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Keywords: The conspicuous global challenges that we are departing towards them today comprise to be addressed in the
Used motor oil multifaceted frameworks of economy, society, environment and technology. In recent years, the consensus of
Acidic sludge demanding for sustainable development and its implementation has been unanimously posed. Along with this
Plastic wastes affirm, high added value, knowledge-based, competitive sustainable manufacturing and business excellence
Blown bitumen
have been widely scrutinized as a prominent enabler and handler especially in recycling industries sector.
Current review survey encompasses the development circumstances of four major recycling industries in Iran
and over the world. Thus, evaluation of the individual techniques exploited in the four recycling industries
indicated that employed processes had the lowest economic outlay and the highest revenue in comparison to
other technologies. Additives can be utilized as raw materials for production of economically valuable
bituminous products. The recycling and converting processes are not only cost-effective, but they also descent
the environmental risk to a large level, using new techniques to zero. Economic indices, business excellence
score and the quality of the obtained products represented that these processes support sustainable
development of industries.
1. Introduction the SD aspects of these industries [2]. Jonidi and Hassanpour [3]
reported that in the Europe, about 25 industries deal with used oils
Recycling of waste materials in developing and civilizing countries recovery. Typical recovery processes are maturing in many countries
is growing and it is driven by economic necessity associated to poverty like Germany (7 units), Italy (5 units), France, Spain, Denmark, Iran,
and environmental protection. Recent surveys revealed that successive Poland, Slovakia and Greece. Modern industries are constructing and
PSW and used motor oil recoveries dominate all other kinds of wastes implementing in many of countries (France, Germany, Italy, and
recycling started since 1960. While only a fraction of the total plastic Spain). It has been estimated about 200 recycling industries (small
wastes are being recycled in many western countries, around 95% and industries) of used motor oil in Iran and about 400 recovering
75% of the PSW appear to be recycled in developing countries. industries in the USA, Canada, Tunisia and Saudi Arabia. These
However, the quality of the successively recycled products in terms of statistics are also extendable for other aforementioned industries [4].
their physical appearance, products properties, health hazards are in On the other hand, with regard to existing massive quantities of wastes
serious argues [1,2]. Numerous small recycling industries of plastic and residuals of oil and AS generated by processes implemented in
wastes, blown bitumen and used motor oil have been currently above-named industries, miscellaneous organic components especially
implemented heedless to economic assessments, modern technologies VOCs, it is indispensable identifying the modern technologies and
and facilities are developing and maturing day by day in Iran and over practices so that remove, recovery and remediation from the pollutants
the world. On the other hand, the aforementioned industries have and by-products, fortifying and promoting the performance and BE in
properly employed commensurate and sumptuary technologies for order to achieve the SD for recycling industries of used motor oil, AS,
recovering, treating, and recycling of wastes from disposed products blown bitumen and plastic wastes. For instance, Poli et al. [5] reported
and pay attention to the number of existing industries in developing that high quantities of plastics refused to the environment are ingested
countries and the world, quality of obtained products and quantity of by lots of sea turtles that made a serious problem to them and
usages, it is indispensable focusing on the performance, economic, and environment in Paraíba, Northeast Brazil. Jonidi and Hassanpour [3]
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Malek.hassanpour@yahoo.com (M. Hassanpour).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.01.109
Received 10 February 2016; Received in revised form 10 December 2016; Accepted 15 January 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.A. Unnisa, M. Hassanpour Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 605–624
estimated that AS is a by-product from used motor oil reprocessing vironmental impacts of processes in a certain industry. Bradley and
industries, which thousands tons of this sludge are disposed into the Thompson [10] surveyed on the relationship among oil revenue and
environment as a hazardous waste material in Iran and all over the many of key macro-economic variables, crude oil revenues with output,
world daily. expenditures of consumer, unemployment, and stock.
