voltage incipient
High- oltage rower- ransrormer
esign4~
M. B. MALLETT
MEMBER AIEE
Synopsis: The previous part of this paper
covered the initial development and appli-
cation of the distributed concentric type of
power transformer design. This type of
design is chiefly suited for the larger sizes of
power transformers in voltage classes of
138kv and up. This part deals further with
the distributed concentric type transformer.
Principal points covered are
1. Commercial impulse voltage testing is discussed.
Impulse distribution tests made at low voltage have
been adopted as standard commercial tests for dis-
tributed concentric type transformers. These tests
determine the distribution of impulse voltage in the
transformer winding for any specified shape of ap-
plied wave. Typical distrihution tests are reported
as taken on a commercial transformer.
2. A new form of insulating cylinder has been de-
veloped for application in the major insulation struc-
ture. The cylinder wall is unique in that it is
porous and contains no bonding agent. This re-
sults in improved characteristics as compared to
conventional type composition cylinders. The por-
ous cylinder is made by a novel process which is
illustrated and described,
3. Application of the basic design has been ex-
tended now to include transformers in the 138-kv,
161-ky, and 230-kv voltage classes. A particularly
large transformer, weighing 250 tons complete, has
been manufactured. Shipment was made to the
Pacific Coast with the transformer proper assembled.
The shipping clearance problem was met with a
novel tank construction which is illustrated and
described.
4. Field experience is reported with transformers
subjected to short circuit while in service, and also
with a transformer involved in a railway wreck dur-
ing transportation.
N THE WINTER of 1942-43 three
* 90,000-kva banks of single-phase dis-
tributed-concentric-type transformers
were installed at the famous war-built
Shipshaw powerhouse in upper Quebec,
Canada. Each bank steps up the output
Of one generator to- the transmission
volageof154kv
of kv
voltage154
The initial development of the dis-
Paper 47-144, recommended by the AIEE commit-
tee on electric machinery for presentation at the
AIEE summer general meeting, Montreal, Quebec,
Canada, June 9-i3, i947. Manuscript submitted
Marh8,1 14;9aeavialefrprnig.pi
M. B. MALLETT is transformer engineer in the
English Electric Company of Canada, Ltd., St.
Catherines, Ontario, Canada.
1086
2. Full tests may cause
failures which cannot be detected by any
of the standard American Standards Associ-
ation methods.2 An additional method has
been proposed involving pictures of the
neutral impulse current.2 At the present
time there is no positive assurance that this
new method is infallible. The importance of
detecting failure in commercial testing is
paramount. Any testing procedure of com-
mercial transformers which may result in
undetected damage is difficult, if not impos-
tributed concentric type of transformer sible, to justify. This inescapable point has
and its application to the Ship been raised many times. It must be faced
design, squarely. Of secondary importance is the
shaw transformers, were covered in 1943 fact that full voltage commercial testing,
by an Institute paper.i The basic design conducted in accordance with present meth-
is also covered and described in British ods, is complicated and of the nature of a
patent number 581506. highly specialized laboratory procedure.
T t o d Such testing does not lend itself readily to
This type of design is suited chieflY routine production work. Undue expense
for the larger sizes of power transformers and loss of time are incurred.
in voltage classes of 138 kv and up. 3.the Ithigh of
is no doubt safe to say that most as
Essentially the design comprises a series voltage power transformers,
of cylindrical high-voltage coils which are now installed in any particular country
distributed concentrically between a throughout the world, have not been impulse
tested. Also, that high voltage power trans-
cylindrical shield and the low voltage formers have a remarkably good over-all
winding. See Figure 1. service record in any particular country,
Since 1943 further development and including South Africa where lightning con-
application of the basic design have been ditions in general are more severe than in
desin
carried out. This further work, together
geera
North America. Viewed in proper perspec-
with field experience on the Shipshaw tive then, it would seem that the question of
we rienheiprs
transformers, forms the basis of the pres-
commercial impulse testing is actually not
as critical as we often are led to believe.
ent paper. However, most operators on this continent
are concerned deeply over the hazard of
Commercial Impulse lightning failure. Also, many operators
t t believe that the low frequency test alone
Voltage Testing does not prove the high voltage transformer
to a sufficient degree in respect to service
Full voltage impulse testinga of com- voltage conditions.
mercial transformers is a controversial
an cmlxsubject. The followin h Careful consideration of these points
and complex subject. The following
analytical points are submitted on this f p i r
y d
ely debated subject.
d s .following procedre in respect to dis-
tributed concentric type transforners.
1. The specific subject of commercial im-
pulse voltage testing is often confused with 1. Impulse voltage distribution tests are
the general subject of impulse voltage re- made on the high voltage windings of all
search and experimentation. In the trans- commercial transformers for which such tests
former shop, the primary function of com- are specified by the purchaser. These tests
mercial testing is to prove the product to the are made at low voltage (about one kilovolt).
greatest degree practical; the primary func- They determine the distribution of impulse
~~tion
prove oftheimpulse voltage
product greatestis to
to theresearch im- shape
degree voltageof in
applied windingInfor
the wave.
practical. These fundamental concepts the distribution of impulse voltage in the
any specified
contract tenders,
must be kept in mind. Under present cir- high voltage winding, corresponding to a
cumstances the desirability of full voltage stated shape of applied wave, is specified to
impulse testing of commercial transformers the purchaser by actual figures. Thus, the
is questioned. The desirability to the trans- degree of control of impulse voltage distri-
former manufacturer of a continuous -im- bution is predefined. When the machine is
assembled the distribution of voltage is
pulse voltage research program, together
with full voltage laboratory facilities, is not measured and the results compared with the
questioned. specified maximum values in the contract.
Mallett-Power Transfformer Design AIEE TRANSACTIONS
 HIGH VOLTAGE LINE frequency test becomes a criterion of
2-X 3 !2x40 FULL impulse voltage strength to a consider-
3-|4 B|
FU

