Communication (from Latin commūnicāre, meaning

seen how the Manager’s request to Bill (“We need

"to share"[1]) is the act of conveying
intended meanings from one entity or group to to buy more printer toner cartridges”) can go awry.

another through the use of mutually Now let’s look at how the same Message can travel
understood signs and semiotic rules. successfully from Sender to Receiver.

Oral communication is the process of verbally Manager (speaking on the phone): “Good morning,
transmitting information and ideas from one
Bill!”
individual or group to another. Oral
communication can be either formal or informal.
(By using the employee’s name, the manager is
Examples of informal oral communication include:
establishing a clear, personal link to the Receiver.)
 Face-to-face conversations
Manager: “Your division’s numbers are looking
 Telephone conversations
 Discussions that take place at business great.”
meetings
(The Manager’s recognition of Bill’s role in a winning
More formal types of oral communication include:
team further personalizes and emotionalizes the

 Presentations at business meetings conversation.)

 Classroom lectures
Manager: “Our next step is to order more printer
 Commencement speeches given at a
graduation ceremony toner cartridges. Could you place an order for 1,000
printer toner cartridges with Jones Computer
12.3 Different Types of Communication
Supplies? Our budget for this purchase is $30,000,
Communication can be categorized into three basic
and the cartridges need to be here by Wednesday
types: (1) verbal communication, in which you
afternoon.”
listen to a person to understand their meaning; (2)
(The Manager breaks down the task into several steps.
written communication, in which you read their
Each step consists of a specific task, time frame,
meaning; and (3) nonverbal communication, in
quantity, or goal.)
which you observe a person and infer meaning.
Bill: “Sure thing! I’ll call Jones Computer Supplies
Each has its own advantages, disadvantages, and
and order 1,000 more printer toner cartridges, not
even pitfalls.
exceeding a total of $30,000, to be here by
Verbal Communication
Wednesday afternoon.”
Verbal communications in business take place over
(Bill, who is good at active listening, repeats what he has
the phone or in person. The medium of the
heard. This is the Feedback portion of the
Message is oral. Let’s return to our printer cartridge
communication, and verbal communication has the
example. This time, the Message is being conveyed
advantage of offering opportunities for immediate
from the Sender (the Manager) to the Receiver (an
feedback. Feedback helps Bill to recognize any confusion
employee named Bill) by telephone. We’ve already
he may have had hearing the manager’s Message.
Feedback also helps the manager to tell whether she has
communicated the Message correctly.)
Storytelling
Storytelling has been shown to be an effective form
of verbal communication; it serves an important
organizational function by helping to construct
common meanings for individuals within the
organization. Stories can help clarify key values
and help demonstrate how things are done within
an organization, and story frequency, strength, and
tone are related to higher organizational
commitment. [1] The quality of the stories
entrepreneurs tell is related to their ability to secure
capital for their firms. [2] Stories can serve to
reinforce and perpetuate an organization’s culture,
part of the organizing P-O-L-C function.
Crucial Conversations
While the process may be the same, high-stakes
communications require more planning, reflection,
and skill than normal day-to-day interactions at
work. Examples of high-stakes communication
events include asking for a raise or presenting a
business plan to a venture capitalist. In addition to
these events, there are also many times in our
professional lives when we have crucial
conversations—discussions where not only the
stakes are high but also where opinions vary and
emotions run strong. [3] One of the most consistent
recommendations from communications experts is
to work toward using “and” instead of “but” as
you communicate under these circumstances. In
addition, be aware of your communication style
and practice flexibility; it is under stressful
situations that communication styles can become
the most rigid.
Written Communication
In contrast to verbal communications, written
business communications are printed messages.
Examples of written communications include
memos, proposals, e-mails, letters, training
manuals, and operating policies. They may be
printed on paper, handwritten, or appear on the
screen. Normally, a verbal communication takes
place in real time. Written communication, by
contrast, can be constructed over a longer period of
time. Written communication is often
asynchronous (occurring at different times). That is,
the Sender can write a Message that the Receiver
can read at any time, unlike a conversation that is
carried on in real time. A written communication
can also be read by many people (such as all
employees in a department or all customers). It’s a
“one-to-many” communication, as opposed to a
one-to-one verbal conversation. There are
exceptions, of course: a voicemail is an oral
Message that is asynchronous. Conference calls and
speeches are oral one-to-many communications,
and e-mails may have only one recipient or many.