SD as a concept is a description to many different interpretations. It It is indispensable to realize BE, because potentially causes to
can be as a simple, complex description or as we like to establish that, success of an industry via development and implement a practice for
but the indispensable thing is that it besets individuals, industries, and performance measurement criteria beyond the presentation of financial
governments to embed indisputable decisions, which safeguard a views. By the way, Hassanpour [11] has reported the trend of SD using
common future. It is an all-encompassing approach that engulfs and KBEM in used motor oil industries. According to the development and
underpins the future of the planet. The intense stream of wastes establishment numerous aforementioned industries and its priority to
concerning loss and dissociation of natural resources, pollution, society, planet, environment and economic it is indispensable figuring
resource inequality, and climate change enables arisen focus on the out to the connection and relation among four recycling industries and
demand to protect the environment. Against the background of a main factors of SD. On the other hand, we all live on the same planet
restricted sources of raw material supply, and an understanding of the and share a common fate. Fig. 1 represents the dependence and
true impact and long-term effects of the polluting of our environment, coherence among the multifaceted frameworks so that identify the
science has revealed to the world that significant aspects enquires to be concepts in SD. The main objective of present study was survey of
taken to discuss with the consequences of industrial performances in development circumstances of four recycling industries (used motor
terms of economy cycle, society satisfaction, environment protection oil, AS, blown bitumen and plastic wastes). To achieve to this purpose,
and technology development [6]. Economic assessment comprises the requirements of the industries were surveyed upon available and
variety of deals about the investments and outlays for recycling environmental and new technologies.
industries and underpins closely the employed capital. The major
outlays can be divided into organization and control costs incurred by
2. Technology
the offices, wastes collecting expenditures and operational investments
associated to final storage facilities prior to recycling investments. Cost
The recycling industries of used motor oil are utilized to retrieve of
computations are based on detailed estimates that reflect typical
used motor oil generated in light and heavy vehicles. The acid/clay
investment costs, interest rates, transportation costs, materials, equip-
practice is so popular process in lots of developing countries because of
ment and fixed, working costs and etc to set up and start operation
so many economic advantages and other benefits. Plastic wastes and
[2,7,8]. In present research was used of economic indices such as
blown bitumen recycling industries actually have main role to decrease
value-added percent, profit, annual revenue, breakeven point, time of
the plastic wastes quantity through of the wastes flow as a pioneer
return on investment, value-added, output value. By the way, Marchetti
industries in consumption of plastic wastes, used motor oil and AS
and Errazu [9] have also studied the economic indices such as
[2,12,13]. According to the announcement of Iranian industry organi-
productivity, raw material usage, economic competitiveness and en-
zation, about 200 reprocessing plants (acid/clay process) of used motor
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S.A. Unnisa, M. Hassanpour Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 605–624
Business
Excellence
Industries and
technologies
Fig. 2. Four recycling industries cycles [source: this study].
Fig. 1. Represents the multifaceted frameworks of sustainable development [source: this recovery rate of used lubricants and post consumer plastic wastes by
study]. country in some recent studies. These values are not clear in Iran. Fig. 2
presents the four recycling industries cycles and existing relations
oil and lots of plastic and blown bitumen recycling industries are among them.
commonly active in Iran and over the world. This process (acid/clay)
yields around 15 barrels of AS per 100 barrels of used oil as hazardous 2.1. Used motor oil and AS recycling industries
waste material, which can be effectively retrieved. AS recycling industry
is generally within or next to the recycling plants of used motor oil that Some of the major options which may be used for disposal of used
is posing to establishment and utilization [14]. Lubricating oils motor oil are reuse, thermal cracking and incineration, ground treat-
constitute additives which are used in the plastics, blown bitumen ment and mulching procedures. However, each of these practices has
and AS industries for reducing the adhesion, to lower the friction and/ particular limitations. Combustion and all other practices of disposal
or to improve the elastic properties [15,16]. Table 1 represents the for used motor oils are uneconomical and led to the wastage of
Table 1
Recovery rate of used lubricants and post-consumer plastic wastes by country [4,17].
Region Consumption (ton) Predicted recoverable rate Recoverable rate (%) Recycling rate Energy recovery rate Disposal rate
* * *
Switzerland 24% 76% –
* * *
Syprus 16% – 84%
* * *
Norway 37% 55% 8%
* * *
Stonia 32% 26% 42%
* * *
Slovakia 28% 26% 46%
* * *
Slovenia 28% 24% 48%
* * *
Czech republic 32% 18% 50%
* * *
Hungary 21% 21% 58%
* * *
Poland 25% 17% 58%
* * *
Romania 27% 15% 58%
* * *
Bulgaria 17% 9% 74%
* * *
Latvia 22% 6% 72%
* * *
Lithuania 24% – 76%
Austria 102400 44 74 24% 72% 4%
Belgium 173608 44 79 32% 62% 6%
Denmark 71416 65 75 28% 66% 6%
Finland 89194 54 80 18% 44% 38%
France 888771 49 56 19% 43% 38%
Germany 1076149 50 85 33% 63% 4%
Greece 88000 68 37 17% 8% 75%
Ireland 38900 51 86 31% 25% 44%
Italy 681100 40 74 26% 16% 48%
Luxemburg 10150 50 39 24% 70% 6%
Netherlands 154685 54 72 33% 59% 8%
Purtugal 113200 55 64 34% 13% 53%
Spain 496141 55 47 28% 16% 56%
Sweden 146847 54 80 34% 61% 5%
Great Britain 803667 51 86 22% 9% 69%
* * *
Malta 13% – 87%
* * *
Europe 4934228 49 49
*
No data.