WAVE | able degree. While the combination of

and low frequency test
! -1
tI T- g I I 10lo(l9APPLIED.
100%)
distribution test
a
zg ' e , ,does not prove directly the impulse
z
a1 lZ$ 0
t
' 68.l°z
6. %0 | . 0 | B| strength, it does provide the purchaser
with considerably more evidence and data
j: I
o than the low frequency test alone.
| Z Z z Z 63.2%:: z z L i As contrasted to commercial full volt-
o
84, 6
q 1F-
>8 v
-
' a~~~~~~~~~
a, ° ' '

- ,| B $ * $ @ i 5 * 0
: U : i
t g | %
age testing, the commercial distribution
test completely eliminates the serious
hazard of undetected damage. Also,
0
o
0 t " > t g @g 5*3° .. 6.0% the distribution test is inherently a simple
||| '3 i 8 86.0% and practical test which lends itself
a1 -- 3 , 4 70.7% I readily to routine production work.
Such testing can be conducted quickly
5

2 38.7% O
L 20. 9 TURNS FROM NEUTRAL and at reasonable expense.
0% The testing procedure as just outlined
t ~~~~~HIGH
HIGH VOLTAGE NEUTRAL
steers a middle course between the ex-
tremes of no commercial impulse testing
WINDING CONNECTIONS FOR TEST and full voltage commercial impulse
testing. The procedure has been adopted
w9 L_- - n -N4 - - - - - - - - - for the present as a practical compromise
|n cu |N co t N
2 - w1which best meets the conflicting factors
> U) z z z z z z z z z z z z z oa z z z as they now exist.
o100 F Figure 1 shows the results of a dis-
-' 90u - - tribution test s take n a ommercial
QL.L distributed concentric type transformer.
< 80 F
The measured voltages were scaled from
° 70
EL
I I I L I I I I I I I __oLI I theoscillograms shown inFigure2.
z
> In practice it is to take
only necessarymeasure-
u a l .a relatively small number of
50 ---t-I ments in order to establish the ruling
Z 40 m- ____ stress picture in the distributed con-
| 1 l < { | _ H 1 1 1
centric winding structure. Typical meas-
v 3o | < l
s 30 ci urements ordinarily required are as
0 0) co rQ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ tabulatedin Figure 1, excepting that
10 | __ o | o o F_ voltages involving tap leads are included
< 0
2 ) co|~~ C1- .-.. °. an
(D -. __ )c - PO r- 0 The meas-
only for one tap connection.ruligsrse
5 0
BETWEEN COILS
n
-
BETWEEN TAPS
~
-~~~~~~~~~~~urements sondtrmine
sshowndete lingstresses
TO GROUND i
MEASURED VOLTAGES to ground, between coils, and between
taps. Excepting for tap portions, all
ruling stresses for this type of winding
Figure 1. Measured distribution of impulse held at the winding terminals. The low structure ordinarily are located at or near
voltage in a 230-kv winding frequency test checks the strength versus the coil ends. See discussion of voltage
stress relationship for each part under distribution in part I of this paper.
low frequency conditions, that is, with The ruling stresses between turns are
2. No full voltage impulse tests are made uniform voltage distribution. The im- substantially less than five per cent of
on commercial transformers. pulse distribution test checks the stress applied voltage. It is not practical to
3. A continuous impulse voltage research only as imposed on the parts under im- measure such small voltages and therefore
program is carried on in order that the basic pulse
design can be improved continuously. All
onls vose on thats wim- turn voltages a
voltage conditions, that is, with turn voltages are not included in Figure
nd inrFore
testing in connection with this program is nonuniform voltage distribution. How- 1. If desired, however, turm to turn
carried out on experimental structures. The ever, by demonstrating the actual dis- taps can be built into a critical portion
program includes low voltage distribution tribution of impulse voltage, the dis- of the winding, such as adjacent to the
testing, as carried out on commercial ma- tribution test considerably increases the line. While it is not practical to scale
chines. These tests provide basic stress
data. The program also includes full voltage significance of the low frequency test. these turn voltages on the oscillograms,
testing to destruction of complete winding The more closely the distribution of the pictures will demonstrate that the
structures as well as component parts impulse voltage approaches ulniformity, maximum amplitudes are less than five
thereof. These tests provide basic insulation the more nearly the low frequency test per cent.
strength data. becomes a valid means of judging the Figure 3 was taken when the test
Insulation testing of a transformer impulse voltage strength.3 Tests dem- actulally was being conducted. The
winding can be considered as a demon- onstrate that, for all practical pulrposes, permanent winding connections are not
stration that the strength of each part is the impulse distribution in the distributed completed and all coil ends and tap leads
sufficient to withstand the stress imposed concentric winding does not deviate are available for testing. The test is
thereon with specified voltage conditions unduly from uniformnity. Thus the low made conveniently with the transformer

1947, VIOLUME3 66 Mallett-Power Transformer Design 1087

on the shop floor and out of oil, the stress
distribution with air immersion being sub-
stantially the same as that with oil im-
mersion.
Equipment used for the test includes
a low voltage impulse generator, cathode
ray oscillograph, wave meter, and camera.
The generator is arranged to discharge
repetitively. By repetitive sweeps the
oscillograph records the voltage-time
picture as a standing image on a fluores-
cent screen. Thus photographic records
can be made quickly and conveniently
with an ordinary camera.___
In commercial testing, photographs are,
taken of the applied wave and of all _
the measured voltages. A permanent
commercial test record is made up which
includes data as shown in Figure 1, to-
gether with prints of all the films as
shown in Figure 2.

