NDEJJE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, DESIGN, ART AND

TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SECOND YEAR INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

(JUNE TO AUGUST 2016)

TRAINING FIRM: SEKA ASSOCIATES CONSULTING

ENGINEERS LTD

Student’s Name: Njagala Raymond Kigongo

Registration Number: 15/2/328/W/1424

Signature: ………………………

Field Supervisor: Mr. Michael R. Senfuma

Signature: ………………………………

Department Supervisor: Eng. Dr. Albert I. Rugumayo

Signature: ………………………………

Second year industrial training report submitted to the Faculty of Engineering, Ndejje
University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of a Bachelor of
Building and Civil Engineering degree

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DECLARATION

I Njagala Raymond Kigongo, hereby declare to the best of my knowledge that the contents of
this report is my original work based on my efforts, knowledge of the activities i have carried out
at Makerere Teaching Facilities (Facility 2) adjacent to COBAMS with Excel Construction
Company Limited under the supervision of SEKA Associates Consulting Engineers Limited
as the Structural Engineers working under Arch Design Limited (Project Architects and
Managers). It has never been submitted to any university or institution of higher learning for
academic purposes.

Signature: ………………
Date: ……......................

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DEDICATION
With all humility and regard I have for my Parents I dedicate this report to my beloved
parents, for all the infinite support and love, they have offered me and will continue to
offer to me every day that passes by and to my Friends and Family.

May the Almighty God bless you and take care of you, all the days of your lives.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

The internship opportunity i had at Makerere Central Teaching Facilities (Facility 2)

adjacent to COBAMS with Excel Construction Company Limited as the contractor under
the supervision of SEKA Associates Consulting Engineers Limited as the Structural
Engineers working under ARCH DESIGN LIMITED was a one in a million opportunity
to appreciate the principles i studied during the course of the semesters with the practical
knowledge which was quite interesting, it kind of led to my professional development, i
am very grateful for having a chance to associate with the professional Engineers who
were always present to guide us and to teach us how to go about the work.

Great thanks go to my academic supervisor, Eng. Dr. Albert I. Rugumayo for the time and
resources he spared out of his busy schedule to come and supervise me and my colleagues
from college during the internship, his guidance and counsel is highly appreciated.

I take this opportunity to express my profound gratitude and deep regards to the
management and staff of SEKA Associates Consulting Engineers Limited and most
especially Mr. Michael Senfuma, for all the guidance not only in Civil Engineering but
also his wise counsel, that led me to have a sound purpose in life, He lighted my way
throughout the internship and also throughout life, With him i learnt a lot about building
structures, how to design the structure, and the practical knowledge, The help, guidance,
literature and his profound wise counsel time to time will carry me a very long way in all
the future projects that i will work on with God being my savior.

Many thanks go to Mr. David Godfrey Mbayo, the Project Manager working under Excel
Construction Company Limited for the opportunity he gave me to train at one of their
sites in Makerere University, his vast knowledge regarding to building structures was of
great benefit to me, all the time he spared out of his busy schedule to talk to me and teach
me is gravely appreciated.

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Many thanks and appreciations also go to my colleagues, those we trained with for their
efforts, help and timely advice have surely transformed me into a better Engineer.

I greatly appreciate the following site Engineers, Derek, Asuman, Owen, Abel, Musa, and
Edgar for all the guidance they rendered unto me, these Engineers taught me a lot about
the practical knowledge, costing and structural design.

Lastly but not the least, i thank my parents, Mr. and Mrs. Tom Lukyamuzi and all my
friends and family from the bottom of my heart for the emotional, financial, moral and
spiritual support, relentless encouragement and support without which this internship
would not be possible.

I thank God for the blessings He bestowed, upon me throughout my internship journey, I
realy wouldn’t have made it this far without His grace.

I perceive as this opportunity as a big milestone in my career development, i will strive to

use the gained knowledge and skills in the best way possible and i will continuously work
on their improvement, in order to attain the desired career objectives. I gladly hope to
continue this cooperation we had with all of you in the near future.

Sincerely,

Njagala Raymond Kigongo

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ABSTRACT

This report covers the detailed technical account of the activities i was engaged in during
my internship at Makerere Teaching Facilities (Facility2) adjacent to COBAMS with
Excel Construction Company Limited under the supervision of SEKA Associates
Consulting Engineers Limited as the Structural Engineers working under Arch Design
Limited in the period from 06th June to 30th July, 2016. The internship was carried out to
enable me to use the skills that i have been taught in class in the development of real life
applications in the setting of an actual company. This internship has also been an
opportunity for me to better my interpersonal skills as well as teamwork and leadership
skills. These skills are needed for one to succeed in a working environment and be an
exceptional Engineer as well.

During this internship, i have also been able to attend a number of site meetings,
participate in materials testing at the site with experienced people in different fields. The
information that i have learnt from there has been a source of reliable advice about the
choices and decisions that i should make.

The internship that i have carried out has given me an opportunity to apply the principles i
learnt from the lecture rooms in real life and to also polish my structural design skills, and
construction technology knowledge, i do believe that this is exactly what i have done and
that am a better structural engineer than i was at the beginning of my internship.

Chapter One: - Introduces the company, briefs on the company profile, it includes a brief
back ground about internship, organization structure of the company

Chapter Two: - Covers the Literature review which includes a brief back ground of the
work done

Chapter Three: - Details of the various practical works that i was involved in at the site, it
includes the various tools and machines that were used to execute the various activities

Chapter Four: - Details the observations, the challenges and the general limitations in the
execution of the internship, conclusions and recommendation, it also includes the various
references that were used to come up with this report.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ................................................................................................................................................. i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................................... 2
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................................................... 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................... 5
LIST OF ACRONYMS ...........................................................................................................................9
LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................................................. 10
1. CHAPTER ONE .......................................................................................................................... 11
1.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 11
1.2 BACKGROUND ON TRAINING FIRM ................................................................................. 12
1.2.1 Firm Background ............................................................................................................. 12
1.2.2 Firm Capacity .................................................................................................................. 12
1.2.3 SEKA Associates Organizational Chart ............................................................................. 13
1.2.4 SEKA Services ........................................................................................................... 14
1.2.5 Project Management ............................................................................................... 14
1.2.6 Geotechnical Engineering ........................................................................................ 15
1.2.7 Design of Industrial Building .................................................................................... 15
1.2.8 Civil / Structural Engineering ................................................................................... 15
1.2.9 Road Engineering ..................................................................................................... 15
1.2.10 Design of Hospital and Services Buildings ................................................................ 15
1.2.11 Physical Address ...................................................................................................... 16
1.3 PROJECT BACKGROUND....................................................................................................... 16
1.3.1 Background ..................................................................................................................... 16
1.3.2 Site Lay Out. .................................................................................................................... 17
1.3.3 3D Impression ................................................................................................................. 18
1.4 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT .................................................................................... 18
1.5 SCOPE OF WORK ON THE PROJECT .................................................................................. 19
1.6 RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE DIFFERENT WORK MANSHIP AT THE SITE ..................................... 21
1.6.1 Quantity Surveyor.................................................................................................................... 21
1.6.2 Functions of a Quantity Surveyor ....................................................................................... 21
1.7 CONTRACTORS ESTIMATOR OR QUANTITY SURVEYOR .......................................................... 22
1.8 CONTRACT MANAGER ........................................................................................................... 22

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 1.9 CLIENT .................................................................................................................................... 23
1.10 CLERK OF WORKS ................................................................................................................. 23
1.11 THE CONTRACTOR ............................................................................................................... 24
1.12 STRUCTURAL ENGINEER....................................................................................................... 24
1.13 THE ARCHITECT ................................................................................................................... 24
1.14 SUB CONTRACTORS ............................................................................................................ 25
1.15 HEALTH AND SAFETY AT WORK ............................................................................................. 25
1.16 WORKING AREAS ................................................................................................................ 25
1.17 SITE RULES ...................................................................................................................................... 26
1.18 WE WERE SUPPOSED TO DO .............................................................................................. 26
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................................................. 27
2.1 SITE TESTS ................................................................................................................................... 27
2.2 SILT CONTENT TEST OF SAND ....................................................................................... 27
2.4 SCAFFOLDING ........................................................................................................................ 28
2.4.1 Terms / fittings used in scaffolding ..................................................................................... 28
2.4.2 Types of scaffolds ............................................................................................................... 31
Dependent scaffolds ........................................................................................................................... 31
2.4.3 Tubular Scaffolds ..................................................................................................... 31
2.4.4 Safety Regulations........................................................................................................ 32
2.3 THE SLUMP TEST ACCORDING TO AASHTO T-119 ......................................................................... 33
2.5.1 Water .............................................................................................................................. 35
2.5.2 Mortar Joints .............................................................................................................. 36
2.5.3 Concrete Blocks ................................................................................................................... 37
2.5.4 Damp Poof Course (DPC) .................................................................................................... 38
2.6 FORMWORK .............................................................................................................................. 39
2.6.1 Release Agents................................................................................................................... 40
2.6.2 Formwork Support................................................................................................... 40
2.6.3 Reinforcements in the Slab ......................................................................................... 40
2.6.4 Checking Formwork........................................................................................................... 40
2.6.5 Reinforcement checking.............................................................................................. 41
2.6.6 Water Cement Ratio .................................................................................................... 42
2.6.7 Construction Joints ...................................................................................................... 42
2.6.8 Curing Concrete ................................................................................................................. 43

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 2.6.9 Reinforcement ......................................................................................................... 43
2.6.10 Spacers for Reinforcement ...................................................................................... 44
2.7 COLUMNS .................................................................................................................................... 45
2.7.1 Column Formwork ............................................................................................................... 45
2.7.2 Concrete Kicker Formwork....................................................................................................... 46
2.8 STAIRS .............................................................................................................................. 46
2.8.1 Technical Terms that are used in Stairs ...................................................................... 46
2.9 PLASTERING ........................................................................................................................... 47
2.9.1 Plastering was done on the buildings mainly to achieve;................................................ 47
CHAPTER THREE: PRACTICAL WORK .................................................................................................... 49
3.1 BLOCK WORK CONSTRUCTION............................................................................................... 49
3.2 FORMWORK FOR THE BEAM .............................................................................................. 50
3.3 FORMWORK FOR THE SLAB ................................................................................................ 51
3.4 SOLID SLAB ......................................................................................................................... 52
3.5 MAXPAN SLAB........................................................................................................................ 53
3.5.1 Taking Levels for the Slab.................................................................................................... 54
3.5.2 Casting Concrete.................................................................................................................. 54
3.6 COLUMNS .............................................................................................................................. 55
3.6.1 Concrete kicker formwork........................................................................................................ 56
3.6.2 Column Formwork ....................................................................................................... 56
3.6.3 Casting of Concrete for the Columns ............................................................................... 57
3.7 STAIRS .................................................................................................................................... 58
3.7.1 Form Work for The Stairs ................................................................................................ 58
Formwork for the Beam at the Landing ....................................................................................... 58
3.7.2 Reinforcements for the Stairs .................................................................................. 60
3.7.3 Casting of Concrete for the Stairs .................................................................................... 61
3.8 THE RAMP ................................................................................................................................... 61
3.8.1 Formwork for the Ramp .................................................................................................. 62
3.8.2 Formwork for the Flight of the Ramp .............................................................................. 62
3.8.3 Reinforcements for the Ramp .......................................................................................................63
3.8.4 Casting of Concrete for the Ramp ................................................................................... 63
3.8.5 Caution ............................................................................................................................ 64
3.8.6 Striking Formwork....................................................................................................................... 64

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 3.8.7 Curing of the Columns..................................................................................................... 65
3.8.8 Plastering of the walls ......................................................................................................... 65
3.8.9 Plastering of the soffits of the slab .................................................................................. 67
3.8.10 Plastering of the Columns ................................................................................................. 68
3.9 TOOLS AND MACHINERY USED AT THE SITE ........................................................................... 69
4 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................................. 72
4.1 SOFT SKILLS ............................................................................................................................ 72
4.2 CHALLENGES AND EMERGING ISSUES .................................................................................... 73
4.3 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................................................................... 73
4.3.1 Conclusion....................................................................................................................... 73
4.3.2 Recommendations .............................................................................................................. 74
4.4 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................ 75
References ....................................................................................................................................... 75

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LIST OF ACRONYMS

BOQ- Bills of Quantities.