607
S.A. Unnisa, M. Hassanpour Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 605–624
Table 2
Regenerative technologies comparison in terms of environmental-friendly and economic costs [3,17].
Regenerative Technologies Energy requirement Industrial scale Economic costs AS Residual oil sludge Hazardous wastes
resources [3,18]. The recycling of used motor oils can be an appropriate used for absorption but solvent to segregate oil and foreign compounds
and economical alternative instead of combustion [3,19]. Table 2 [24]. Solvent extraction hydro-finishing technique incorporates solvent
represents available regenerative technologies comparison in terms of extraction and hydro-finishing via eliminating the foreign compounds
environmental-friendly and economic costs over the world. by solvent and then reinforcing oil quality by hydro-finishing. Using
According to Table 2 each of the functional regeneration technol- TDA with clay finishing and TDA with hydro-finishing techniques the
ogies can be utilized as a treatment practice for used motor oil. The oil is divided to 3 kinds at high temperature encompasses vacuum gas
layout of functional regeneration technologies is carried out depending oil, base oil (as lubricant) and asphalt residues. Next, the extra
on the quality of applied oil and concentration of existing pollutants in purification is completed upon base oil by hydro-finishing or clay-
used motor oils [20,21]. The operational procedure of all technologies finishing under high-pressure for continuous utilization [25].
comprise the following four stages, (1) Dewater/defuel, (2) De-asphalt, The acid/clay technique (Fig. 3) is experiencing serious quirks for
(3) Fractionation, (4) Finishing. During two first stages, the foreign environmental safety. The main by-product of this technique is the
components, moisture, fundamental compounds of light fuel like fuel huge quantity of AS which is classified as hazardous waste material
and naphtha, solid foreign components such as metal powder derived [26]. This technique yields about 15 barrels of AS per 100 barrels of
from mechanical wear and additive added to crude oil are segregated used oil which its composition besets unsaturated compounds which
from used motor oil respectively. The third stage is applied to choose or are non-polar and asphaltene analogous to bitumen [14,27].
eliminate a specific kind of components based on boiling points and Hassanpur et al. [28], used from some additives such as SBS,
then final treatment is performed to eliminate some specific foreign bentonite, lime and sodium hydroxide so that physical modification
components which cannot be eliminate through of the former stages of AS. SBS is bitumen modifier as one of the elastomer – thermoplastic
[17,20]. with wt% 2–4), bentonite due to the chemical structure as a filler,
The distillation technique pertains on the pollutants concentration stabilizer and agent concentration with wt% (1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10) and lime
of used motor oil and product quality applied as vacuum distillation, and sodium hydroxide were used to decreasing acidity value of AS and
heating or preliminary distillation and TFE, is utilized and accommo- promoting the role of bentonite stability in bitumen via ratios equal (1–
dated prior to the acid-clay process and the rest of operation stream 5 g), were mixed with AS of industry (samples 50 g). Results indicated
looks like to the acid-clay technique (Fig. 3 presents a diagrammatic that because of rising SP from 25 to 48 °C, falling WL% from 3 to 1.25,
layout of AS recycling plants and used motor oil industry) [17,22]. promoting the penetration degree to 230 mm, Frass breaking point to
Solvent de-asphalting technique is similar to the two former −7 and PI to the degree standard enacted (+1), the AS properties and
techniques (distillation and acid/clay) except its solvent extraction its performance were modified using both SBS and bentonite. These
and stripping [23]. The latest outlined technology is TFE; and TDA is in parameters were not measureable for the initial AS except SP and WL
addition to the latter procedure. TFE is generally exploited in USA and about 25°C and 3% respectively. Using all of additives with aforemen-
Europe, while the other techniques, especially the acid/clay technology tioned percentages AS converted to a useless product. In other study by
are run usually in the less-developed nations. TFE with hydro-finish- Hassanpour et al. [29] both of the SBS and bentonite were utilized to
ing, clay finishing and solvent finishing are exploited to segregate oil modify AS properties as well as a concentrator mixer so that separating
and foreign compounds via a TFE, and purify it through of the hydro- spilled oil into AS. The results revealed that performance parameters
finishing to prevent the secondary pollution. The particular compounds such as SP, WL, penetration degree, PI, Frass breaking point and
such as chlorine, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur are removed by hydro- thermal sensitivity increased from 37°C, 1.3%, 230 dmm, −0.07854,
finishing. There is a difference among these techniques, that clay is −5°C and 0.0451 to 54°C, 1%, 130 dmm, 2.7094, −11°C, 0.02721
Fig. 3. Diagram of layout acidic sludge recycling plants and used motor oil industry [14].