Porous Insulating Cylinders

Insulating cylinders are a vital part of
the core type transformer. In the dis-
tributed concentric structure, a number of -
spaced concentric cylinders function di-
electricallyas the primarysolidcomponent
of the major insulation. At the same
time the cylinders function mechanically
as a supporting frame work for the entire
high voltage winding and shield structure. -
Thus the dielectric and mechanical char- - -
acteristics of these cylinders are of first
importance.
Conventional insulating cylinders, as
heretofore used in power transformers,
are of composition type. They com-
prise wound paper strip plus a binder such
as shellac or bakelite. The wall structure
is impregnated completely with the
binder. Such a cylinder structure has
the following limitations:
1. Thin fissures are commonly present in Figure 2. Typical oscillograms included in In the manufacture of fiberlock cylin-
the wall structure. These may develop commercial test report ders, wet fibrous stock is first built up
during manufacture of the cylinder or sub- on a mandrel. The raw material is
sequently, and are difficult to dete^t. Since brought in from a board-making mill.
impregnation with the binder makes the
cylinder wall impermeable, it is ordinarily comprises a dense felted mat of inter- It comprises felted rolls or sheets of rag
impossible to fill these fissures with he trans- locked cellulose fibers, and contains no fibers which have been maintained in the
former immersing oil. Accordingly, com- cement or bonding agent of any kind. original wet state as first taken from the
position cylinders containing fissures present Because of their nature the cylinders pulp solution.
a serious breakdown hazard, particularly have been called "fiberlock cylinders. The wet stock then is kneaded and
under conditions of high axial stress.
2.dAs comparedit tofhighlaxin unregnatd
2. As compared to plain unimpregnated
fibrous material, the presence of the binder
.
Since the wall structure contains no
binder it..is porous. Any fissures which
compacted by the unique method il-
lustrated in Figure 4. In this method an
tends to reduce the axial creepa3ge strength may exist are filled readily with the endless steel cable loop is wrapped spirally
along the cylinder. Also, the binder pro- transformer oil and the hazard of break- about the cylinder, the cable being held
motes tracking under conditions of excessive down caused by sealed-in voids is elimi- in tension by an overhead traveling air
stress. nated. Also, the fiberlock cylinder pos- cylinder. The mandrel is then revolved,
3. Composition cylinders are brittle. They sesses superior creepage and antitracking with the result that the cable helix travels
tend to crack when subjected to deformation chrceitc.Mcaialthcyn- aealyb srwaton coste
or a sharp blow. hrcestc.Mcaialthcyi-ltrlyb sce acon coste
der wall is a unitary and homogeneous cylinder surface. Pressures up to 1,000
A new type of insulating cylinder has structure which is hard, strong, and tough. pounds per square inch thus are applied
been developed in which these deficiencies At the same time the cylinder is not progressively and repetitively to the
are eliminated. The cylinder structure brittle. entire fibrous mass. This simple method

1088 Mallett-Power Transformer Design AIBE TRANSACTIONS

effectively works the wet material into a
unitary mat having a high degree of
compactness.
Finally the remaining water is ex-
tracted from the structure by the ap-
plication of heat and vacuum. This
produces a further increase in density,