Eng.- Engineer.
cm- Centimeter.
mm- Millimeter.
APC- Anti-Proof Course.
OPC- Ordinary Portland Cement.
c/c- Centre to Centre.
AD- Arch Design Limited.
SEKA- SEKA Associates Consulting Engineers.
EXCEL- Excel Construction Company Limited.
CHUSS- College of Humanities and Social Services.
ADB- African Development Bank.
G.O.U- Government of Uganda.
COBAMS- College of Business Administration and Management Sciences
UCB- Uganda Commercial Bank.
MOESTS- Ministry of Education, Science, Technology and Sports.
US$- United States Dollar.
Ltd- Limited.

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 LIST OF TABLES

Figure 1.0: The Site lay out proposed project ............................................................................. 187
Figure 1.1: The Artistic Impression of the project ....................................................................... 208
Figure 1.2: The building as at 06th June 2016.............................................................................. 280
Figure 2.0: The Silt content test of sand ........................................................................................ 28
Figure 2.1: The Scaffolds ............................................................................................................ 333
Figure 2.2: The Slump test ............................................................................................................ 35
Figure 3.0: The laying of the block work ...................................................................................... 50
Figure 3.1: The formwork for the beam ............................................................................. 521
Figure 3.2: The formwork for the slab ................................................................................................ 532
Figure 3.3: Reinforcements for the solid slab ............................................................................. 553
Figure 3.4: The Casting of concrete for the slab.......................................................................... 565
Figure 3.5: The formwork for the column ................................................................................... 566
Figure 3.6: The K icker ..................................................................................................................... 586
Figure 3.7: Casting of Concrete for the columns .......................................................................... 58
Figure 3.8: The formwork for the stairs ...................................................................................... 610
Figure 3.9: The Reinforcements for the stairs ............................................................................. 631
Figure 3.10: Formwork for the ramp ........................................................................................... 643
Figure 3.11 Casting of concrete for the ramp….................................................................... 64
Figure 3.12: A Plastered surface ................................................................................................. 677
Figure 3.13: Plastering of the Columns ......................................................................................... 69

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1. CHAPTER ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION

This report is a short description of my two-month internship carried out as a compulsory

component of Bachelor of Building and Civil Engineering. The internship was carried out
at Makerere Central Teaching Facilities (Facility 2) adjacent to COBAMS with EXCEL
as the contractor under the supervision of SEKA as the Structural Engineers working
under AD it was carried out on one of the sites (facility two) in Makerere contracted by
Excel Construction Company Ltd. We carried out a number of site activities ranging from
Block work, Shuttering, Reinforcements in the beam, the Slab, Column, and the Ramp,
we also learnt a lot about Civil Engineering and Structural Engineering Design.

The learning goals for my internship included:

 To understand basic structural designing of the buildings, how to structural

drawings are implemented on site.
 Learning the practical aspects of building construction and construction
management.
 Learning how to operate the different plant and equipment that are used at the site,
such as the concrete mixer, the concrete pump, the power saw, the jumping
compactor, the vibrator, the grinder.
 Learning how to use simple construction tools like the plumb bob, spirit level,
tape measure, the water level, hack saw, bow saw, to mention but a few.
 Learning the different tests that are carried out on the different materials on the
site, the slump test, silt content test, compressive strength test.
 Learning about costing and estimations; how to cost and value a building
materials, how to calculate the amount of work that has been carried out in the day,
a week or for any given period time.
 Practical field surveying techniques such as know taking levels on the site
 Seeing what it is like to work in a professional environment.
 Gaining skills and knowledge throughout classwork in the field.
 Identifying the skills and knowledge i still need to work on and improve in a

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 professional environment.
 Acquire field-work experience.
 Enhancement my leadership skills and communication skills
 Build a network of friends and professionals from whom i can get good counsel
and knowledge about construction.

1.2 BACKGROUND ON TRAINING FIRM

1.2.1 Firm Background

SEKA Associates Consulting Engineers Limited is a consultancy firm in Kampala,

Uganda. The firm was set up by Eng. John R.S. Senfuma and Mr. Aloysius K. Bakkidde,
in 1986, and currently located on the Second floor in Sure House, Plot 1, and Bomb Road.
Brief details of their work profiles can be found on the company website;
www.sekaassociates.com.

1.2.2 Firm Capacity

SEKA Associates Consulting Engineers Limited has continued to grow and develop over
the past years during which it was responsible for the design of quite a number of Civil
and Structural Engineering Projects, Project Management, Supervision, Evaluation of
Construction Projects and studies to assess structural soundness of different types of
engineering projects.

SEKA has on several occasions handled projects in association with both local and
international consulting firms; this arrangement has been on job to job basis, there is no
permanent arrangement association with internatio nal consulting firm at present.

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 1.2.3 SEKA Associates Organizational Chart

Services Offered Include

Architectural; Quantity Surveying and Electrical Engineering (in close association with
other firms)

Civil and Structural Engineering.

Geotechnical Services.

Highways and transportation Engineering

Materials Testing.

Project Management and Planning.

Site and Services Schemes

Water Supply and Waste Disposal

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 1.2.4 SEKA Services

SEKA has the capacity and experience to provide project management and planning,
consultancy services in building construction, Civil and Structural Engineering, site and
service schemes, high ways and transportation Engineering, water supply and waste
disposal, geotechnical services, testing of Civil Engineering materials only to mention a
few.

The firm undertakes to provide consultancy services but not limited to; design and
supervision of all building construction, structural / civil works, evaluation of structural
soundness of structures under renovations, undertake the necessary geotechnical
investigations, identify the suitable construction / maintenance materials required for the
renovation works, prepare bankable documents, etc.

Whereas SEKA has been carrying out Consultancy services in building construction,
Civil, Structural, designing and Materials Engineering. It has a close working relationship
with other competent firms in Mechanical Engineering, Architectural, Quantity Surveying,
Environmental impact Assessment and Electrical Engineering to provide services as a
team under one umbrella. It therefore implies that SEKA is capable to organize or to be
part of a team to undertake projects from inception to completion with all consultancy
services included under one team.

1.2.5 Project Management

SEKA Associates has developed skill and gained experience in organizing work from
inception to entire design, final design of the architectural, civil / structural, mechanical
and electrical, bills of quantities, drawing contracts and supervision.

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 1.2.6 Geotechnical Engineering
SEKA Associates has undertaken geotechnical investigations in association with local
and international consulting engineering firms. The work carried out included
investigation to determine the allowable bearing capacity of the soils for multi storied
building.

1.2.7 Design of Industrial Building

SEKA Associates was responsible for the structural and civil engineering design of
several industrial buildings in Uganda.

1.2.8 Civil / Structural Engineering

The services provided included design of storm water drainage, evaluation of stability of
slopes, evaluation of environmental impact on the site, sewerage disposal, retaining
structures, structural design of new structures, assessment of structural stability of
existing structures etc.

1.2.9 Road Engineering

The Experience has been mainly on small stretches of roads where SEKA has totally done
the design and supervision; however, a lot of work has been carried out on major roads on
the checking the base / sub-base and identifying the materials to be used in construction.

1.2.10 Design of Hospital and Services Buildings

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SEKA Associates in association with other consultants has carried out project
management, design and supervision of hospitals and health support projects.

1.2.11 Physical Address

SEKA Associates Consulting Engineers Limited

2nd Floor, Sure House, Plot 1, Bombo Road

P.O Box 1354

Kampala, Uganda.

Email:sekag@sekaassociates.com

Tel: +256-414-256455 / +256-414-342729

Fax: +256-414-232985

Kampala, Uganda

1.3 PROJECT BACKGROUND.

1.3.1 Background
The government of Uganda under its Ministry of Education, Science, Technology and
Sports (MOESTS) got a loan worth US$29.2m from ADB for the improvement of
infrastructure, Science and Technology in Higher Education Institution, was meant to run
for five years, the loan was approved in 2013 and the project commenced in December
2015, This project worth US$12.8m was handed over to EXCEL and it’s anticipated to
run for a period of 18 months, its composed of two four floor buildings, one is located at
former UCB Slab next to COBAMS and another at the slab next to the School of Social
Sciences, the Facilities will have Centralized teaching Spaces, a 1000 seater auditorium

16
and an E-learning Facility. Figure 1.0 shows the site lay out and figure 1.1 shows the 3D
Artistic impression of the project

1.3.2 Site Lay Out.

Figure 1.0: Site lay out

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 1.3.3 3D Impression.

Figure1.1: The Artistic Impression of the proposed project.

1.4 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT

The construction at Facility-2 in Makerere University; along pool road between the
University main library and Nkrumah Hall is one of the ongoing construction projects by
Excel that includes; Construction of 2 central teaching Facilities and Rehabilitation of
Laboratories at Six Colleges.

The entire project was under the program; Support to Higher Education, Science and
Technology (HEST) (EDUCATION V) Project.

The project was being funded by the African Development Bank;

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The client was Makerere University;

The Project Architects and Managers Were Arch Design Ltd;

The Structural engineers were SEKA Associates Consulting Engineers Limited working
under the Arch Design project management team;

The contractor was Excel Construction Ltd;

The sub-contractor for Electrical installation was Power engineering limited ;

The sub-contractor for the roofing was David Engineering Limited.

1.5 SCOPE OF WORK ON THE PROJECT

Lower Ground Floor Level A1

 656 Seater Auditorium

 Stage
 Offices
 Snack Area

Upper ground Floor Level 1B

 Main Auditorium open to above 348 seats

 Stage
 Store
 Toilets
 Control room.
 Entrance Lobby
 First Floor.
 Offices
 Lecture Rooms
 Break away room

Second Floor

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  Meeting Room
 Offices
 Control Room
 Toilets
 Store

Third Floor

 Lecture Rooms
 Meeting Rooms
 Offices
 Server Room
 Service Level
 Board room
 Gallery
 Stores

Our internship began on Monday 06th June 2016; the building site looked like as shown in
fig. 1.1.

Figure1.2: The Building as at 06th June 2016

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1.6 RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE DIFFERENT WORK MANSHIP AT THE
SITE
1.6.1 Quantity Surveyor

This is a trained person that usually completed an appropriate tertiary diploma or degree
course and has professional practice in the following sectors:

 Construction
 Property development
 Finance.

1.6.2 Functions of a Quantity Surveyor

 He prepares the bills of quantities.