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S.A. Unnisa, M. Hassanpour Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 605–624
Table 3
Performance parameters of AS recycling [30].
SP (°C) 20 to 85 54
WL % 1 1
Penetration degree 30 to130 130
(dmm)
PI −2 to +2 0.5774
Frass breaking point −12 −11
PG Different Different; (70, −16), (58,
−16), (64, −10), (76, −16)
609
S.A. Unnisa, M. Hassanpour Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 605–624
Table 5
PG for all provinces of throughout Iran [31].
PG
Green 58–16* 58–34* 58–22* 68–16 64–22 64–28
Yellow 70–10 58–28*
Brown 1 70–10 64–16 64–22 58–16* 68–22 68–28 58–28* 70–28 64–10
Orange 70–28 64–28 70–10 58–16* 58–34* 76–10 64–22 64–16 64–10 52–22* 58–28* 58–22*
*
Cold regions (North and West North). 1- Warm regions.
chloride, P2O5, FeCl3 and etc. Catalytic air blowing practice of bitumen
most extensively employed today has been described by Hoiberg
other words, the blown bitumen generation operation mainly encom-
[47,48], via P2O5 and FeCl3 as catalysts for accelerating the oxidation
passes various stages of bitumen aeration, loading, cooling and
rate. Later, Shearon and Hoiberg [49] explained the details for utilizing
packaging. It should be noticed that gases and vapors escaped and
of P2O5 as a modifier in the air blowing technique. Illman and sommer
stripped during operation pass through of the aeration pipes installed
[50] confirmed the use of hexafluoro phosphoric acid as an aid to
in top of the tower and then they are traversed into contact condenser.
generate blown bitumen. Fink et el. [51] offered heating of 80–90%
In this section, by spraying water, smelly gasses, oily and non-volatile
asphaltic residuum with 2–20% by weight ferric chloride. Catalyst of
components of the gas phase are separated and transferred by water
type iron nano-particles shows a higher efficiency than the type of iron
into the sewage. Other non-separated components escaped from
carboxylate (as such or in the presence of aluminum chloride) in the
condenser are conducted and burned in the furnace [12]. Fig. 5
oxidation process.
represents layout units of the small blown bitumen production industry
The conventional blowing operation has some particular limitations
in Iran.
with regard to efficient oxygen management, cooking and etc. Some
Blown bitumen 90/15 is the main product of industry by using raw
precautions are urgent to cope with high temperature. Therefore,
oil to generate. Hassanpour [12] reported using AS, as a new additive
temperature of reaction is fixed via water stream. Incorporation of
(as an initial, concentrated or recovered product to 54/130 bitumen) to
feed air and quantity of air introduced to bitumen in aeration process
generate blown bitumen has been promoted the SP from 90 to 110 by
are two prominent variables to produce the bitumen 60/70. In this
ratio of about 11.4 for the bitumen 60/70 to AS (Table 18). AS is free in
case, to generate bitumen 90/15 or 85/25, volume ratio about 20–25%
Iran now because it is refused into environment. Therefore, it can be a
either, oil distilled or crude oil is injected to feed bitumen in order to
strength point to beckon the stakeholders and industries owners. In
promote and elevate the flexibility of product. Due to a rise in
general, air blown bitumen is superior to bitumen processed by other
temperature, quantity of air introduced, retention time and pressure
methods in terms of high temperature susceptibility and performance
of tower, the reaction rate increases. In order to achieve the appro-
characteristics [46].