due to the powerful natural shrinkage
action of the now compact and unitary
fibrous mat about the supporting man-
drel. The dcnsity of the finished dry
cylinder thus produced exceeds 1.1 grams
per cubic centimeter.
Changes in dimension of the finished
cylinder due to reabsorption of moisture
are relatively small. Moisture reabsorp-
tion and dimensional changes are elimi-
nated, however, by impregnating the
cylinder with hot paraffin when it is drY
and still on the mandrel. When the
transformer is oil immersed, the paraffin is
leached out of the cylinder structure and
is replaced by the transformer oil. The
small percentage of wax thus added to
the oil volume of the transformer does
not affect materially any of the char-
acteristics of the oil.
In general the electrical and mechanical
characteristics of the fiberlock cylinder
are similar to those of calendered rag
stock pressboard-a material universally
considered as one of the best transformner
insulations available.
Fiberlock cylinders have been applied
over the past three years to more than a
million kilovolt-amperes of transformers.
1947, VOLumE 66
A typical application is illustrated in Figure
Figure 5i
Application of Design
Since completion of the 154-kv Ship-
shaw transformers in 1943, application of
the basic design has been widened to
include transformers in the 138-ky and
230-kv voltage classes. The 1i38-k trais-
foriners were all single-phase units with
typical power transformer ratings.
A particularly large 230-ky trans-
formner of the distributed concentric
type has been mnanufactured and shipped
to tile Pacific Coast. A sister unit is
now under construction in the shop.
The transformer is three phase and
is for tying a 230-kv transmission circuit,
Figure 3. Conducting
a commefcial distribu.
tion test
MalleU-Power Transformer Design
4. Processing fbrous insulating
cylinders
tapped off the B3onneville svste,in
with the 69-ky primary distribution
system of the British Columbia Electric
Railway Conmpany. The chief function
of the tie is to provide 2-way stand-by
service between the two systems.
An on-load tap gear is connected di-
rectly in the 230-ky winding to provide
tie-in flexibility. In addition, a third
winding of the transformer provides for
synchronous condenser regulation at the
tie point.
The machine has an equivalent physical
capacity of 50,000 kva and weighs 250
tons complete. It has banked radiators
and occupies a floor space of 34 by 29
feet.
Shipment was made with the trans-
former assembled, including core and
coils, tank proper in one piece, tank-
cover proper, and on-load tap gear.
Thus maximum protection of the trans-
former was assured, together with mini-
mum installation work.
Shipment of so large a transformer in
this manner was made possible by a
unique tank construction. All three
shipping dimensions-height, length, and
width-required special consideration.
The problem of shipping height was
met by a novel well type of tank con-
struction. See Figure 6. In this con-
struction the core and coils are slung
between the side walls of a well at the
bottom of the tank. The core and coils
rest directly on the bed plate of the well
and the lower cad of the core is only one
inch above the car loading platform.
The sub-base structure, required for
horizontal transfer of jacking force, is
built around the well and made integral
with the side and end walls of the well.
Thus, the shipping height is reduced by
an amount approximately equal to the
1089
 Figure 5 (left). "Fiber-
lock" cylinder founda-
tion for paper shield
structure