 He approximates estimates of costs in the very early stages of the formation of the
building project.
 To plan for the clients so that he gets the best value of his money for any
construction project to be carried out (cost plan).
 He examines tenders and the prices on the goods / quantities and reports his
findings to the architects.
 He negotiates with the contractor the desired amount to pay to him for the contract.
 He values work in progress and recommends payments to be made with the
contractor (evaluation)
 He advises on the financial aspects of contract variation (cost advice). (Greeno,
n.d.)
 He advises on the form of contract.
 To prepare the final account when the contractor finishes the work.
 He exercises control during the construction so that the cost is not exceeded
without totaling.
 He cooperates with designers to ensure that the building can be erected within

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 approved expenditure.
 He advises on what size and standard of the structure can be erected for any given
expenditure. (Greeno, n.d.)

1.7 CONTRACTORS ESTIMATOR OR QUANTITY SURVEYOR

The contractor must be knowledgeable to prepare quantities for such works where
quantities are not provided such as renovation works; the person who carries out this
work for the contractor is the contractor’s estimator / builders estimator. The contractor’s
estimator carries out the following duties:

 He prepares estimates for small contracts where the bills of quantities are not
provided.
 He collects information about the costs of various operations from which the
contractor can prepare future estimates.
 He prepares interim costs so that the financial situation of the job can be asserted
as the job proceeds and appropriate actions taken where necessary
 He prepares quantities for valuation on site as requested by the client.

1.8 CONTRACT MANAGER

This is the client representative at the site, his responsibilities are:

 To conceptualize and draw the plans vision of the project.

 To design document and formulate the contract for the project using competent
Professionals like architects, electrical engineers, and mechanical engineers to
mention but a few.
 During execution or start of work, he /she supervises activities of the contractor
and ensures that works done by a contractor are in accordance with contract
specifications.
 He values the work done by the contractor and processes the necessary documents
for the client’s consideration and action.
 He communicates information, requests, views and other requirements between
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 the client and the contractor.
 He advises the client over any changes, alterations, modifications, omissions and
their cost implications.
 To issue instructions, drawings, specifications, and any other necessary data to the
contractor, when and where required.
 In case of disputes between the client and the contractor, he can impartially advise
and arbitrate both parties. (Anon., n.d.)

1.9 CLIENT.
This is the employer, project developer or the owner. He can be a government or private
individual.

His/her responsibilities are:

 Defining the method, purpose of the project.

 Obtaining approvals for the project from relevant activities before execution or
start of works.
 Mobilization of resources necessary for the project including appointment of a
project manager.
 Approval of appointment of a contractor or nominated subcontractor.
 Honoring contractual payments.
 Taking over the project on completion. (Roger, n.d.)

1.10 CLERK OF WORKS.

The clerk of works is generally appointed by the employer and owes his contractual duty
through the employer. His duties include :

 He should stay on site most of the time to inspect the materials and workmanship
to see that they are in accordance to the work specifications.
 He has the authority to reject whatever is not in accordance to the specifications.
 Being on the site all the time, he has an opportunity to see all the work before
being covered up and can thus keep reports which might be required by the
quantity surveyor in adjusting variations in the contract.
 He keeps a record of the progress of the project and gives usually a weekly report

23
 to the architect.
 He provides information as to the number of days’ work, number of men working,
weather changes on site, any delays and hindrances in the progress of work and
generally anything that will help the architect in his administration of the job.
(Roger, n.d.)
1.11 THE CONTRACTOR

He practical y turns the client’s aspirations or visions into reality

The main responsibilities of the contractor include :

 He makes an offer to the client to execute the works (bits).

 He signs the contract of the client’s project.
 He undertakes planning and management of contract works.
 He executes work in accordance with requirements laid down in the contract.
 He mobilizes labor, materials, plant and equipment required for the work.

1.12 STRUCTURAL ENGINEER

His functions are;

 He makes sure that the buildings are structurally stable, the client can employ the
structural engineer if stresses and loads are greater than those in a simple building
 The structural engineer calculates weights on construction materials, weights of
people and equipment which will occupy the building and maximum wind
pressure on the building; these calculations enable the structural engineer design
foundations, column and beams, roof trusses, suspended floors and other structural
elements of the building. When the structural drawings and calculations are
produced, they are approved by the building inspector and used by the contractor
on site. (Barry, n.d.)

1.13 THE ARCHITECT.

24
He designs the overall layout and appearance of the building.

1.14 SUB CONTRACTORS.

These can be domestic or main contractor to do specific parts or specialized works of the
projects.

They provide additional skills to the building contractor.

1.15 HEALTH AND SAFETY AT WORK

 While at the site, we wore protective wear such as overall, hard helmet and safety
boots or gumboots.
 While at the site we put on safety gloves when operating machines.
 We Stayed away from loose electric wires or cables on the site.
 We Followed instructions while at the site.
 Risk Assessment – provide and maintain safety signs where there is a risk to
health and safety. Such as obstacles, train staff to comprehend safety signs.
 Marking of hazardous areas, to identify designated areas for storing dangerous
substances; dangerous substances (notification and marking of sites) Regulations
1990 yellow triangular symbol.
 Pipeline Identification-Pipes conveying dangerous substances were labelled with a
pictogram on a colored back ground conforming to BS1710:1984 and BS
4800:1989. Non dangerous substances were also labelled for easy identification.
 The Fire / Emergency Escape Signs – conformed to BS 5499-1:2002. A green
square or rectangular symbol was provided.
 The Positioning of the signs, primarily for location of fire exits, fire equipment,
alarms, assembly points, were not located where they could be obscured.

1.16 WORKING AREAS.

 Safe ingress and egress were provided for all workers.

 The walking or working surfaces were kept clear and any liquid spills were
cleaned up immediately.
25
  All stair ways and passage ways were kept free of materials, supplies or
obstructions.
 All debris and trash was picked up and placed in their proper containers.
 All protruding nails, forms, scrap and other debris were kept clear from work
areas, passage ways and stairs, and in and around buildings or other structures.
1.17 SITE RULES
At the site, rules and regulations were made up to ensure the safety of workmates and
were to be observed at all times.

1.18 WE WERE SUPPOSED TO DO

 Follow instructions; not to take chances, if you do not know then ask.
 Only authorized personnel were permitted on the job site.
 No employee was permitted to work before or after regular working hours without
permission and the required supervision.
 Ascent or descent of structures was to be made by ladders, stair ways or other safe
means provided for this purpose.
 All injuries, no matter how slight, were to be reported immediately to the
supervisor. To get first aid promptly.
 No fire arms or other weapons were permitted on the job site.
 The use, possession, or being under the influence of illegal drugs or intoxicants
was strictly prohibited on the job site. All prescription drug use was to be cleared
with the site manager.
 We were required to use the right tools and equipment for the job, to use them
safely.
 We were required to use, adjust and repair equipment only when authorized.
 To observe all no smoking rules.
 Flammable liquids were to be kept in approved containers (i.e. original container
or adequately marked metal safety can with automatic shut off and spark arrestor
screen), and stored in designated places. Transfer of flammable liquids from one
container to another should be done only when containers were electrically
interconnected by a jump wire (bonded).

26
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 SITE TESTS

Site tests were highly crucial at the site because they conform the exact quality of the
materials that were supplied to the site on a daily basis, to conform to the standard quality
of materials, materials where delivered to the site with test certificates.

The majority of materials and components arriving on site will conform to the minimum
recommendations of the appropriate British Standard and therefore the only tests which
we needed to be applied were those of checking quantity received against amount stated
on the delivery note, ensuring quality as ordered and a visual inspection to reject
damaged or broken goods, the latter should be recorded on the delivery note and entered
in the site records, certain site tests could however be carried out on some materials to
establish specific data. These tests include;

2.2 SILT CONTENT TEST OF SAND

The main aim of this test was to ascertain the cleanliness of sand by establishing the
percentage of silt present in a natural sand since too much silt would weaken the concrete,
the silt can be harmful for the strength and durability of the concrete, not only does it
reduce the bonding between cement and aggregates but also increases the water demand
there by reducing the strength of concrete.

We need a;

 A graduated measuring cylindrical jar.

 Water.
 a pinch of salt.

A third of the measuring cylinder was filled with sand, water was then poured until it
reached two thirds of the jar, a pinch of salt was then added to the mixture, the jar was
then shaken vigorously by closing the mouth of the jar with a pam and turning it up and

27
down repeatedly, the mixture was then allowed to settle down by keeping the jar on a
stable and flat surface for about an hour, the silt in the sand settled at the top of the sand
in the jar, the silt content should not be more than 6% by volume with respect to the total
volume of sand figure 2.0 shows the details of the test.

Figure 2.0: The Silt Content test of Sand

2.4 SCAFFOLDING
A scaffold is a temporary platform erected to enable building operatives to gain easy and
safe access to their work above ground level, it is used to carry the materials and tools
necessary to
There is a limit to the safe working height at which a worker can access the building work
from ground level. It is used to carry the materials and tools necessary for the execution
of the work. Scaffolding can be classified in either two ways by the material used for the
scaffold such as wood or steel, by the method of construction such as dependent,
independent or mobile Therefore some form of temporary support was required to
provide a safe and convenient working surface. This is known as scaffold or scaffolding.
Scaffolding is used on new-build projects and for work to existing structures, including
maintenance and repair work. The temporary structure needs to be structurally safe yet
also capable of rapid erection, disassembly and reuse. (Barry, n.d.)

2.4.1 Terms / fittings used in scaffolding

a) Standard- these are upright members positioned in alignment and parallel to the
wall face.

28
 b) Ledgers- these are horizontal members which connect the raw to the standard.
c) Putlog- these are cross members of scaffolds which are supported by ledgers and
the walls.
d) Brace- this is a member fixed diagonally across the standard for added stability.
e) Reveal- this is the short piece with screw able end attachment used across
openings for the purpose of fixing a put log.
f) Base plate- it is used at the foot of the standard to provide a stable footing, the
base is nailed to the base board to keep the ground upon which the scaffold rests is
weak and unstable.
g) Double coupler- it is a fitting used to tie ledger to standards at right angles.
h) Put log (single coupler)- this is used to tie a putlog to a ledger.
i) Swivel coupler- these are rotating fittings used to tie a brace to a standard.
j) Jointing pin- this is used to join two length of tubing.
k) Toe board clip- it ties a toe board to the standard to prevent accidental
displacement.
l) Toe board- it runs parallel to the wall and it is placed on the foot level to prevent
the foot from sliding off the platform.
m) Scaffold boards- these are boards used to form a working platform and are usually
225mm by 50mm in cross section.
n) Guard rails- this is a member fixed at about 900mm above the scaffold boards for
safety purposes, it should be fixed in the inside of the standard.
o) Transom- these are those putlogs whose both ends are supported on ledgers.
p) Bridle- this is a member used to breach the wall opening, supports one end to the
put log to the opening. (Roger, n.d.)

Functional requirements
The primary functional requirements for scaffolding were to:
❏ Provide a safe horizontal working platform.
❏ Provide safe horizontal and vertical access to buildings.
Scaffold may be owned and maintained by a contractor, although it is more common for
the scaffolding to be hired from a scaffolding subcontractor as and when required.