priate product and impede coming into view explosive states, tempera-
As a result, conventional blowing process has a disadvantage of
ture must be actually hindered at 265–270 °C. After curing in the
non-uniform reaction with air and water pollution, off gases etc. The
tower, bitumen should be immediately discharged to an empty tank or
two most notable developments of the immediate past are the Biturox
barrels to be delivered. Long retention time of the bitumen is so
and petro canada processes. In first process the reactor is key
dangerous to the devices and facilities. This point has a worth to
component of aforementioned process as it provides the reaction
mention that extra aeration rate added, will accumulate at the empty
control to achieve the chemical modification via promoting PI. In the
space of towel and causes beginning of fire or more likely to internal
second process bitumen is produced by blending and a catalytic
explosion. Aerated tower contains 70% bitumen and air injection is
polimerization/air oxidation process is also employed in order to
fulfilled at 232–190 °C. In the end, the temperature of product should
ascend the chemical composition and rheology of bitumen [46].
be kept between 150–165 °C so that loading and packaging. On the
Table 6
Properties of base motor oils (International Standard DEF STAN 91-43/8).
Motor oil grade SAE50 SAE40 SAE30 SAE10 SAE5 Regenerated oil Reprocessing oilb
b
Base oil quality (Acid/clay process).
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S.A. Unnisa, M. Hassanpour Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 605–624
Table 8
Existing technologies for recycling PSW [2,53,54].
2.3.1. Sorting Wastes (first step) 2.3.4.2. Injection moulding. The heated and molten PSW are injected
The plastic wastes are classified after collecting based on kinds of into a mould to solidify and make the product up expected. Products
materials such as PE, PP, soft and hard degrees. Tables 9 and 10 show made this procedure encompass washbowls, buckets and plastic
polymer type classification based on photochemical behavior, compar- models to larger products such as bumpers and pallets.
ison of some initiators of photo-degradation and products of photo-
chemical reactions for common polymers respectively.
2.3.4.3. Blow moulding. A hollow plastic melt, produced by extrusion
2.3.2. Crushing and grinding (second step) or injection is joined and swelled in a mould, using air to form bottles
The soft and hard compounds should be crushed individually by for all types of uses, such as shampoo bottles.
different mills. The obtained particles are often altered based on their
usages and usually applied as they have a size of less than one inch.
2.3.4.4. Vacuum moulding. A heat-softened sheet is accommodated in
2.3.2.1. Washing. The ingredients produced from crushing and a mould, and the hollow space between the sheet and mould is
grinding should be washed. Soda or conventional detergent powders insulated and discharged to make products up such as cups and trays.
can be applied so that washing that consumption quantity pertains on
the circumstances of wastes. Tables 11–13 present common
contaminants, general effect of non-polymeric contaminants on 2.3.4.5. Inflation moulding. Extrusion moulding is used where molten
plastic recycling practices. PSW are swelled into a cylinder to make a film up. This procedure is
used to make products such as shopping bags. Fig. 6 represents the
layout of recycling unit of plastic wastes in industries of Iran [2].
2.3.3. Dewatering and drying (third step)
These particles are cleaned by water and moisture, that is why, they
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S.A. Unnisa, M. Hassanpour Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 605–624
Table 9
Polymer type classification based on photochemical behavior [55].
A Polymer non-absorbing; photo-oxidation depends on normal structure alone ABS, EMAc, EPR, NBR, PB, PBT, PEBA, PET, PI (Isoperene),
PMP, PU (ether), SBR
B Polymer non-absorbing; photo-oxidation depends on normal structure and no-absorbing chromophores EEA, EVA, LDPE, PP
C Polymer absorbing; direct photochemical reaction of absorbing groups and photo-oxidation controlled PA−6, PA−11, PA−12, PC, PS, PU (ester), SAN
by chemical defects which are not chromophores
D Polymer non-absorbing; photochemistry controlled by chemical defects and chromophore impurities PVC, PVDC, PVDF
Table 10
Comparison of some initiators of photo-degradation and products of photochemical reactions for common polymers [56].