depth of sub-base structture, as compared

to conventional construction where the
sul)-base is underneath the core.
The available length of car loading
platform imposed another problem. This
was imiet by extending the tank cantilever
fashion up) over the car deck. See
Figure 7. This extension supports the
tap gear and houses the tap gear reactor.
In order to meet the limiting shipping
width it was necessary to detach the side-
wall reinforcing beams required for
vacuum oil filling. These beams were
then bolted on at the site. See vertical
rows of bolt holes, Figure 7.
Structural Stability
Manv breakdowns of power trans--
formers are due to mechanical failure of
the winding under conditions of short
circuit. Also, the winding structure Figure 6. Well-type
mtiust be of rugged construction to with- tank construction
stand transportation shocks.
The importance of structural stability
was stressed in part I of this paper. wreck. According to a writteni report from standing. The locomotive, which was
an eye witness, the transformer was being ahead of the transformer car, threw the
Also, the specific means provided to moved down grade on a rail spur by iiieanis of parked flat car to one side an(i climbed the
ensure stability in the distributed con- a switching locomotive coupled to the rock pile. The transformer car left the
centric winding structure were described. transformer car. Because of ice on the rails track completely and stove in the tender of
The following experience in the field the locomotive was unable to hold back the the locomotive. The transformer was re-
tends to confiri the design in this respect: transformer car, with the result that it rani turned to the shop and completely dis-
away over one-eighth mile of rough track, assembled. No parts were misplaced anid
1. I)istributed concentric transformers at attaining an estimated speed of 4(0 miles no parts were damaged. The machine was
the Shipshaw powerhouse were subjected to per hour at the end of the spur. The spur then reassembled, retested, and reshipped.
short circuit in July of 1943. The fault was ended at a rock dump where a flat car was It has been in service ever sinee.
a 3-phase arc on the generator side of the
transformer bank. Power was fed to the
fault through the transformers from the high -- ____r __ , .
voltage system. Duration of the fault was l--
estimated at 10 cycles and the voltage main- CANA\L A- 'ACIFC TAPR
nE
tained on the high voltage teriminals of the CAR r.c.30991o |l !l~t6
transformers calculated at 73 per cent of MAX. LOAD lTAP GEAR
normal. After the fault was cleared the 226000 LBS MFACTOR
P
transformer.F were put back in service andfl., i:_rrl L ; t
have been operating satisfactorily ever since. ________-_______)
'. In February of 1943 one of the Shipshaw Figure 7. Cantilever 2 2 r,
transformers was involved in a railway tank construction L ot i'LA iOJV