Most jobs involve some degree of writing.
According to the National Commission on Writing,
67% of salaried employees in large American
companies and professional state employees have
some writing responsibility. Half of responding
companies reported that they take writing into
consideration when hiring professional employees,
and 91% always take writing into account when
hiring (for any position, not just professional-level
ones). [4]
Luckily, it is possible to learn to write clearly. Here
are some tips on writing well. Thomas Jefferson
summed up the rules of writing well with this idea
“Don’t use two words when one will do.” One of
the oldest myths in business is that writing more
will make us sound more important; in fact, the
opposite is true. Leaders who can communicate
simply and clearly project a stronger image than
those who write a lot but say nothing.
Nonverbal Communication
What you say is a vital part of any communication.
But what you don’t say can be even more important.
Research also shows that 55% of in-person
communication comes from nonverbal cues like
facial expressions, body stance, and tone of voice.
According to one study, only 7% of a Receiver’s
comprehension of a Message is based on the
Sender’s actual words; 38% is based on
paralanguage (the tone, pace, and volume of
speech), and 55% is based on nonverbal cues (body
language). [5]
Research shows that nonverbal cues can also affect
whether you get a job offer. Judges examining
videotapes of actual applicants were able to assess
the social skills of job candidates with the sound
turned off. They watched the rate of gesturing, time
spent talking, and formality of dress to determine
which candidates would be the most successful
socially on the job. [6] For this reason, it is important
to consider how we appear in business as well as
what we say. The muscles of our faces convey our
emotions. We can send a silent message without
saying a word. A change in facial expression can
change our emotional state. Before an interview, for
example, if we focus on feeling confident, our face
will convey that confidence to an interviewer.
Adopting a smile (even if we’re feeling stressed)
can reduce the body’s stress levels.
To be effective communicators, we need to align
our body language, appearance, and tone with the
words we’re trying to convey. Research shows that
when individuals are lying, they are more likely to
blink more frequently, shift their weight, and
shrug. [7]
Another element of nonverbal communication is
tone. A different tone can change the perceived
meaning of a message. Table 12.2 "Don’t Use That
Tone with Me!" demonstrates how clearly this can
be true, whether in verbal or written
communication. If we simply read these words
without the added emphasis, we would be left to
wonder, but the emphasis shows us how the tone
conveys a great deal of information. Now you can
see how changing one’s tone of voice or writing can
incite or defuse a misunderstanding.
Table 12.2 Don’t Use That Tone with Me!
Placement of the
emphasis What it means
I did not tell John you Someone else told John
 Placement of the hands. His words say, “Thank you for considering
emphasis What it means
Bank of the West Coast. We appreciate this
were late. you were late.
opportunity and would love to explore ways that
I did not tell John you This did not happen.
we can work together to help your business grow,”
were late.
but he mumbles, and his voice conveys no
I did not tell John you I may have implied it.
were late. enthusiasm or warmth.

I did not tell John you But maybe I told Sharon Which bank would you choose?
were late. and José.

I did not tell I was talking about The speaker’s body language must match his or her
John you were late. someone else. words. If a Sender’s words and body language
I did not tell John I told him you still are late. don’t match—if a Sender smiles while telling a sad
you were late.
tale, for example—the mismatch between verbal
I did not tell John you I told him you were
and nonverbal cues can cause a Receiver to actively
were late. attending another meeting.
dislike the Sender.
Changing your tone can dramatically change your
Here are a few examples of nonverbal cues that can
meaning.
support or detract from a Sender’s Message.
Source: Based on ideas in Kiely, M. (1993, October).
Body Language
When “no” means “yes.” Marketing, 7–9.
A simple rule of thumb is that simplicity,
For an example of the importance of nonverbal
directness, and warmth convey sincerity. And
communication, imagine that you’re a customer
sincerity is key to effective communication. A firm
interested in opening a new bank account. At one
handshake, given with a warm, dry hand, is a great
bank, the bank officer is dressed neatly. She looks
way to establish trust. A weak, clammy handshake
you in the eye when she speaks. Her tone is
conveys a lack of trustworthiness. Gnawing one’s
friendly. Her words are easy to understand, yet she
lip conveys uncertainty. A direct smile conveys
sounds professional. “Thank you for considering
confidence.