Photolysis Photo-oxidation
PA Conjugated carbonyl unsaturations, products of photo-oxidation, Tio2, Amines, CO, hydrogen, hydrocarbons, Amines, CO, CO2, acids, ammonia, water,
derivatives of anthraquinone, copper compounds carboxylic acids, pyroles, crosslinks aldehydes, peroxides
PC Bisphenol A, Stilbenes, water, some organic pigments Chain scissions, crosslinks, free radicals, Chain scissions, hydroperoxides, free radicals,
hydroxyl groups, ethers, unsaturations carbonyl groups
PE Unsaturations, aromatic carbonyl compounds, hydrogen at tertiary Crosslinks, free radicals Free radicals, hydroperoxides, carbonyl groups,
carbon, aromatic amines, groups formed during oxidation chain scissions
(hydroperoxides, carbonyl and carboxyl), benzophenones, quinines,
transition metal compounds, Tio2, polynuclear aromatics
PEST Ferrocene, Co octoate, water, naphthalene, keto-ester Free radicals, acids, aromatics, chain Free radicals, hydroperoxides, carbonyls, chain
scissions, crosslinks scissions
PMMA Residual initiators and monomers Crosslinks, formaldehyde, H, CO, Crosslinks, hydroperoxides, hydroxyl,
methanol, methyl formate, CO2 carbonyls, aldehydes
PS Acetophenone, benzophenone, enones, diketones, phenylacetaldehyde, Hydrogen, benzene, conjugated double CO2, water ketones, unsaturations,
succinimides, benzoyl peroxide, in-chain peroxide linkages, bounds, methane, ethylene, crosslinks, hydroperoxides, radicals, chain scissions,
hydroperoxides, polycyclic aromatics hydrocarbons, Fe (III), derivatives, radicals quinomethane structures
Co salts of fatty acids, AlCl3, silicat-alomina catalyst
PVC Unsaturations, carbonyl groups, solvents, impurities, (e.g., Free radicals, unsaturations, crosslinks Free radicals, unsaturations, carbonyl groups,
benzophenone), anti-oxidants, metalo-organics, (e.g., Cd scetate, chain scissions, hydroperoxides
Ferrocene), metal chlorides (eg., CdCl2, ZnCl2), metal salts (e.g., iron and
copper salts), metal oxides (ZnO, Al2O3, Tio2), pigments
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S.A. Unnisa, M. Hassanpour Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 72 (2017) 605–624
Melts Plugs injection nozzle; catalyzes polymer oxidation In order to economic estimation of four recycling industries the
Paper, fibers Blow-outs in molded bottles; bubble collapse in film working hours of the personnel were obtained to be about 270 working
extrusion
days per year with a shift of 8 h. The required electrical energy (Kwh)
Soil, dirt Lowers aesthetic quality of recycle; causes gels and stress
concentrations and water were calculated for about 300 working days per year. The
Pigment, dyes Unwanted color variation; catalysis of polymer oxidation required water was calculated to be about 3 L/m2 – green space, 100 L
Water Hydrolytic degradation in PET; surface defects in PE / person – day and for the firefighting and safety targets by a factor of
Lubricating oil Undesirable odors; processing fumes 1.5. The staff salaries were assumed for a period of 14 months, with
Milk Recycle plasticization, lowering impact strength; rancid
23% of total salaries for insurance expenditures and pensions and an
odor of butyric acid
Terephthalic esters Discoloration of PET expense of $ 100 per month for transportation. Due to the low cost of
Hydro-peroxides Initiates thermal and photo-oxidative reactions working capital was avoided from taking a loan out for industries.
Herbicides Toxic fumes present hazard to operators Finally, economic evaluation was performed using empirical Eqs. (1–
Flame retardants May produce super-toxic compounds
11) [62,63].
Caustic residues Fogging of photographic film emulsion on PET
Q = MC′T (1)
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Table 14
Comparison of virgin and regenerated PVC [57].
Table 15 Table 17
Municipal properties of model polymers before and after recycling technique [57]. Requirements of used oil and acidic sludge industries [69,70].