1090 Mallett-Power Transformer Design AIEE TRANSACTIONS

Summary
1. Impulse distribution tests made at low
voltage have been adopted as standard com-
mercial tests for distributed concentric type
power transformers. These tests determine
the distribution of impulse voltage in the
transformer winding for any ,, specified
4. . shape
of applied wave.
2. A new type of insulating cylinder has
been developed for application in the major
insulation structure of the distributed con-
centric type transformer. The cylinder wall
is porousis and
prousand ontans
contains n bonding
no bodingagen.
agent.
This results in improved characteristics as
compared to conventional type composition past four years indicates that the distributed
cylinders. This type of cylinder has been concentric winding structure is of rugged
applied to more than 1,000,000 kva of trans- and stable construction.
formers.
3. Application of the distributed concen- References
tric type design has been extended to now
include transformers in the 138-kv, 161-kv,
.and 230-kv M. B. Mallett. ALEE-TRANSAONS,
.IGNMBMltt.
4o^ . voltage,* classes., A rparticularly ~~~~~~~~~~~~~SIGN, AIEE TRANSACTIONS, vvolume
E
large 230-kv transformer has been manu- 62, 1943, August section, pages 526-31.
factured. The machine weighs 250 tons 2. PROGRESS IN IMPULSE TESTING OF TRANS-
complete and occupies a floor space of 34 by FORMERS, J. H. Hagenguth. AIEE TRANSACTIONS,
29 feet. volume 63, 1944, pages 999-1005.
4. Mechanical stability of the power trans- 3. LIGHTNING STUDIES OF TRANSFORMERS BY
THE CATHODE RAY OSCILLOGRAPH, F. F. Brand,
fomer indig structure
former winding sructre iis of paramount
aramunt K. K. Palueff. AIEE TRANSACTIONS, volume 48,
importance. Field experience during the 1929, pages 998-1008.