Bank of the East Coast. We appreciate this
Eye Contact
opportunity and would love to explore ways that
In business, the style and duration of eye contact
we can work together to help your business grow,”
considered appropriate vary greatly across
she says with a friendly smile.
cultures. In the United States, looking someone in
At the second bank, the bank officer’s tie is stained.
the eye (for about a second) is considered a sign of
He looks over your head and down at his desk as
trustworthiness.
he speaks. He shifts in his seat and fidgets with his
Facial Expressions
The human face can produce thousands of different
expressions. These expressions have been decoded
by experts as corresponding to hundreds of
different emotional states. [8] Our faces convey basic
information to the outside world. Happiness is
associated with an upturned mouth and slightly
closed eyes; fear with an open mouth and wide-
eyed stare. Flitting (“shifty”) eyes and pursed lips
convey a lack of trustworthiness. The effect of facial
expressions in conversation is instantaneous. Our
brains may register them as “a feeling” about
someone’s character.
Posture
The position of our body relative to a chair or
another person is another powerful silent
messenger that conveys interest, aloofness,
professionalism—or lack thereof. Head up, back
straight (but not rigid) implies an upright character.
In interview situations, experts advise mirroring an
interviewer’s tendency to lean in and settle back in
her seat. The subtle repetition of the other person’s
posture conveys that we are listening and
responding.
Touch
The meaning of a simple touch differs between
individuals, genders, and cultures. In Mexico,
when doing business, men may find themselves
being grasped on the arm by another man. To pull
away is seen as rude. In Indonesia, to touch anyone
on the head or touch anything with one’s foot is
considered highly offensive. In the Far East,
according to business etiquette writer Nazir Daud,
“it is considered impolite for a woman to shake a
man’s hand.” [9] Americans, as we have noted, place
great value in a firm handshake. But handshaking
as a competitive sport (“the bone-crusher”) can
come off as needlessly aggressive, at home and
abroad.
Space
Anthropologist Edward T. Hall coined the
term proxemics to denote the different kinds of
distance that occur between people. These
distances vary between cultures. The figure below
outlines the basic proxemics of everyday life and
their meaning: [10]
Elements of communication
1.Sender: Sender is an individual, group, or
organization who initiates the communication. This
source is initially responsible for the success of the
message. A process by which the sender formulates
an idea to communicate is selected first. The first
step the sender is faced with involves the encoding
process. In order to convey meaning, the sender
must begin encoding, which means translating
information into a message in the form of symbols
signs that represent ideas or concepts, which is
then communicated. This process can be influenced
by external factors, or it can come about internally
by thinking about a particular subject. For Ex:
Ex. A politician giving a speech.
A parent lecturing a child.
Customer of a restaurant writing a complaint letter
to the management of the restaurant.
2. Message: A message can be an idea, concept,
emotion, feeling that a person wants to share with
another person. A message can be verbal or non-
verbal form of communication. It is based on the
source or idea, but the message is crafted to meet
the needs of the receiver. The purpose to send a
message is to evoke meaning to the other person. A
message can be intentional or non-
intentional. Messages can be encoded into a variety
of formats oral, written or visual.
Eg: Speech is a channel, signs, gestures,symbols
are different ways in which a message can be
transmitted.
3. Channel: It’s the medium through which
communication is transmitted from one person to
the reliever. Most channels are either oral or
written. Common channels include the telephone
and a variety of written forms such as memos,
letters, and reports. The effectiveness of the various
channels fluctuates depending on the
characteristics of the communication. In case
of immediate feedback Oral Communication is
convenient. In a situation where the message must
be delivered to more than a small group of people,
written channels are often more effective. Although
in many cases, both oral and written channels
should be used because one supplements the
other. For Eg: A president delivering a Speech may
speak face to face with an audience, via the
broadcast media or via print.
For Ex : An audience receives the politician’s
speech.
The child who is the recipient of the parents lecture
4. Receiver: Receiver is the individual or
individuals to whom the message is directed to.
The extent to which a receiver comprehends the
message will depend on a number of factors, which
include the following: knowledge of the individual
regarding the message, their receptivity to the
message. All interpretations by the receiver are
influenced by their experiences, attitudes,
knowledge, skills, perceptions, and culture.
Ex. An audience receives the politician’s speech.
Student receiving a lecture from the teacher in a
classroom.
5. Decoding: Decoding is the process where the
message is interpreted by the receiver . The receiver
begins to interpret the message through words,
signs, symbols sent by the sender translating the
message to its set of experiences in order to make
the message meaningful. Successful
communication takes place when the receiver
correctly interprets the sender’s message.