29
Temporary structures must be designed to suit their purpose by a competent person (e.g.
certified structural engineer). Scaffolding must be erected, altered and dismantled in
accordance with the National Access & Scaffolding Confederation (NASC) guidance
document SG4 for tube and fitting scaffolds or the manufacturer’s erection guide. A
competent person must inspect the whole of the scaffolding and associated temporary
supports, including the tying in and sections that are welded, bolted and fabricated off site,
prior to use. The inspection must be recorded in the site log. Subsequently the structure
must be checked on a regular basis to ensure it remains safe throughout its use.
Scaffolding and temporary works should always be checked before use following extreme
weather conditions, e.g. strong winds (Barry, n.d.)
Scaffold components.
The scaffold is usually constructed from aluminum or steel tubes and clips, with timber or
metal scaffold planks used to form a secure and level working platform. Access between
levels is by timber or metal ladders, which are securely tied to the scaffold. Scaffolds
must comply with BS 5973: 1993 Access and Working Scaffolds and Special Scaffold
Structures in Steel. The configuration of the tubes, clips and ties is discussed and
illustrated further under the different types of scaffold system. Other common
components are scaffold boards and edge protection.
Scaffold boards
A standard scaffold board is 225mm wide by 38mm thick with a maximum span of 1.5m.
The board is made from sawn softwood. Lightweight metal scaffold boards are used in
some systems. Greater spans can be achieved by using thicker boards; the distances
between transoms on which the scaffolding boards span must not exceed the maximum
span allowed for each board. Each board must be closely butted together so that there is
no chance of the board slipping off the supporting tubes. Each board must overhang the
ledger by 50mm, but the overhang must not exceed four times the thickness of each
scaffolding board. working platform depth is three boards. When materials are loaded
onto the platform, the clear passage for workers should be at least 430 mm. If the
materials are to be maneuvered on the scaffold, a distance of 600 mm clear pedestrian
passage must be maintained at all times. When laying bricks, the scaffold platform should
be at least five boards wide (1150 mm). Hop-up brackets may be used to increase the

30
working height of the lift and to increase the working width of the scaffolding platform.
(Greeno, n.d.)

2.4.2 Types of scaffolds.

Basically there are two types of scaffolds namely;

 Put log / Dependent / Brick layers.

 Independent / Masons scaffold

Dependent scaffolds- this consists of a single row of upright standard from the wall at a
distance which will accommodate the required width of the working platform, the
standards are joined together with ledgers and tied to the building with putlogs which are
built into the wall, as brick work proceeds, this type obtains support and stability from the
building support, standards are tied together by horizontal members called ledgers and
with cross members called transoms, this type is suitable for framed structures and stone
work.

Materials

There are two materials that can be used in scaffolding and these are wood and metal. For
wood such as timber and bamboo. For metal such as aluminum and steel, tubular metallic
materials.

2.4.3 Tubular Scaffolds

They are made of steel and light alloy tubes.

Advantages of tubular scaffolds

a) It is less likely to deteriorate than wooden scaffolds

b) If correctly used, it is more rapidly erected.
c) It is more convenient for internal works.
d) It takes up less space when stored.
e) They are used for multi-storey buildings.

31
 f) Short and long length can be obtained. (Barry, n.d.)

Disadvantages of tubular scaffolds

 There is cost of preservation.

 High initial cost.
 Many types of couplers / fittings are needed.

2.4.4 Safety Regulations

 Unsuitable materials such as loose bricks, drain pipes should not be used.
 Every working platform 1.8m onwards must be closely bonded.
 Scaffolds should be inspected by a competent person and a register of results kept.
 The space between the working platform and the face on the wall must be as small
as possible.
 All platforms must be free from projecting or any other obstruction and must not
be slippery.
 A guard rail should be fixed where the work man is likely to fall about 1.8m.
 A toe board at minimum height of 20cm from the platform should be placed at the
outer edge of the platform, this also safe guards the work man and materials from
falling off.
 All planks and boards forming a platform including toe boards must be of
adequate strength.
 Guard rails and toe boards must be placed inside of the standard.
 In case of timber scaffolds, it must be sound and not painted in any way so that
defects can easily be seen.
 The erection alteration and dismantling of every scaffold must be supervised by
competent persons.
 Scaffolds of a very great height and long frontage should be braced diagonally
across the face of the standards.

32
  For tubular scaffolds metal parts should be in good conditions and free from
corrosion. (Anon., n.d.), the figure 2.2 shown below shows the scaffolds that were
used at the site.

Figure 2.1: The Scaffolds

2.3 THE SLUMP TEST ACCORDING TO AASHTO T-119

Concrete required monitoring by means of tests to ensure that subsequent mixes were of
the same consistency and in a laboratory by crushing test cubes to check that the cured
concrete have obtained the required designed strength. (Anon., n.d.)

Equipment

 Standard steel slump cone.

 Measuring tape.
 Base metal plate.
 Scoop.
 Standard tamping rod.

Concrete was mixed using a concrete mixer to achieve the required grade 25. The
concrete which has been produced was immediately got from the batch mixer.

33
Every subsequent mix of concrete that had been produced was monitored using the slump
test to ensure that subsequent mixes were of the same consistency.

The slump cone was reasonably clean especially inside, the surface was smooth with no
dried concrete on them, the standard tamping rod had a rounded tip, the base plate was
strong, rigid flat and strong enough to support the concrete, it was on level and firmly
supported, the slump was brought close to the sample, we dampened the inside of the
slump cone to prevent the concrete from sticking in it, the base plate was dampened as
wel so that it wouldn’t absorb the water from the concrete, no free standing water was
left on the base plate, the slump cone was set on the base plate as close to the concrete
sample. One of the technician stepped on the foot holes on the base of the cone and stayed
there that’s why we had to put the sample and the cone close to each other so that the
technician doesn’t move from one place to another, the slump cone was filled by moving
the scoop around the top to distribute the concrete as evenly as possible, the filling was
done in three layers, each layer took up approximately a third of the cone's volume, the
first layer came about two and a half inches from the base, the second layer came about
six inches, that’s about a half way the cone, as each layer was placed in the cone, it was
consolidated with a tamping rod, the tamping rod with its rounded end, it was held
downwards inclined slightly to match the slope of the cone, it was slightly inclined so that
the concrete which was closest to the cone sides to be properly consolidated, we made
sure that as we were tamping the concrete, the rod went to the bottom of the first layer but
just tap the bottom, each layer was compacted just 25 times with about half of the strokes
near the perimeter, a spiraling pattern was followed as the rod moved towards the center
of the cone, the strokes were distributed uniformly as the rod moved away from the
perimeter, it was returned to the vertical, the second layer filled about half of the cone's
height, it was roded the same but we made sure that the rod does not penetrate about half
inch of the first layer but not all the way to the bottom, we made sure the third layer
overflew the cone that way the concrete stayed above the cone throughout the rodding, if
it dropped below the top, the rodding was stopped then more concrete was added and then
the 25 spiraling strokes were completed and we made sure the rod penetrates the second
layer by just half inch. When we finished the filling of the slump cone and tamping, we
removed all the loose concrete from the base plate, the surface of the top of the cone was

34
smoothed, any concrete that had spilled around the surface was removed, otherwise it
may keep the surface from slumping properly when the cone has been lifted off, we made
sure we removed the cone carefully so as not to disturb the concrete. To remove the cone
both hands were placed in the handles, the cone was removed -straight up slowly and
steadily without twisting the cone, removing was completed in five seconds. The cone
was then put on the sides of the slump set on the base plate next to the concrete without
touching the concrete or without disturbing the base plate, after, we laid the tamping rod
flat on top of the cone extending over the concrete. A measuring tape was used to
measure the distance between the bottom of the rod and the top of the concrete, the entire
slump test was completed within two minutes. (Greeno, n.d.)

The cone was removed and the slump measured for consistent mixes, the slump should
remain the same for all samples tested.

The specification should be 50mm or 75 mm slump, figure 2.1 shows the steps that were
taken to come up with the test as shown in figure 2.1 below.

Figure 2.1: The slump test

2.5.1 Water.
Water was the final ingredient in any mortar. For the majority of work, it was sufficient to
describe the water as ‘potable’ and to further reinforce that by specifying that the supply
must be obtained from a main supplied with water by the local water authority. We used
water which was suitable for drinking. (Barry, n.d.)

35
 2.5.2 Mortar Joints
It was essential that brickwork and blockwork be laid in true horizontal courses, and the
only way this could be done with bricks was to lay them on mortar. The basic
requirements of a mortar were that it could harden to such an extent that it could carry the
weight normally carried by bricks, without crushing, and that it was sufficiently plastic
when laid to take the varying sizes of bricks. It must have a porosity similar to that of the
bricks and it must not deteriorate due to the weathering action of rain. Mortar which was
placed horizontally below or on top of a brick was called a bed. Mortar which was placed
vertically between bricks was called a perpend. (Barry, n.d.)

The Sand which we used had the following desirable properties.

(i) It was completely inert.

(ii) Grains were sharp, strong and angular.

(iii) It never contained salts, which could attract atmospheric moisture.

(iv) It never contained clay and soil since clay and soil are considered harmful.

(v) It was coarse and clean and free from all sorts of deleterious materials.

(vi) It was well graded so that minimum voids are left in it. This amount would

require a less amount of binding material.

(vii) It never contained Properties like iron pyrites, acidic and basic salts, mica was not
present in sand.

The Mortar we used had the following properties.

(i) It had good workability in the plastic state but with sufficient early stiffening to
prevent joints squeezing out.

(ii) It had good water retentively (the mixing water could not bleed out).

(iii) It had adequate cohesion in the plastic state to ease handling and reduce droppings.

36
(iv) It had adequate adhesion to the bedded units both in the plastic and hardened state.
The term bond is used in the hardened state.

(v) It had sufficient strength when hardened for the work concerned. Should impart
sufficient strength to the complete unit.

(vi) Its durability was sufficient with regard to the degree of exposure likely and any
aggressive chemical agency.

(vii) It had tolerable drying shrinkage and moisture movement where this was relevant to
the proposed work.

(viii) They could permit movement (unless this was negligible or movement joints were
provided), when movement occurred within a well-constructed masonry unit it could take
the form of micro crack within the mortar rather than cracking in the bricks or blocks.

(ix) It could resist penetration of water through the unit.

In practice, any improvement in any one of these properties can readily be achieved by
varying the mix proportions or constituents but usually to the detriment of one or more of
other characteristics for example,

(a) An increase in cement content results in a stronger mortar but drying shrinkage is
increased.

(b) The use of finer sand in a mix improves its cohesion, water retentively and
workability but reduces strength and increases drying shrinkage.

(c) The cost of materials is an important factor and there is usually the need to limit the
cement content (because it is the most expensive material) thus limiting the strength.

2.5.3 Concrete Blocks.

At the site we used concrete blocks that were mixed in a ratio of 1:2:7 (one part of cement,
two parts of fine aggregate grade 9mm down but free of fines and dust and seven parts of
coarse sand by volume would produce a block of the required strength but this must not

37
be regarded as infallible. The dimensions of the concrete blocks are (400mm by 200mm
by 150mm).

2.5.4 Damp Poof Course (DPC)

Damp proof course (D.P.C) simply means an impervious material which was used to
prevent the vertical rise of moisture through the wall into the interior of the building. The
primary function of any damp-proof course (dpc) or damp membrane (dpm) was to
provide an impermeable barrier to the passage of moisture. However, D.P.C can be used
in:

The Damp Proof Course which we used was;

• Flexible.

• Impervious.

• Rigid.

• Durable.

The three basic purposes for which Damp-Proof Courses were used was to:

• Resist moisture penetration from below (rising damp).

• Resist moisture penetration from above.

• Resist moisture penetration from horizontal entry.

We used Damp Proof Courses to:

• Prevent capil ary action of water to the super structure of the building.

• Prevent the furniture and insulator of the building from moisture.

• Provide a good barrier to the passage of water from the ground into the structure.