Discussion former than for the conventional ones. The

F. L. Lawton (Aluminum Company of
Canada, Ltd., Montreal, Quebec, Canada):
The author has presented a refreshingly
candid analysis of commercial impulse-
voltage testing. The combination of the
usual low-frequency voltage tests with low-
voltage impulse voltage distribution tests
on commercial transformers plus a continu-
ous impulse voltage research program on
experimental structures is basically sound.
There appears to be little sound justification
for expensive full-voltage impulse tests on
commercial units, with acceptance by the
purchaser of undetectable damage which
may lead to failure in service.
The distributed concentric type of design
results in a structurally rugged transformer.
However, there is one question which comes
to the fore with this particular design, as
inferred indirectly by the author in dis-
cussing the inherent % eaknesses of insulating
cylinders of the composition type, and the
use of the new "fiberlock" design. This
question is: What is the likelihood of the
formation of chains of minute particles of
water between coils of the concentric high-
voltage windings, under certain conditions?
Would the porous fiberlock cylinders be as
effective as cylinders of the composition
type?
The reference to formation of chains of
minute particles of water in insulating oils
is to a phenomenon observed in circuit
breaker oil containing some moisture.
Under certain temperature conditions,
widely dispersed water molecules appear to
coalesce into visible drops and move in such
a fashion between electrodes with a high po-
tential difference that the chain of droplets
constitutes a breakdown path, with break-
down likely to occur at relatively low volt-
age. . M. B. Mallett: The author wishes to thank
J. T. Madill (Aluminum Company of
Canada, Ltd., Shipshaw, Quebec, Canada):
In regard to the nine 30,000-kva distributed
concentric coil type power transformers at
Shipshaw it can be reported that they all are
operating very satisfactorily with almost no
maintenance. In the case of one of these
transformers installed as one phase of a
3-phase bank with two conventional trans-
formers as the other two phases, the winding
and coil temperatures seem to indicate that
there is less difference between the winding
and oil temperature for this type of trans-
difference between the types seems to be
about 10 degrees centigrade, probably indi-
cating slightly better oil circulation in the
distributed concentric coil type.
The fiberlock insulation is an interesting
development and we would be very much
interested in some figures showing the me-
chanical strength of this insulation compared
to the conventional types now used.
G. D. Floyd (Hydro-Electric Power Com-
mission of Ontario, Toronto, Ontario,
Canada): The author proposes use of a volt-
age distribution impulse test in place of the
presently accepted impulse test to prove the
impulse strength of transformer insulation.
This test, which is at best a compromise,
would have its chief value as a design test,
for improvement in the design of the insula-
tion structure. As an acceptance test, it
proves nothing except the distribution of the
impulse voltage through the winding at a
number of selected points, To be an ac-
ceptance test in the strict sense of the word,
the adequacy of the insulation to withstand
the stress also should be proved. There is
always the possibility that the points
selected for measurement of distribution
may not include the place where the ratio of
impulse insulation strength to impulse test
voltage is the least. Impulse failures in
transformer insulation often occur in unex-
pected places, and the unexpected place is
the one most likely to be overlooked in the
voltage distribution test. To make this type
of test the basis for acceptance as to im-
pulse strength is questionable, although it is
recognized that information of considerable
value to the designer can be obtained in this
way.
contributors of discussion for their interest
and comments.
It is particularly gratifying to hear of the
good service which the nine 30,000-kva dis-
tributed concentric type transformers are
giving at Shipshaw, as reported by Madill.
He asks for figures showing the relative
mechanical strength of fiberlock cylinders
as compared to conventional composition
type cylinders. It is hardly feasible to
answer this request, in that both the com-
pression strength and tensile strength of
composition materials vary widely (as much
as three to one), depending on the type of
bonding agent used and the processing
method involved. In general, fiberlock
cylinders have mechanical characteristics
closely approaching those of calendered rag
stock pressboard. As is well known, such
material is exceedingly tough and nonbrittle,
as contrasted to the marked brittleness of
composition cylinders. In this regard we
have experienced considerable trouble in
the past with composition cylinders breaking
as a result of severe transportation shocks.
Floyd stresses that the impulse voltage
distribution test does not prove the impulse
voltage strength of the transformer and is
therefore limited in value as an acceptance
test. The author agrees entirely with this
conclusion. As specifically stated in the
paper, the impulse distribution test in com-
bination with the low frequency test is a
compromise procedure and does not directly
prove the transformer impulse strength.
Floyd states, however, that the full volt-
age impulse testing of commercial trans-
formers is an accepted test. To this the
author takes excep'tion. Full voltage im-
pulse testing of commercial transformers
never has been accepted at all by the elec-
trical industry in Canada and only to a
limited extent in the United States. The
question as to whether such tests should be-
come routine standard tests in the industry
has been debated many times before the
Institute over the past ten years. The
question has never been settled and such
testing has never been generally accepted
by the industry. This nonacceptance results
directly from the inescapable point that to
date no positive and infallible means has
been devised which will detect damage
from incipient impulse voltage failure.
Because full voltage impulse testing of
commercial transformers has not been
accepted generally by the industry, it would
seem that the procedure proposed by the
author, specifically the combination of low
frequency test and impulse distribution test,
should be compared to the existing practice
of making the low frequency test only. Cer-
tainly any compromise procedure which pro-
vides any information whatsoevrer in re-
spect to the impulse voltage strength of the
transformer, is an addition and an improve-
meat over providing the purchaser with no
impulse test data at all.
Lawton's comments in respect to com-
mercial impulse voltage testing are particu-
larly significant, since the company with
which he is associated has an unusually large
number of high voltage power transformers
on the system.
Lawton has raised the point as to whether