Test LDPE HDPE PP Main annual material and equipment Total annual Total cost $
rates
Virgin Recycled Virgin Recycled Virgin Recycled
AS 891 m3 –
Tensile stress at max 8.6 8.6 32.5 33.1 23.7 28.5 Bentonite soil 330.32 t 103.225
load (MPa) SBS polymer 35.64 t 66825
Elongation at break 83 146 550 553 620 682 Barrels (220 L) 4050 no. 36450
(%) Used motor oil 5770 m3 1154000
Tensile stress at yield 8.6 8.6 14.4 14.9 18.5 21.3 Acid sulfuric 411.3 t 154237.5
(Mpa) Cao 22.5 t 1406.25
Elastic modulus 303 360 104 128 297 354 Additives as polymer for base oil 66 t 144375
(Mpa) Fat acid 112.5 t 249600.5
Drums 4.5 l for motor oil 700000 no. 284375
Drums 1 kg for grease 787500 no. 123046.8
Table 16 Boxes with 24 empty spaces for grease 34453 no. 10766.6
Municipal properties of waste plastic products before and after recycling technique [57]. Boxes with 6 empty spaces for motor 122500 no. 15312.5
oil
Test LDPE HDPE PP Bitumen 54/130 891 t 417656.25
Motor oil 3000 t 4687500
Virgin Recycled Virgin Recycled Virgin Recycled Grease 750 t 703125
Required energy for heating of mixing 60324098 KJ Supply by by-
Tensile stress at max 17.0 17.6 14.8 22.0 25.3 28.5 tanks to 180 °C and distillation products
load (Mpa) tanks
Elongation at break 711 722 721 732 602 652 Required electrical energy 287820 (kwh) 3598
(%) Required water 16980 m3 1171.6
Tensile stress at yield 8.8 8.9 14.8 17.2 23.3 25.0 Water supply facilities 15625
(Mpa) Split AC (Internal wiring, transformers 13125
Elastic modulus 175 182 189 250 626 674 and emergency power generators)
(Mpa) Fire extinguishers (Total) 54 no. 3402
Stoves (Total) 9 no. 270
Cooler (Total) 8 no. 240
Ventilation system (Total) 14 no. 280
In order to figure out BE was used from KBEM and EFQM. KBEM
Office equipment, furniture and etc – 2500
body is pertain on CSFS. CSFs encompass the required activities to Lab equipment (for the oil and bitumen – 5000
arrive the industrial objectives. Therefore, CSFS are associated to key quality control)
motors of performance. BES is the final outcome of overall OE in Transportation (a vehicle weighing 4 t, 7 no. 85000
car and fork)
uniting all CSFS. The role of KBEM and Kanji business score are infer
Staff salary (33 persons) 33 Persons 110000
to the assessment of industrial performance of the internal and Required fuel (stoves) 2360 L 332
external stakeholders respectively. Thus, it was used Eq. (14) so. Petroleum expenses (Transportation 44400 L 9712.5
KBEM score is equal with performance excellence A plus B [11]. vehicle and cars)
Required land 20000 m2 100000
A+B Construction of infrastructure 2284 m2 228400
BES = × 10
2 (12) (buildings)
Pavement and asphalt 5542 m2 53688
KBEM = A + B (13) Landscaping 2000 m2 2000
Ground tank 2*15*12 1 no. 28000a
∑ BI Mixing tanks equipped with heating to 2 no. 3150a
B=
N (14) 180 °C
Propeller mixers with power 3.5 Hp 5 no. 945a
In order to study different factors together were used multiple Sewage pumps with power 10 Hp 2 no. 840a
weighting systems. Each of KBEM items has a worth equal with 50 Stainless steel vacuum pumps with 4 no. 1260a
scores in EFQM. Therefore, in the aforementioned system were power 7.5 Hp
assumed 900 scores for items in EFQM until KBEM be enable to Gear pumps with power 5.5 Hp 13 no. 2730a
Condenser 4 no. 840a
survey OE values in a diagram. In present study each of the EFQM Sedimentation tank 20 m3 7 no. 26250a
items was matched with two items of KBEM [67,68]. Distillation tanks 4 no. 104864.55a
Jonidi and Hassanpour [69] discerned economic indices of the used Mixing tanks 5 no. 12796.87a
motor oil industry equipped to AS recycling plant (The breakeven point Grease cooking chamber 1 no. 3062.5a
Filter presses with 20 blades (62*62) 1 no. 17187.5a
about 6% and the time of return on investment about 0.26 (3.2
months)). The economical point of view, the indices values such as a
With 5% cost of installation.
value-added percent, annual revenue, breakeven point, value-added
were computed for the AS recycling process by Hassanpour [70]. The
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Table 18 Table 19
Requirements of blown bitumen production industry [12]. Requirements of plastic wastes recycling industry [2].