(D.P.C) should be capable of adequate resisting any attack by sulphates or any other
deleterious matter present in the subsoil. The movement of water or moisture into the
building is most times upward through the foundation of wall from the ground. Paint laid
(D.P.C) should be protected on both sides with bitumen to prevent corrosion of the laid

38
(D.P.C), as it is in contact with cement mortar. Care was taken to ensure a good bonding
between slate or brick and the mortar. It was rough enough to withstand possible damage
during the laying of screeds, concrete or floor finishes. It may also be sand witched in or
under the concrete slab. Being impermeable to water, the membrane would delay the
drying out of wet concrete to the ground, if it is under the concrete or screed or it is on top
of the concrete.

2.6 FORMWORK
Formwork is the term used for the temporary timber, plywood, metal or other material
which we used to contain, support and form wet concrete until it has gained sufficient
strength to be self-supporting. False work is the term used to describe the temporary
system or systems of support for formwork. Formwork and false work was strong enough
to support the weight of wet concrete and pressure from placing and compacting the
concrete inside the forms. Formwork was sufficiently rigid to prevent any undue
deflection of the forms out of true line and level and was sufficiently tight to prevent
excessive loss of water and mortar from the concrete. The size and arrangement of the
units of formwork permitted ease of handling, erection and striking. ‘Striking’ is the term
used for dismantling formwork once concrete was sufficiently hard. The traditional
material for formwork was timber in the form of sawn, square edged boarding that was
comparatively cheap and was readily cut to size, fixed and struck. The material mostly
used for lining formwork today is plywood (marine plywood), which provides a more
watertight lining than sawn boards and a smoother finish. Joints between plywood were
sealed with foamed plastic strips. Other materials which were used for formwork were
steel sheet, glass reinforced plastics (GRPs) and hardboard. Where concrete was to be
exposed as a finished surface, the texture of timber boards, was carefully selected to
provide a pattern from the joints between the boards and the texture of wood, may be used,
or any one of a variety of surface linings such as steel, rubber, thermoplastics or other
material were used to provide a finished textured surface to concrete. (Chanakya, n.d.)

Honeycombing and leaks Formwork was reasonably watertight to prevent small leaks
causing unsightly stains on exposed concrete surfaces and large leaks causing
honeycombing. Honeycombing was caused by the loss of water, fine aggregate and
cement from concrete through large cracks, which results in a very coarse textured

39
concrete finish which will reduce bond and encourage corrosion of reinforcement. To
control leaks from formwork, it is common to use foamed plastic strips in joints.

2.6.1 Release Agents

To facilitate the removal of formwork and avoid damage to concrete as forms were struck,
the surface of forms in contact with concrete were coated with a release agent that
prevented wet concrete adhering strongly to the forms. The more commonly used release
agents were neat oils with surfactants, mould cream emulsions and chemical release
agents which were applied as a thin film to the inside faces of formwork before it was
fixed in position.

2.6.2 Formwork Support.

The support for formwork was usually of timber in the form of bearers, ledgers, soldiers
and struts. For beams, formwork usually comprised of bearers at fairly close centers, with
soldiers and struts to the sides, and false work ledgers and adjustable steel props.
Formwork for columns was formed with plywood facings, vertical backing members and
adjustable steel clamps.

2.6.3 Reinforcements in the Slab.

Concrete is strong in compression but relatively weak in tension, that’s why
reinforcements were highly crucial in the slab because the bottom reinforcements resist
tensile forces and the top reinforcement.

Before we casted the concrete, we checked for the following;

2.6.4 Checking Formwork

 We ensured that the formwork was properly aligned.
 We checked that it was properly cleaned.
 For steel formwork, we ensured that it was oiled.
 We ensured that the inner face of the formwork was smooth.
 We made sure that the formwork was water tight.
 We checked if the supports were properly fixed and placed.
 We checked the width, depth / height of formwork.
 We checked that thin metal sheets were provided along joints of wooden

40
 formwork.

2.6.5 Reinforcement checking

 we made sure that the steel was placed as per the drawing.
 We checked that the rebars were straight.
 We checked the diameters of the rebars.
 We checked the spacing of the rebar.
 We made sure that the hooks and bends were placed as specified by the Structural
Engineer.
 We checked the accuracy of the lap length.
 We made sure that the cover bocks were enough.
 We made sure that the rebars were rust free.
 We checked that the rebars were crack free.
 We made sure that the minimum 1inch clear distance was maintained between two
bars.
 We checked that the rods were tied properly with binding wires.
Pre-concrete checking.

 We made sure that all required materials, tools, were available at the site.
 We made sure that all service lines, i.e. electrical, plumbing and sanitary, etc were
properly done.
 We made sure that the formwork supports were intact and not displaced.
Checking during concreting.

 We checked slump for 20cubic meter of concrete.

 We checked that the concrete cubes were made for testing.
 We made sure that concrete was collected from 3 or 4 random mixes for making
concrete cubes.
 We made sure that at least two carpenters were available at shuttering area to take
immediate action if anything happened during pouring.
 We made sure that the concrete was not being dropped from more than a height of
5 feet.
 We made sure that vibrating was being done properly.

41
  We checked the level of the concrete surface.
 We checked the finishing of the concrete surface.

Post concrete checking.

 We made sure that curing was being done properly.

 We made sure that formwork removal duration was followed properly.

2.6.6 Water Cement Ratio.

The materials that were used to produce concrete such as coarse aggregates were first
mixed with water to prevent the porous aggregate from absorbing water that was used for
mixing which may lead to dry shrinkage of the concrete.

The cement, sand and aggregates were mixed using a batch concrete mixer with water for
two main reasons, first to enable the reaction with cement which causes setting and
hardening to take place and second to act as a lubricant to render the mix sufficiently
plastic for placing and compacting, about a quarter part by weight of water to one part by
weight of cement is required to make a concrete workable, the greater the proportion of
water to cement used in a concrete mix, the weaker the ultimate strength of concrete, the
principal reason for this is that the water, in excess of that required to complete the
hardening of cement evaporates and leaves voids in the concrete which reduces its
strength, you should define a ratio of water to cement in mixes to achieve a dense
concrete, the water to cement ratio is expressed as the ratio of water to cement by weight
and the limits of this ratio for most concrete lies between 0.4 and 0.65, outside this limits,
there is a great loss of workability below the lower figure and a loss of strength of
concrete above the upper figure the concrete mixed should not have a high water content
and a low water content, it was mixed to achieve a dense concrete. (Barry, n.d.)

2.6.7 Construction Joints.

Because it was not possible to place concrete continuously, it was necessary to form
construction joints. A construction joint is the junction of freshly placed concrete with
concrete that has been placed and set, e.g. concrete poured on the previous day. These

42
construction joints are a potential source of weakness, because there may not be a good
bond between the two placings of concrete. When forming a construction joint, the
previously placed concrete needs to be clean, with a sound surface exposed. The top
surface of the concrete is usually broken away by means of a mechanical scabbler. This
hammers the surface of the set concrete breaking away the loose surface, leaving a clean,
surface for the new concrete to form a mechanical and chemical bond. There should be as
few construction joints as practical and joints should be either vertical or horizontal.
Joints in columns are made as near as possible to beam haunching, and those in beams at
the center or within the middle third of the span. Vertical joints were formed against a
strip board. Water bars were fixed across or cast into construction joints where there was
need to provide a barrier to the movement of water through the joint.

2.6.8 Curing Concrete

Concrete gradually hardens and gains strength after its initial set. For this hardening
process to proceed and the concrete to develop its maximum strength, there must be water
present in the mix. If, during the early days after the initial set, there is too rapid a loss of
water, the concrete will not develop its maximum strength. The process of preventing a
rapid loss of water is termed ‘curing concrete’. The slab was covered by gunny bags and
wet sacks to retard evaporation of water. In very dry weather, the surface of concrete may
have to be sprayed with water in addition to covering it. The form- work around
reinforced concrete was often kept in position for some days after the concrete was placed
in order to give support until the concrete had gained sufficient strength to be self-
supporting. This formwork also served to prevent too rapid a loss of water and so helped
to cure the concrete. In very dry weather, it was necessary to spray the formwork to
compensate for too rapid a loss of water. (Macginley, n.d.)

2.6.9 Reinforcement
Concrete is strong in resisting compressive stress but comparatively weak in resisting
tensile stress. The tensile strength of concrete is between one-tenth and one-twentieth of
its compressive strength. Steel, which has good tensile strength, is cast into reinforced
concrete members in the position or positions where maximum tensile stress occurs. To

43
determine where tensile and compressive stresses occur in a structural member, it is
convenient to consider the behavior of an elastic material under stress.

2.6.10 Spacers for Reinforcement

To ensure that there was the correct cover of concrete around reinforcement to protect the
steel from corrosion and to provide adequate fire protection, it was necessary to fix
spacers to reinforcing bars between the bars and the formwork. The spacers hold the
reinforcement a set distance away from the face of the formwork, which will also be the
face of the concrete. These spacers must be securely fixed so that they are not displaced
during placing and compacting of concrete, and are strong enough to maintain the
required cover of concrete. Spacer blocks can be made from plastic, concrete or steel.
Concrete spacer blocks are cast to the thickness of the required cover; they can be cast on
site from sand and cement with a loop of binding wire protruding for binding to
reinforcement, or ready- prepared concrete spacers. The holes in the spacers are for
binding wire. Plastic spacers are preferred to made-up cement and sand spacers for ease
of use and security of fixing reinforcement in position.

Plastic wheel spacers are used with reinforcing bars to columns and to reinforcement in
beams, with the spacers bearing on the inside face of formwork to provide the necessary
cover for concrete around steel. The reinforcing bars clip into and are held firmly in place
through the wheel spacers. The plastic pylon spacers are designed to provide support and
fixing to the bottom main reinforcement of beams. The reinforcement slips into and is
held firmly in the spacer, which bears on the inside face of the formwork to provide the
necessary cover of concrete. These plastic spacers, which are not affected by concrete, are
sufficiently rigid to provide accurate spacing and will not cause surface staining of
concrete. They are commonly used in rein- forced concrete. To provide adequate support
for top reinforcement which is cast into reinforced concrete floors, a system of chairs is
used. The steel chairs are fabricated from round section mild steel rods to form a system
of inverted U’s which are linked by rods welded to them. Chairs are galvanized after
fabrication. Chairs are either selected from a range of ready-made depths or purpose made
to order. The steel chairs are placed on top of the main bottom reinforcement, which is
supported by pylon spacers. The top bar of the chairs supports the top reinforcement,

44
which is secured in place with binding wire. The chairs must be substantial enough to
support the weight of those spreading and compacting the concrete. Reinforcement should
be securely tied together; care should be taken to ensure that protruding ends of the tie
wire do not intrude into the concrete cover.

2.7 COLUMNS
These are vertical members carrying primarily axial load but generally subjected to axial
load and moment, Columns are designed to support the loads of roofs, floors and walls. If
all these loads acted concentrically on the section of the column, then it would suffer only
compressive stress and it would be sufficient to construct the column of either concrete by
itself or of rein- forced concrete to reduce the required section area. In practice, the loads
of floor and roof beams, and walls and wind pressure, act eccentrically, i.e. off the center
of the section of columns, and so cause some bending and tensile stress in columns. The
steel reinforcement in columns is designed primarily to sustain compressive stress to
reinforce the compressive strength of concrete, but also to reinforce the poor tensile
strength of concrete against tensile stress due to bending from fixed end beams, eccentric
loading and wind pressure. (Greeno, n.d.)