Eg: A student searches the definition of
a word unknown to her in the
dictionary, interprets the meaning and gains
information.
6. Feedback: Feedback is an integral part of
communication process that allows the speaker to
monitor the process and to evaluate the success of
the message communicated. This step conveys to
the sender that the message is understood by the
receiver. After receiving a message, the receiver
responds through a channel and signals that
response to the sender. For Ex: The signal may take
the form of a spoken comment, a written message,
a smile, rolling of eyes, a sigh or some other action.
No response is also a form of feedback. Without
feedback, the sender cannot confirm that the
receiver has interpreted the message
correctly. For Eg: Employee surveys, company
news letters, e-mails.
7. Noise- There are certain barriers present in the
communication process. These factors may have an
impact on the communication process. Noise is one
of the most common barriers, that influence the
feedback in this process. Noise essentially is
anything that distorts a message by interfering with
the communication process. Noise can take many
forms it can be external or internal factors. Noise as
a barrier may originate from the source or the
receiver, from the channel used in sending the
message, or outside the source and receiver’s
control.
Eg: Internal factor– Involves mental forces within a
receiver or sender that might affect his or her
ability to either encode or decode a message
correctly. Eg: Daydreaming, fatigue, exhaustion.
Eg: External factors: Anything around the person
that disturbs the communication process. Eg:
Sights, sounds, smell.
 Models of communication refers to the conceptual
model used to explain the
human communication process. The first major
model for communication came in 1949 by Claude
Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell
Laboratories. Following the basic concept,
communication is the process of sending and
receiving messages or
transferring information from one part (sender) to
another (receiver).
 Shannon and Weaver. The original model was
designed to mirror the functioning of radio and
telephone technologies. Their initial model
consisted of three primary parts: sender, channel,
and receiver. The sender was the part of
a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was
the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part
of the phone where one could hear the other
person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that
often there is static that interferes with one
listening to a telephone conversation, which they
deemed noise. The noise could also mean the
absence of signal. In a simple model, often
referred to as the transmission model or standard
view of communication, information or content (e.g.
a message in natural language) is sent in some
form (as spoken language) from an emisor/
sender/ encoder to a destination/
receiver/ decoder. This common conception of
communication views communication as a means
of sending and receiving information. The
strengths of this model are simplicity, generality,
and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude
Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this
model based on the following elements:
An information source, which produces a
message. A transmitter, which encodes the
message into signals. A channel, to which signals
are adapted for transmission. A receiver, which
'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the
signal. A destination, where the message
arrives. Shannon and Weaver argued that there
were three levels of problems for communication
within this theory. The technical problem: how
accurately can the message be transmitted?
The semantic problem: how precisely is the
meaning 'conveyed'? The effectiveness problem:
how effectively does the received meaning affect
behavior? Daniel Chandler critiques the
transmission model by stating: It assumes
communicators are isolated individuals. No
allowance for differing purposes. No allowance
for differing interpretations. No allowance for
unequal power relations. No allowance for
situational contexts.
 David Berlo. In 1960, David Berlo expanded on
Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of
communication and created the SMCR Model of
Communication. The Sender-Message-Channel-
Receiver Model of communication separated the
model into clear parts and has been expanded
upon by other scholars.
 Schramm. Communication is usually described
along a few major dimensions: Message (what
type of things are communicated), source / emisor
/ sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which
form), channel (through which medium),
destination / receiver / target /decoder (to whom),
and Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also
indicated that we should also examine the impact
that a message has (both desired and undesired)
on the target of the message. Between parties,
communication includes acts that confer
knowledge and experiences, give advice and
commands, and ask questions. These acts may
take many forms, in one of the various manners of
communication. The form depends on the abilities
of the group communicating. Together,
communication content and form
make messages that are sent towards a
destination. The target can be oneself,
another person or being, another entity (such as a
corporation or group of beings). Communication
can be seen as processes of information
transmission governed by three levels
of semiotic rules: Syntactic (formal properties of
signs and symbols), Pragmatic (concerned with
the relations between signs/expressions and their
users) and Semantic (study of relationships
between signs and symbols and what they
represent). Therefore, communication is social
interaction where at least two interacting agents
share a common set of signs and a common set
of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in
some sense ignores autocommunication,
 including intrapersonal
communication via diaries or self-talk, both
secondary phenomena that followed the primary
acquisition of communicative competences within
social interactions.