1947, VOLUME 66 Mallett-Power Transformer Design 1091

the porous fiberlock cylinder is effective in
preventing lining up of minute water par-
ticles. The density of the cylinder is such
that it certainly should preclude the con-
tinuous line-up of water particles from coil
to coil, and effectively function as a solid
conomics ol Long-L istance )6=
rower | ransmission
S. B. CRARY
FELLOW AIEE
THIS paper summarizes the results of
economic*studies
economic studies of of a-c power trans-
a-c power
trans-
mission for distances from 100 to 600
miles. Particular emphasis is placed on
the economics of higher voltages. Con-
clusions have been drawn as to the effect
of voltage, distance, and loading. Sev-
eral papers have been presented dealing
with the technical problems' - involved in
transmitting power long distances, where-
as comparatively few have dealt with the
economic problem.5-8 This is quite
understandable. The economic problem
depends to a considerable extent upon
conditions surrounding the particular
* that of the transmission line when the line
considleration,
underunder
case case consideration,
may be altered by new developments
and
and inin time
time
and change in costs.
theof widespread
of the
However, in view However,inview
attention now being given to longer
distance and higher voltage transmission
and the comparisons currently being
made with other methods of transporting
energy, it is considered worthwhile to
show for assumed costs and conditions
some of the important economic factors
and the conclusions resulting therefrom.
The costs used in this study are be-
lieved to be representative although they
are necessarily averaged values. In this
paper, the costs correspond to averages
considered to be representative in 1945,
and no attempt has been made to adjust
them for recent changes. The higher
voltage levels selected for parameters,
Paper 47-163, recommended by the AIEE corn-
mittee on power transmission and distribution for
presentation at the AJEEsummer general meeting,
Montreal, Qutebdc, Canada, June 9-13, 1947.*
Manuscript submitted March 26, 1947; made
available for printing May 7, 1947.
S. B. CRARY and I. B. JOHNSON are both with the
central station engineering divisions, General
Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y.
The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance
given to them by Mrs. Doris Stupp and Miss Doris
Bryant for making the calculations.
1092
barrier the same as conventional type com-
position cylinders. It seems to the author
that this point has been confirmed over a
period of many years by the use of press-
board casings between tank and coil struc-
ture, the use of pressboard collars for the end
1. B. JOHNSON
MEMBER AIEE
360 and 450 kv, are not necessarily stand-
ard
ard voltages, as tthis study was made
voltages, as
before standardization of the higher volt-
age steps has been realized.
Several of the important possible varia-
tions in cost were carefully studied and
considered in order to test the validity
of the conclusions which were being
drawn during the course of the study.
The effect of these variations have tem-
pered the conclusions, which are pre-
sented here. Therefore, the results of
this study as summarized in the con-
clusions are believed to give a fair ap-
praisal of the present economic problem.
Conclusions
Based on the results of this study,
the following conclusions have been
drawn:
1: Theby cost
given
of a-c energy transmission
Figure 1 may be attained by ra-
tional transmission system design for power
transfers of 200,000 to 350,000 kw per cir-
cuit, for a load factor of 50 per cent and an
annual charge on investment of 11.5 per
cent. Higher load factors or lower annual
charges will reduce the transmission costs.
As energy transmission costs are chiefly
those of investment, the cost is almost in-
versely proportional to the load factor and
Figr 1. Cost oF elec-
trcenergy transmission _____ 2________
at 50 per cent load fac- cr
tor based on 11.5 perX
cent annual charge on in- e
vestmentE /.
At 200,000 to 350,000
kilowatts per circuit.
ate odiin nd dS- °
. . .O 10
Sunptiofls gilven In paper
Crary, Johnson-A-C Power Transmission
insulation structure of the transformer, and
the use of pressboard collars between sec-
tions of disk coils. Calendered press-
board stock as thus used for many years is
porous and practically identical physically
with the newly developed fiberlock cylinder.
almost directly proportional to the annual
charge.
2. Line compensation by either series
capacitors or special intermediate syn-
chronous condensers becomes desirable for
straightaway transmission distances exceed-
ing 200 to 300 miles. Below these distances,
line compensation does not appear to be
3. The 287-kv voltage level is about the
most economical for power transfers of 200,-
000 kw per circuit for straightaway distances
of 300 miles and for higher loadings cir- at
shorter distances up to 350,000 kw per
cuit for 100 miles.
4. The 360-kv voltage level is about the
most economic voltage for distances in the
range from 300 to 600 miles when line com-
00nsatio350issedforpowertransfersoft300,
0 ,kwiper
5. The difference
cinrcit.
in energy transmission
costs for any two voltage levels near the the
optimum is relatively small even for
same power transfer and becomes practically
inconsequential when the optimum eco-
nomic loadings for each of the voltages are
sed.
6. The terminal transformer costs approach
length is in the range of 100 miles.
7. Transformer costs limit the use of
higher voltages than 360 to 400 kv for the
~~~~~~~~~~~~shorter
distances whereas for the longer dis-
tances up to 600 miles circuit breaker costs
also limit the use of higher voltages when
intermediate stations are used.
g8. Operation of high-voltage systems with
grounsio costs bymaterially
nded netrals allowingufor thethe
reduces
thernextlower levelof transformer insulation
as well as reducing the transmission line
csts.
9. The lower resistance conductors result
in generally lower transmission costs over a
greater range of loads even for load factors
as low as 50 per cent. Also, since the larger
/
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20 30 40 55 0
MILES
AJEE TRANSACTIONS