2.7.1 Column Formwork

Column formwork was constructed from short wall panels, with the ends of the panel
overlapping, or it can be constructed using specially designed and fabricated column
formwork, we used vertical marine boards nailed together to form a box, the column box
was supported by false work such as braces and struts, we first took the dimensions for
the columns, the building comprised of 500mm by 500mm, 400mm by 400mm and
550mm by 550mm columns each situated at different points in the building

Column formwork is made of timber, prefabricated steel units or a combination of timber

and steel. GRP expanded polystyrene, hardboard and plastic formers are also becoming
more popular, as is cardboard. Where a circular column is required, it is possible to use
disposable formwork, such as single-use cardboard formers. These are lightweight, easy
to handle and can be quickly positioned. The cardboard tubes used to form the concrete

45
column must be firmly held in position, adequately propped and clamped in place, before
the concrete is poured. Extra care should be taken when pouring the concrete into
lightweight formers because they can easily be knocked out of position. With the
sectional column formwork shown the panels are erected around a concrete kicker.

The concrete kicker is a small (40–50 mm) up-stand cast in the concrete floor which
provides a firm object around which the column formwork can be erected.

2.7.2 Concrete Kicker Formwork

Concrete kicker formed around the starter bars reinforcement cage with concrete spacer
blocks to ensure concrete cover is maintained steel column formwork erected around
concrete kicker and reinforcement cage spacer Integral working platform Prior to the
formwork being erected, the concrete kicker is accurately cast onto the concrete floor.
The small amount of formwork used to cast the kicker must be exactly the same cross-
sectional dimensions as the column. Once the column is firmly clamped around the kicker,
the formwork is checked for line and plumb. Adjustable props and clamps hold the
columns firmly in position Having poured and vibrated the concrete, the columns should
be checked to ensure that they are still line and plumb. If slight movement has occurred, it
is possible to adjust the props and bring the column back in line. The column should be
cast 20 mm above the soffit of the underside of the next floor slab. This will provide a
solid surface, which the table formwork for the floor slab can butt up against.

2.8 STAIRS.
This is a series of steps or set of steps leading from one floor to another, a stair does two
main functions such as;

 Provides one access from one floor to another such as it facilitates everyday
vertical circulation.
 It provides a way of escape from upper floor in case of fire.

2.8.1 Technical Terms that are used in Stairs

a) Step- it is a portion of a stair which permits ascend or descend, it is comprised of a
tread or a riser, a stair is comprised of a set of steps.

46
 b) Tread- it is the upper horizontal portion of a step upon which the foot is placed
while ascending or descending.
c) Riser- it is the vertical portion of a step providing a support to the tread.
d) Flight- this is defined as an unbroken series of steps between landings.
e) Landing- it is the level platform at the top or bottom of a flight between the floors,
a landing facilitates change of direction and provides an opportunity for taking
rest during the use of the stair.
f) Rise- it is the vertical distance between two successful tread faces.
g) Going- it is the horizontal distance between two successive riser faces. (Anon.,
n.d.)
2.9 PLASTERING
Plastering is the process of covering rough surfaces of walls, columns, ceilings and
other building components with thin coats of plastic mortars to form a smooth durable
surface, the coating of the thick Run- it is the total length of stairs in a horizontal
plane including landings. Plastering an external exposed surface is called rendering

2.9.1 Plastering was done on the buildings mainly to achieve;

 To protect the external surfaces against the penetration of water and other
atmospheric agents.
 To give a smooth surface in which dust and dirt cannot lodge.
 To give a decorative effect.
 To protect against vermit.
 To conceal inferior materials on effective workmanship.

The plaster material that we used had the following requirements.

 it adhered to the background (this is a surface to which the first coat of plaster is to
be applied) and should remained adhered during all variations in seasons and other
atmospheric conditions.
 It was hard and durable.
 It effectively checked on penetration of moisture.
We depended on the following factors while choosing the recommended plaster;

47
 Availability of binding materials.
 Durability requirements.
 Finishing requirement.

48
CHAPTER THREE: PRACTICAL WORK.
3.1 BLOCK WORK CONSTRUCTION
The concrete batch mixer was cleaned thoroughly, water was added, Cement
and sand were mixed thoroughly in a ratio of 1:3, the mix did not have a high water
content or very low water content, it was workable. It was then transported to the site
where construction was going to take place, before we laid the blocks, a Damp Proof
Course was laid on the course where the blocks were to be laid to prevent the rise of
water by capillary attraction, an Anti-Proof Course (one inch mortar bed) was laid on
top of the DPC, the concrete blocks were laid with the stretcher bond and fastened
by a mortar bed, Bonding of bricks refers to the practice of laying the bricks in layers
or courses and in any of a number of patterns or bonds to form a wall of a
homogeneous construction, i.e. the individual bricks overlap each other in adjacent
layers, the pattern alternating in adjacent layers or after a number of similar layers.
The patterns in these layers are formed with whole and cut bricks.
Tools Used.
Masons Trowel.
Plumb bob.
String.
Spirit Level.
Builders Square.
Figure 3.0 shows the steps that were taken to come up with the block work

49
Figure 3.0: The laying of block work

3.2 FORMWORK FOR THE BEAM.

Before you lay the formwork for the beam, we first got levels for the formwork up to the
soffit of the beam, the height of the floor was 3.3m, we first marked off the 1m mark from
the ground, we offset off the 1m mark on each of the columns.

3.3-1.0=2.3. 2.3-0.5 (allowance for the beam) =1.8. 1.8+0.05 (allowance for plaster)
=1.85m. (this was our height from the 1m mark up to the soffit of the beam).

Adjustable props were raised vertically at a distance of about 600mm, (the spacing between
the props on the ground), the ledgers were aligned and fastened on the adjustable props
using nails, levels were taken using a water level to establish the exact
position where the beam was going to be, a camber (string) was connected from one point
where the soffit of the beam would be on the column to the next. Cross pieced heads of
(100mm by 50mm) were laid on top of ledgers at equal distances of 400mm. Marine
boards of thickness (20mm) were laid sited on the bearers and fastened with nails, we
made sure they were at the same level. Vertical marine boards supported with soldiers and
struts were aligned vertically. We made sure the vertical boards on either sides were on
plumb. The formwork for the beam is as demonstrated in figure 3.1 below.

50
Figure 3.1: Formwork for the beams

List of instruments / equipment we used.

Bow saw.

Hack saw.

Spirit level.

Tape measure.

Camber.

3.3 FORMWORK FOR THE SLAB.

The steel plates of (900mm by 600mm) and 30mm thick were laid on top of ledgers that
pass across each other, they were fastened on the ledgers using nails, ledgers which were
joined by the butt joint connected to the beams at either side, the ledgers connected to the
beam in order to support the beam so as to prevent collapse of the formwork of the beam,
we used steel plates which were fixed on the ledgers. Figure 3.2 shows the formwork for
the slab.

51
Figure 3.2: The formwork for the slabs
3.4 SOLID SLAB.
Before laying the reinforcements in the slab the steel plates (steel shutter) were oiled first
in order to facilitate easy striking of the formwork after the recommended 28 days after
the concrete has gained sufficient strength to be self-supporting.

We used steel plates because they can easily dissipate out heat that has been produced by
the concrete and can easily act as good conductors of heat, the steel plates were fastened
on the ledgers using nails. The reinforcements in the solid slab of 5000mm by 6000mm
were laid in form of two mats, the bottom mat and the top mat, the bottom mat comprised
of vertical and horizontal T16 bars running across each other, the spacing between the
bars was 200mm by 150mm and the top mat comprised of T16 bars running
perpendicular to each other at a spacing of 200mm by 150mm, they were fixed onto each
other by binding wires the top bars (T16)which are referred to nuas the compression bars
sat on steel chairs which were fastened on the bottom tension bars with binding wires, the
horizontal and vertical iron bars hooked into the continuous beams that are on either sides
of the slab, they also hooked into the T beams that were stationed in the centers of the
52
slab, they hook into the beam in order to resist the loads that are imposed on it without
bending, the hook holds the solid slab in position without bending there by deriving
support for the slab and figure 3.3 demonstrates the reinforcements for the solid slab.

Figure 3.3: Reinforcements for the solid slab.

3.5 MAXPAN SLAB

The second floor

GRIDS Between B (3-4) and C (3-4), between C (2-3) and D (2-3), Between C (3-4) and
D (3-4), Between D (3-4) and E (3-4), Between D (2-3) and E (2-3)

We used maxpans of (300mm by 300mm by 150mm). The steel plates were oiled to
facilitate easy striking off, the removal of the shuttering after the concrete has gained
sufficient strength to be self-supporting, the area where we laid the maxpans was cleaned,
we made sure to remove all the loose debris from the slab, after that we laid the maxpans
in lines, a rib of 125mm was left between opposite columns, Two T16 bars were laid
between the ribs of the maxpans, one at the top, which runs along and hooks into the
beams at the sides, the bottom bar was put at the bottom hooking into the beams at the
opposite sides. A192 BRC mesh was laid on top of the maxpans in order to add flexural

53
strength to the concrete, this flexural strength prevents the development of cracks in the
maxpans slab, the A192 BRC mesh was tied on top of the beam using binding wires.

3.5.1 Taking Levels for the Slab

The thickness of the slab was 200mm, we marked off a 200mm mark on the iron bars of
the column using masking tape, at the same column, we offset off a height of 700mm
above that point, after filling the water level with water and ensuring that there are no
bubbles, we put one head of the water level at that point which is 700mm above the
200mm mark, an assistant was sent to the next column in order to get its level, we
adjusted the water level at a known point until the lower meniscus was completely
vertical, after the assistant was told to mark off that point, we repeated the process until
all the columns were completely marked, when we were finding the exact level for the
slab, we tied a string on all the columns at the exact point we marked which was 700mm.
In order to get the exact level for the slab, we marked off 700mm downwards in order to
get the exact level for the slab which was 200mm thick.

3.5.2 Casting Concrete.

We cleaned the slab very well using brushes, we removed all the loose particles such as
binding wires, and we applied water to wet the slab so as to prevent rapid drying of
concrete which may lead to the cracking of concrete.

Cement Sand and Aggregates were mixed to achieve a desired grade of concrete grade 25.
We mixed the concrete so that it did not have a high water content or low water content,
we made sure to produce a dense mix, the readily mixed concrete was pumped by the
concrete pump to the slab, we used hoes and spades to distribute the concrete to the
desired level, every time we cast the concrete we used a poker vibrator to compact the
concrete so that there are no voids in the slab, after achieving the required level, a
horizontal timber member was used by two masons to tamp the concrete so that to
achieve a desired surface. Figure 3.4 shows casting concrete for the slab

54
Figure 3.4: The casting of concrete for the slab

3.6 COLUMNS.
These are vertical members carrying primarily axial load but generally subjected to axial
load and moment, Columns are designed to support the loads of roofs, floors and walls. If
all these loads acted concentrically on the section of the column, then it would suffer only
compressive stress and it would be sufficient to construct the column of either concrete by
itself or of rein- forced concrete to reduce the required section area. In practice, the loads
of floor and roof beams, and walls and wind pressure, act eccentrically, i.e. off the center
of the section of columns, and so cause some bending and tensile stress in columns. The
steel reinforcement in columns is designed primarily to sustain compressive stress to
reinforce the compressive strength of concrete, but also to reinforce the poor tensile
strength of concrete against tensile stress due to bending from fixed end beams, eccentric
loading and wind pressure. The figure 3.5 below shows the formwork for the columns

55
Figure 3.5: The formwork for the columns

3.6.1 Concrete kicker formwork

The figure 3.6 shows the formwork for the kicker.