 Barnlund. In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund
(2008) proposed a transactional model of
communication. The basic premise of the
transactional model of communication is that
individuals are simultaneously engaging in the
sending and receiving of messages. In a slightly
more complex form a sender and a receiver are
linked reciprocally. This second attitude of
communication, referred to as the constitutive
model or constructionist view, focuses on how an
individual communicates as the determining
factor of the way the message will be interpreted.
Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage
in which information travels from one individual
to another and this information becomes separate
from the communication itself. A particular
instance of communication is called a speech act.
The sender's personal filters and the receiver's
personal filters may vary depending upon
different regional traditions, cultures, or gender;
which may alter the intended meaning of message
contents. In the presence of "communication
noise" on the transmission channel (air, in this
case), reception and decoding of content may be
faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve
the desired effect. One problem with this encode-
transmit-receive-decode model is that the
processes of encoding and decoding imply that
the sender and receiver each possess something
that functions as a codebook, and that these two
code books are, at the very least, similar if not
identical. Although something like code books is
implied by the model, they are nowhere
represented in the model, which creates many
conceptual difficulties. Theories
of coregulation describe communication as a
creative and dynamic continuous process, rather
than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian
media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that
people use different types of media to
communicate and which one they choose to use
will offer different possibilities for the shape and
durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His
famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and
looking at the ways they built themselves out of
media with very different properties stone and
papyrus. Papyrus is what he called 'Space
Binding'. it made possible the transmission of
written orders across space, empires and enables
the waging of distant military campaigns and
colonial administration. The other is stone and
'Time Binding', through the construction of
temples and the pyramids can sustain their
authority generation to generation, through this
media they can change and shape communication
in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
 Psychology of communication. Bernard Luskin,
UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted
instruction and began to connect media and
psychology into what is now the field of media
psychology. In 1998, the American Association of
Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task
Force report on psychology and new technologies
combined media and communication as pictures,
graphics and sound increasingly dominate
modern communication.
 Constructionist Model. There is an additional
working definition of communication to consider
that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as
far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have
highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell’s
attempt to define human communication through
to this century and revolutionized into the
constructionist model. Constructionists believe
that the process of communication is in itself the
only messages that exist. The packaging can not
be separated from the social and historical context
from which it arose, therefore the substance to
look at in communication theory is style for
Richard Lanham and the performance of self for
Erving Goffman. Lanham chose to view
communication as the rival to the over
encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued
to further the transmission model). CBS model
argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the
only purpose to prose discourse, therefore
communication. Lanham wrote, “If words matter
too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as
animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis
leads us to the essential questions about prose
style” (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric
and style are fundamentally important; they are
not errors to what we actually intend to transmit.
The process which we construct and deconstruct
meaning deserves analysis. Erving Goffman sees
the performance of self as the most important
frame to understand communication. Goffman
wrote, “What does seem to be required of the
individual is that he learn enough pieces of
expression to be able to ‘fill in’ and manage, more
or less, any part that he is likely to be given”
(Goffman 73) Goffman is highlighting the
significance of expression. The truth in both cases
is the articulation of the message and the package
as one. The construction of the message from
social and historical context is the seed as is the
pre-existing message is for the transmission
model. Therefore any look into communication
theory should include the possibilities drafted by
such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham
and Erving Goffman that style and performance is
the whole process. Communication stands so
deeply rooted in human behaviors and the
structures of society that scholars have difficulty
thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral
events. Because communication theory remains a
relatively young field of inquiry and integrates
itself with other disciplines such as philosophy,
psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot
yet expect a consensus conceptualization of
communication across disciplines.
Communication Model Terms as provided by
Rothwell (11-15): Noise; interference with effective
transmission and reception of a message. Sender;
the initiator and encoder of a message. Receiver;
the one that receives the message (the listener)
and the decoder of a message. Decode; translates
the senders spoken idea/message into something
the receiver understands by using their
knowledge of language from personal
experience. Encode; puts the idea into spoken
language while putting their own meaning into
the word/message. Channel; the medium through
which the message travels such as through oral
communication (radio, television, phone, in
person) or written communication (letters, email,
text messages) Feedback; the receivers verbal and
nonverbal responses to a message such as a nod
for understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow
for being confused (nonverbal), or asking a
question to clarify the message (verbal). Message;
the verbal and nonverbal components of language
that is sent to the receiver by the sender which
conveys an idea.
