among commercially manufactured diets. Daily
metabolizable energy (ME) requirements of domestic cats is 100 kcal x kg BW0.67 for lean domestic
cats, while for exotic cats ME requirements are estimated to be between 55-260 kcal x kg BW0.75 (NRC,
2006). Allan et al. (1995) reported that ME requirements could not be extrapolated from domestic cats
due to the large variation within and among exotic felid species. Digestible energy intake, expressed
relative to metabolic bodyweight (kcal/ kg BW0.75), was 150-185 in cheetahs and 200-260 in Sumatran
tigers (Allan et al., 1995). The authors suggested that, of the species evaluated in that study, young
clouded leopards and lions were similar to domestic cats, but cheetahs and tigers required more energy
to maintain bodyweight. Although details regarding nutrient metabolism by exotic felids are still sparse,
their close evolutionary relationship to domestic cats suggests that basic nutritional requirements may
be determined using this model. Furthermore, exotic felids share many of the same nutrition-related
maladies reported in domestic cats, including renal disease, hyperlipidemia, food allergies and obesity.
The increasing rate of captive exotic felid obesity mirrors that of domestic cats, and is likely caused by
similar mechanisms.