Figure 3.6: The kicker

3.6.2 Column Formwork

Column formwork was constructed from short wall panels, with the ends of the panel
overlapping, or it can be constructed using specially designed and fabricated column
formwork, we used vertical marine boards nailed together to form a box, the column box

56
was supported by false work such as braces and struts, we first took the dimensions for
the columns, the building comprised of 500mm by 500mm, 400mm by 400mm and
550mm by 550mm columns each situated at different points in the building

Column formwork is made of timber, prefabricated steel units or a combination of timber

and steel. GRP, expanded polystyrene, hardboard and plastic formers are also becoming
more popular, as is cardboard. Where a circular column is required, it is possible to use
disposable formwork, such as single-use cardboard formers. These are lightweight, easy
to handle and can be quickly positioned. The cardboard tubes used to form the concrete
column must be firmly held in position, adequately propped and clamped in place, before
the concrete is poured. Extra care should be taken when pouring the concrete into
lightweight formers because they can easily be knocked out of position. With the
sectional column formwork shown the panels are erected around a concrete kicker.

The concrete kicker is a small (40–50 mm) up-stand cast in the concrete floor which
provides a firm object around which the column formwork can be erected.

3.6.3 Casting of Concrete for the Columns.

Immediately after the formwork for the columns had been erected, the columns were
casted, but before casting the columns, we first cleaned the formwork for the columns, we
removed loose debris, loose binding wires then we fixed the spacers in the reinforcements
for the column at approximate distances. We fixed spacers in the columns so as to make
sure that there is sufficient concrete cover for the columns, cement sand and aggregates
were mixed in a ratio of 1:2:3 to achieve the required grade of 25, concrete was mixed
using a batch concrete mixer, it was then transported to the site using a concrete pump,
mortar pans were used to lift and cast the concrete into the formwork for the columns,
concrete was cast in layers and every layer was compacted using a poker vibrator in order
to avoid voids from the columns which may compromise its strength. As shown in the
figure 3.7 below, it shows casting of concrete for the columns.

57
Figure 3.7: Casting of concrete for the Columns

3.7 STAIRS.
This is a series of steps or set of steps leading from one floor to another

There were different sets of stairs in the building, and these where located in different
grids and different places in the building;

Stairs located;

3rd floor

Grids at; A (2-3) and B (2-3)

The flight of the stair was 3750mm, The Riser was 150mm, the waist of the stair was
200mm, the tread was 300mm,

3.7.1 Form Work for The Stairs.

Formwork for the landing.

Before laying the formwork for the flight of the stairs, we first laid the formwork for the
landing.

Formwork for the Beam at the Landing.

We first took the dimensions for the landing, and for the beam where the flight of the stair
was going to hook into and derive its support from it.

58
After that we laid the formwork for the beam, at the beam we fastened adjacent ledgers on
the sides of the columns. Adjacent steel props where raised from the ground to act as
supports for the ledgers, the ledgers where fastened on the steel props with nails, the steel
props where adjusted until the ledgers were aligned at the same level, Bearers or cross
pieces of (100mm by 50mm) were laid on top of ledgers at equal distances of 400mm,
they were fixed on the ledgers by hammering them on the ledgers, we used a string to
make sure that the bearers where at the same level. Marine bottoms were laid on top of
the bearers, we nailed them on top of the bearers, after we laid up stands on the sides of
the marine bottom. Adjustable steel props were laid at equal distances in the middle
where the landing was going to be, ledgers of (100mm by 50mm) were laid on top of the
steel props at equal distances, and fixed with nails, these ledgers connected directly on the
opposite up-stands of the beam, to support the up-stands of the beams and to also hold the
formwork for the slab, after that, we laid marine boards on top of the horizontal and
vertical ledgers that were running across and connecting to the up-stands of the beam in
the required area of the landing.

Formwork for the flight of the stair.

Immediately after constructing the formwork for the landing of the stair case, we laid the
formwork for the flight, Horizontal and vertical ledgers were laid connecting to the
formwork for the beam, adjustable steel props were laid to act as supports for the
horizontal and vertical ledgers, they were raised at approximately equal distances. The
ledgers were fixed on the props using nails, the adjustable steel props were adjusted until
a desired level was achieved, after that we laid marine boards on top of the ledger, we
fixed them on the ledgers using nails, we raised up-stands on the sides of marine boards.
The figure 3.8 shows the form work for the stairs.

59
Figure 3.8: The formwork for the stairs

3.7.2 Reinforcements for the Stairs

The stairs at the different grids on the building had different sizes and the reinforcements
where different.

Make sure to provide a scissor effect at the bend near the landing so as to counteract the
bending moments and shear failure at that point.

Stairs at grids A (2-3) and B (2-3)

(for all the floors)

The flight of the stair was 3750mm, the width of the stair was 2400mm, the tread of the
stair was 300mm, the riser was 150mm.the stair was mainly comprised of T20 and T12
bars which were the distribution bars, T12 were tied using binding wires on T20, T12
which were the distribution bars, bars running along the width of the stair were hooked at
the end. These bars were spaced at equal distances of 200mm by 150mm. the figure 3.9
shown below shows the reinforcements for the stairs.

60
Figure 3.9: The reinforcements for the stairs

3.7.3 Casting of Concrete for the Stairs.

We removed all the loose particles, dust, un necessary debris and loose binding wires that
had been stuck inside the reinforcements.

We attached spacers of 25mm below the reinforcements at reasonable distances to

provide for concrete cover, cement sand and coarse aggregates were mixed to form
concrete of grade 25.

After casting of the concrete, the stair is covered by wet gunny bags to retain water for
curing, the stair is cured for 28 days until it has gained sufficient strength to be self-
supporting.

3.8 THE RAMP.

61
 3.8.1 Formwork for the Ramp.
Before laying the formwork for the ramp, we first laid the formwork for the landing.
Formwork for the landing, to lay the formwork for the landing, we first laid the formwork
for the beam, to lay the formwork for the beam, we laid adjacent ledgers on the sides of
the column after taking the required dimensions for the landing and the beam, adjacent
ledgers were fastened on the sides of the column using nails and binding wires, adjustable
steel props were raised to act as supports for the ledgers, the ledgers were fastened on the
props using nails, we adjusted the props until all the ledgers were on level, after marking
off the levels where the marine bottoms will be, we tied a string from one bar on one
column to the next, we laid cross pieces or bearers of 100mm by 50mm at equal distances
of 500mm,we fixed them on the ledgers using nails. We made sure that the bearers were
at the same level, marine bottoms were laid on top of bearers and fixed using nails, up-
stands supported by soldiers and struts were raised on the opposite sides of the marine
bottoms, after that we laid the formwork for the landing, we connected ledgers of 100mm
by 50mm on the side of the up-stands of the beam, the acted as supports for the beam,
adjustable steel props were raised and fixed on the ledgers to act as supports, they were
raised at equal distances of 500mm, steel plates were laid on top of the ledgers, they were
fastened on the ledgers using nails, we used steel plates because they can easily dissipate
out heat which could be generated by the concrete as it is drying, we used a spirit level as
we laid the steel plates to make sure they were in line and on level.

3.8.2 Formwork for the Flight of the Ramp.

Since it was a cantilevered ramp supported by the columns and the stringer beams that
were running along the flight of the ramp, the ledgers running along the flight of the beam
were connected to the various up-stands of the cantilevered beam to act as supports for
the beam and the formwork. Adjustable steel props were raised at approximately equal
distances and were attached on the ledgers that were running along the flight of the beam.
The formwork for the ramp consisted of horizontal and vertical ledgers that were running
and connecting to the adjacent beams, after that we laid steel plates of (900mm by
600mm) and (600mm by 300mm) on top of the formworks, we oiled the steel plates to
facilitate easy striking off of the formwork after the concrete had gained sufficient
strength to be self-supporting. The figure 3.10 shows the formwork for the ramp.

62
Figure 3.10: Showing formwork for the Ramp
3.8.3 Reinforcements for the Ramp.
The thickness of the ramp was 200mm, the width of the ramp was 2350mm, the stringer
beam running along the flight of the ramp was (550mm by 250mm), the beams at the
landing was (500mm by 250mm), the cantilevered beam was (400mm by 250mm), the
reinforcements in the flight of the ramp consisted of T12 and T16 bars, the reinforcements
consisted of two mats the top mat and the bottom mat, the T12 bars ran along the flight of
the ramp, and the T16 bars ran across the width of ramp, these were the distribution bars,
the bottom mat consisted of T12 bars which were tied on top of T16 bars with binding
wires, the spacing between the reinforcements was 200mm by 150mm, the top mat
consisted of T12 and T16, the T16 bars were tied on top of T12 bars which were running
along the flight of the beam, the bottom and top reinforcements were joined to form a mat.
Make sure to provide a scissor effect at the point where the flight joins the landing in
order to counteract the bending moments and the deflection that may occur at that point.

3.8.4 Casting of Concrete for the Ramp.

we cleaned the steel shutter, removed all the loose particles in the formwork, we removed
all the loose binding wires and oiled the steel plates in order to facilitate easy striking off
of the formwork after the 28 days when the concrete has gained sufficient strength to be self-
supporting. The concrete pump was set up and aligned up to the desired destination, cement
sand and coarse aggregates were mixed by a concrete batch mixer to achieve concrete of
grade 25, the concrete was pumped up to the ramp, after the levels of the ramp were taken
using a water level, the concrete delivered was aligned using a hoe and a spade.

63
A poker vibrator was used to push down the concrete in the voids and to compact
concrete in order to achieve a workable mix. A leveling rod was used to align the concrete
to specific levels that were taken, in order to achieve a uniform level, we tied a string on
all the columns where we had taken the levels, and measured a specific depth which we
had measured to take the levels, figure 3.11 shows casting of concrete for the ramp.

Figure 3.11: Casting of concrete for the ramp

3.8.5 Caution
Make sure the concrete mixed doesn’t have a high water content or low water content the
greater the proportion of water to cement used in a concrete mix, the weaker the ultimate
strength of concrete, the principal reason for this is that the water, in excess of that
required to complete the hardening of cement evaporates and leaves voids in the concrete
which reduces its strength, you should define a ratio of water to cement in mixes to
achieve a dense concrete, the water to cement ratio is expressed as the ratio of water to
cement by weight and the limits of this ratio for most concrete lies between 0.4 and 0.65,
outside this limits, there is a great loss of workability below the lower figure and a loss of
strength of concrete above the upper figure the concrete mixed should not have a high
water content and a low water content, it was mixed to achieve a dense concrete.

3.8.6 Striking Formwork.

Striking Form work is the process of removal of formwork for reuse or not, the process of
striking formwork varied for different components such as the beam, columns and slabs,
for the slabs we waited for a minimum of 28 days to strike off the formwork, for the
columns we waited for a maximum of 1 day to strike off the formwork, within the next 28
days the concrete had gained sufficient strength to be self-supporting, that’s why we

64
struck-off the formwork for the slab with in that time, for the columns we struck-off the
formwork immediately after the concrete had gained sufficient strength. For Slab we first
removed the steel props using a hammer and a crow bar, a digging bar was also used to
remove the ledgers, we removed ledgers that were running cross sectional wise and
transversally using a crow bar and a hammer and finally we removed the steel plates.

For the columns, we first removed the false work, these were supports for the columns,
the bucking members were then removed using a crow bar and a hammer and finally the
vertical marine boards that were supporting the concrete were removed using a crow bar
and a hammer.

For the beam, we first removed the struts that were supporting the up-stands, the soldiers
that were nailed on the up-stands were then removed and finally we removed the up-
stands.

3.8.7 Curing of the Columns.

Immediately after striking the formwork, the columns were cured every day for 28 days
so as to enable the concrete to gain sufficient strength, we also covered the columns with
gunny bags so as to retain the water that may have been poured on it.