 Linear Model. It is a one way model to
communicate with others. It consists of the sender
encoding a message and channeling it to the
receiver in the presence of noise. Draw backs – the
linear model assumes that there is a clear cut
beginning and end to communication. It also
displays no feedback from the receiver. For
example; a letter, email, text message, lecture.
 Interactive Model. It is two linear models stacked
on top of each other. The sender channels a
message to the receiver and the receiver then
becomes the sender and channels a message to the
original sender. This model has added feedback,
indicates that communication is not a one way but
a two way process. It also has “field of
experience” which includes our cultural
background, ethnicity geographic location, extend
of travel, and general personal experiences
accumulated over the course of your lifetime.
Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not
simultaneous. For example – instant messaging.
The sender sends an IM to the receiver, then the
original sender has to wait for the IM from the
original receiver to react. Or a question/answer
session where you just ask a question then you get
an answer.
 Transactional Model. It assumes that people are
connected through communication; they engage
in transaction. Firstly, it recognizes that each of us
is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a
receiver. Secondly, it recognizes that
communication affects all parties involved. So
communication is fluid/simultaneous. This is how
most conversation are like. The transactional
model also contains ellipses that symbolize the
communication environment (how you interpret
the data that you are given). Where the ellipses
meet is the most effect communication area
because both communicators share the same
meaning of the message. For example –
talking/listening to friends. While your friend is
talking you are constantly giving them feedback
on what you think through your facial expression
 verbal feedback without necessarily stopping
your friend from talking.
 Communication cycle. The first major model for
communication came in 1949 by Claude Shannon
and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories. The
original model was designed to mirror the
functioning of radio and telephone technologies.
Their initial model consisted of three primary
parts: sender, channel, and receiver. The sender
was the part of a telephone a person spoke into,
the channel was the telephone itself, and the
receiver was the part of the phone where one
could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver
also recognized that often there is static that
interferes with one listening to a telephone
conversation, which they deemed noise. In a
simple model, often referred to as the
transmission model or standard view of
communication, information or content (e.g. a
message in natural language) is sent in some form
(as spoken language) from an emisor/
sender/ encoder to a destination/
receiver/ decoder. This common conception of
communication simply views communication as a
means of sending and receiving information. The
strengths of this model are simplicity, generality,
and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude
Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this
model based on the following elements: An
information source, which produces a message. A
transmitter, which encodes the message into
signals. A channel, to which signals are adapted
for transmission. A receiver, which 'decodes'
(reconstructs) the message from the signal. A
destination, where the message arrives. Shannon
and Weaver argued that there were three levels of
problems for communication within this theory.
The technical problem: how accurately can the
message be transmitted? The semantic problem:
how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'? The
effectiveness problem: how effectively does the
received meaning affect behavior? Daniel
Chandler critiques the transmission model by
stating: It assumes communicators are isolated
individuals. No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations. No
allowance for unequal power relations. No
allowance for situational contexts.
 Communication noise. In any communication
model, noise is interference with the decoding of
messages sent over a channel by an encoder.
There are many examples of noise: Environmental
Noise: Noise that physically disrupts
communication, such as standing next to loud
speakers at a party, or the noise from a
construction site next to a classroom making it
difficult to hear the professor.
1. Physiological-Impairment
Noise: Physical maladies that prevent effective
communication, such as actual deafness or
blindness preventing messages from being received
as they were intended.
2. Semantic Noise: Different
interpretations of the meanings of certain words.
For example, the word "weed" can be interpreted as
an undesirable plant in a yard, or as a euphemism
for marijuana.
3. Syntactical Noise: Mistakes in
grammar can disrupt communication, such as
abrupt changes in verb tense during a sentence.
4. Organizational Noise: Poorly
structured communication can prevent the receiver
from accurate interpretation. For example, unclear
and badly stated directions can make the receiver
even more lost.
5. Cultural Noise: Stereotypical
assumptions can cause misunderstandings, such as
unintentionally offending a non-Christian person
by wishing them a "Merry Christmas".
6. Psychological Noise: Certain
attitudes can also make communication difficult.
For instance, great anger or sadness may cause
someone to lose focus on the present moment.
Disorders such as Autism may also severely
hamper effective communication.