3.8.8 Plastering of the walls.

 The wall was prepared by cleaning it, removing all the irregularities in the mortar,
loose particles, and the wall was hacked to provide keys for bonding.
 The wall was rough cast to provide the keys for bonding; cement and sand was
mixed in a ratio of 1:3 to be used as rough cast, on the background of the wall.
 Rough cast was spread using a mason trowel to the background.
 The rough cast was left to dry for a day.
 Cement and sand was mixed in a ratio of 1:4 using a concrete mixer, make sure
the mortar does not have a high water content or low water content, if the mortar
has a high water content, it will not be easy to spread on the background, in other
words it will not stick on the back ground, if the mortar has a low water content, it
will not be workable, it will equally not stick on the background, the mortar
should be dense so as to stick easily on the background.

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 The background was levelled or plumbed to make sure that the plaster which was
applied will be on the same level, mortar gauges of 25mm were spread on the
different parts of the background, preferably one mortar gauge at the top, another
at the bottom, one in the middle, they were distributed randomly. we used a plumb
bob to plumb the mortar gauges on the top with those on the bottom, and the
middle gauges we used a string, we connected the string diagonally, to establish
that the wall is at the same level.
 The mortar was forcefully applied with a mason trowel and pressed well into the
joints until all the background was fully distributed with mortar, the mortar is
spread on the surface in accordance with the well-established mortar gauges
 The background was left to dry for about an hour.
 A straight edge was used to cut the excessive mortar in relation to the gauges, so
that the wall was at the same level.
 As the mortar was being levelled, the mortar fell off the surface, so the surface
was refilled with mortar.
 A wooden float was used to render the plastered surface, it was used while
applying certain quantities of water depending on whether the surface was dry or
wet, if it was dry, you apply more quantities of water while using the wooden float,
if it was wet, a slight amount of water was applied.
 Lime was mixed with a small quantity of cement with water, the mixture should
not have a high water content or low water content, it should however produce a
dense mixture, this mixture of lime and cement is applied on the plastered surface
using a steel float, cement is mixed in lime with water to prevent the peeling off of
the surface and to provide a smooth surface. The figure 3.12 shown below shows
the plastered surface.

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Figure 3.12: A plastered surface

3.8.9 Plastering of the soffits of the slab.

 Erect scaffoldings to enable you to gain access to the soffit of the slab.
 The soffit of the slab was prepared, it was cleaned, and the protruding mortar was
cut off.
 Cement and sand was mixed in a ratio of 1:3 so as to provide a mixture for rough
cast.
 The soffit of the slab was rough cast to provide keys for bonding.
 The soffit of the slab was left to dry for about a day.
 Cement and sand was mixed in a ratio of 1:4, this is the mortar which we used for
plastering, make sure that the mortar doesn’t have a high water content or low
water content, it should have a dense workable mix
 Mortar gauges were taken on different random patches of the soffit to make sure
that the soffit was at the same level, we used a string and the spirit level to make
sure that the soffit of the slab is at the same level.
 The mortar which was mixed was forcefully applied on the soffit of the slab using
a trowel; it was punched on soffit following the mortar gauges which were taken.
 After punching the mortar on the soffit, we waited for about an hour so that the
plastered mortar can dry on the background then after we used a straight edge to
level the mortar, we cut all the mortar that was exceeding the required level for the
gauges.
 As we were levelling the plastered mortar, some voids were left bare, so there was
need to refill the voids with mortar.
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 We used a wooden float with water to make the surface smooth.
 Lime was mixed with a small quantity of cement and finally mixed with water,
this lime mixture was applied using a steel float to provide a smooth surface.

3.8.10 Plastering of the Columns.

 The column was hacked using a pick axe, this was done to provide a means for
bonding of the mortar.
 Cement and sand was mixed in a ratio 1:3, this mortar was used as rough cast, to
provide a means of bonding of the plaster onto the column.
 The rough cast was left to dry for about a day.
 Cement and sand was mixed in a ratio of 1:4, this mortar was used for plastering,
we mixed it in such a way that it did not have a high water or low water content;
we mixed it so that it produced a dense mortar which could easily stick on the
surface.
 We first took levels for column, we plastered mortar gauges of 25mm on the
different parts of the column, such as the bottom, middle and top, we used a
plumb bob to make sure that the top mortar gauge was in line with the bottom
mortar gauge.
 We plastered the surface of the column using a trowel until all the column was
fully saturated with mortar.
 We left the surface to dry for about an hour.
 We used a straight edge to level the mortar according to the mortar gauges, as
loose mortar was falling off, it left voids on the background which we refilled with
mortar.
 We used a wooden float with water to smoothen the surface.
 Finally, we mixed cement lime and water to produce a smooth surface, we mixed
three pans of cement to one bag of cement, mixing cement with lime prevents the
pilling off of the surface when the surface sets and produces a smooth background.
The figure 3.13 shows the plastering of the columns.

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Figure 3.13: Plastering of the column

3.9 TOOLS AND MACHINERY USED AT THE SITE.

Hoist Machine

This was located on the basement floor and was used to transport the materials from the
ground such as mortar, concrete, concrete blocks to the next floors. It consisted of a
pulley system with a rope attached to a motor engine, and the pulley system has
provision for attaching a bucket into which the material to be lifted is poured and is lifted
to the level where it would be used. The motor engine consumes fuel.

Concrete Mixer

At the site there was one concrete batching mixer, this machine was used to mix mortar
(cement and sand with water), it was also used to mix concrete (cement, sand and

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aggregates with water) in the required ratios to achieve a desired strength, the mixer was
using diesel to run, it was also cooled down with water whenever it was over heated.

Power Saw.

The carpentry workshop had a power saw which was used to cut the timber joists,
ledgers and the marine boards at the required dimensions, this machine was running on
electricity,

Poker Vibrators.

There was a number of vibrators that were used at the site, they were all of the same
make, they were mainly used to compact the concrete, so as to avoid voids or spaces in
the concrete which may comprise the strength of the concrete, a poker vibrator is very
important in concrete works such when we were casting concrete for the stairs, for the
slabs, for the columns, for the ramp and for the beam.

Vehicles.

There were a number of small vehicles and big vehicles that we used at the site, for small
vehicles we used the double cabins to transport the materials such as concrete cubes to
the materials laboratory in kireka for testing, it was also used to transport the staff from
one place to another, for the heavy duty vehicles, fuso vehicles were used to bring
materials at the site from the various suppliers, materials such as sand, concrete blocks,
cement, iron bars of various sizes, timber joists and many materials that were needed at
the site.

Spades and Shovels; these equipments were mainly used to load and offload materials
such as the mortar while loading it on the wheel barrows, dumpers so as to be transported
from one place to the desired place of work, the shovels and the spade were also used in
the hand mixing of concrete, it was none the less used to mix the mortar which was to be
used at the site, the shovels were also used during excavation, to scoop out the loose
debris.

Wheel Barrows; these were equipment that were mainly used to transport materials from
one place to the desired destination, the wheel barrows were mainly used to transport

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mixed mortar, mixed concrete to the desired place of work, they also transported sand,
aggregates, loose debris and many other materials.

Masons Trowels; these are tools that are used while laying of block work, they may be
used to fill the mortar joints in the adjacent block work construction, they are also used in
plastering.

Plumb Bobs; this is an instrument that was mainly used to check the verticality of the
walls, columns, scaffolds and others.

Bow Saw; this equipment was shaped in form of a bow, it had a saw with tall teeth that
facilitated easy penetration and cutting of the timber pieces, this equipment was used to
cut timber, wooden pieces.

Grinder Machine; this equipment was used by the steel benders, the carpenters, it was
used to cut the steel bars to the required sizes, it was also used to cut through walls, it had
two different types of blades, one was fit to be used in cutting steel while the other was fit
to be used while cutting buildings.

Dumpy Level; the level was mainly used for levelling, it was used to take levels for the
slabs, beams and columns, it was also used during setting out of the building, none the
less it was also used to check the exact location of a column.

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4 CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 SOFT SKILLS.
On top of the technical skills that i have learned in Excel Construction Company, I have
also been trained in the efficient use of the relevant soft skills in the construction industry.

Team work.

During my time in the training, I was assigned to a team where I met a number of people
that I was seeing for the first time, we as a team were assigned different assignments on
the sites, I have learnt how to efficiently collaborate with others and influe nce situations
through lateral and more creative.

Thinking and looking at the strengths and weaknesses of all members, we were able to
gain from each person’s weaknesses and support them in their weaknesses. I can ably say
that I can work efficiently in a team and quickly adapt to the situation at hand.

Communication and interpersonal skills.

I was able to enhance my communication skills. The importance of efficient

communication in a construction setting cannot be undermined as it’s a strong basis for
the success of the business and also an important skill needed in client engagement. This
skill will enable me to interact with my colleagues at the work place as well as any other
associates I may get in the future.

Leadership skills.

During my internship, i have was trained in the efficient use of leadership skills in a
construction setting, i have been involved in guiding and directing my colleagues in areas
where they need clarification, the experience and skills that i learnt in those leadership
positions will enable be able to direct my next partners.

Time and self-management.

Time keeping at the work place is an essential and a very important skill that every
Engineer should acquire, keeping time and commitments with clients is one of the key
reasons that enables one to get their approval and confidence, keeping time enables one to

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honor the deadlines of the various projects that may be running concurrently, this requires
a high degree of self-management.

4.2 CHALLENGES AND EMERGING ISSUES.

During the internship period, I encountered a number of challenges from which i had to
learn crucial lessons and methods of dealing with them all. Dealing with problems,
challenges and changes is a crucial skill that every Engineer should have in order to
accomplish the tasks and contracts that have been entrusted to you by the client.

 Resolving Change Conflicts.

Changes in the architectural plans/layouts and, structural design drawings were highly
common in construction sites where the client preferred different product from what has
already been provided by the structural engineer and the Architect, in this case if the
building has already been established, the client may task the architect to change it which
may lead to breaking of the existing structure, but dealing with these changes and
adjustments is not easy.

 Financial Issues.
Due to the fact that the university never provided us with facilitation in terms of money, it
was not easy, transport and food where not easy to access without money.

 Communication problems
At the site there are very many people from different walks of life, different tribes, and
different level of civilization, and this makes communicating different issues at the site
quite challenging because people interpret different issues differently, you must be loud
and clear, and communicate issues in a clear manner to avoid miscommunications.

4.3 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

4.3.1 Conclusion
The time i have spent with SEKA Associates Consulting Engineers Limited was a great
learning experience from which i have been able to get a number of friends and
expendables from different walks of life that have been a blessing to me in many ways.

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4.3.2 Recommendations
More time should be dedicated into creating more opportunities for civil engineering
students to interact with practicing engineers and other professional in order to help
students make the transition from theory to practice an exhilarating journey.

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4.4 REFERENCES.
References
Anon., n.d. Building Construction Hand book. s.l.:s.n.

Barry, n.d. Barrys advanced Construction. s.l.:s.n.

Barry, n.d. Introduction to construction. s.l.:s.n.

Chanakya, n.d. Reinforced Concreteby Chanakya. s.l.:s.n.

Greeno, R. C. a. R., n.d. Building Construction Hand book sixth edition. s.l.:s.n.

Kassimali, n.d. Structural Analysis. s.l.:s.n.

Macginley, n.d. Reinforced Concreteby Macginley. s.l.:s.n.

Roger, R. C., n.d. Advanced Construction. s.l.:s.n.

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