Main annual material and equipment Total annual Total cost $ Main annual material and equipment Total annual Total cost $
rates rates
Bitumen conveyor pump (17 atm) 2 no. 20000a Conveyor system 2.5 m 1 no. 1272.6a
Compressor or centrifuge (Capacity 2 no. 15150a Stainless steel washing chamber (2 m3) 1 no. 1908.9a
22 m3/min) Automatic dewatering machine (2 m3 Stainless 1 no. 3817.8a
Aeration tower (45 t, CS, thickness 1 no. 33000a steel)
5 mm) Drying machine equipped to flame and fan 1 no. 2757.3a
Kiln (2*2*3 m) 1 no. 3030a (1 m3 Stainless steel)
Flame (3 Hp) 7 no. 900a Device to produce the pellets (Twine, 100 kg/h) 1 no. 1230.6a
Storage tank (70 t) 4 no. 28000a Storage cone (Length= 2 m) 1 no. 222.6a
Condenser with capacity 85 m3/min 1 no. 210a Packaging machine (50 kg packs) 1 no. 2545.2a
(V=3 m3) Screening 1 no. 2227a
Bitumen 60/70 61600 t 6160000 Condenser 4 no. 882a
Raw oil or acidic sludge 5400 t Acidic sludge is Grinding machine equipped to washing 1 no. 5408.5a
free machine (500 kg/h-automatic 40 Hp)
Energy required for heating and 3240 GJ Burning by- PP or LDPE 1000 t 90909
melting of bitumen products NaCo3 (0.5g per kg wastes) 0.5 t 150
Boxes 35 kg 34300 no. 34300 50 kg packages 12600 no. 126000
Barrels 60000 no. 480000 Grinded pellets 400 t 400000
Blown bitumen 90/15 48000 t 12150000 Pellets (Very low density) 230 t 278787
Required electrical energy 642982.3 (KWH) 8037.83 Required electrical energy 538200 (KWH) 6727.96
Required water (12 m3/day) 3600 m3 248.2 Required water (6 m3 / day) 1800 m3 124.1
Water supply facilities 15625 Water supply facilities 15625
Split AC (Internal wiring, emergency 13125 Split AC (Internal wiring, transformers and 13125
power generators) emergency power generators)
Fire extinguishers (Total) 24 no. 1512 Fire extinguishers (Total) 54 no. 3402
Stoves (Total) 4 no. 170 Stoves (Total) 4 no. 120
Cooler (Total) 2 no. 1000 Cooler (Total) 2 no. 60
Ventilation system (Total) 7 no. 140 Ventilation system (Total) 7 no. 140
Office equipment, furniture and etc – 2500 Office equipment, furniture and etc – 2500
Lab equipment (for quality control) – 5000 Lab equipment, (for quality control) – 5000
Transportation (A vehicle weighing 4 t, 3 no. 40000 Transportation (A vehicle weighing 4 t, car and 3 no. 40000
car and fork) fork)
Staff salary 19 Persons 63333.33 Staff salary 9 Persons 30000
Required fuel (Stoves) 1080 L 162 Required fuel (Stoves) 1080 L 162
Petroleum expenses (Transportation 16200 L 3544 Petroleum expenses (Transportation vehicle 16200 L 3544
vehicle and cars) and cars)
Required land 2800 m2 35000 Required land 7600 m2 38000
Construction of infrastructure 805 m2 80500 Construction of infrastructure (Buildings) 2175 m2 217500
(Buildings) Pavement and asphalt 2771 m2 26844
Pavement and asphalt 1400 m2 13562.4 Landscaping 1000 m2 1000
Landscaping 1000 m2 1000
a
With 5% cost of installation.
a
With 5% cost of installation.
retained ownership or sale of products. Moosavi and Rajabi [71]
low breakeven point of about 14.7% and the time of return on reported that value-added will rise approximately equal to the average
investment around 1.05 (about 13 months) determined the fiscal annual growth rate of 18% for industries sector since 2009–2025 in
success of project. Further validation comes into view from the Iran.
Iranian industrial organization survey that presents low breakeven Van Kasteren and Nisworo [72] affirmed that biodiesel can be sold
point of about 22.5% and the time of return on investment around 0.9 at US$ 0.17/L (125000 t/year), US$ 0.24/L (80,000 t/year) and US$
(about 11 months) confirmed economic success of project for used 0.52/L for the smallest unit capacities (8000 t/year) with the existing
motor oil industries without AS recycling unit. Hassanpour [2,12] alkali, acid catalyzed and a supercritical trans-esterification technique.
reported the breakeven point about 2.46% and 15.93%, the time of Zhang et al. [73] declared that for three biodiesel plants with capacities
return on investment about 0.07 and 1.12 for blown bitumen and 100000 (1994), 7800 (1996) and 10560 (1999) tons/year the break-
plastic wastes recycling industry respectively. Tables 17–21 represent even prices in $/ton were 340,763, 420 respectively which utilized both
the results of studies. alkali- and acid-catalyzed techniques with waste cooking oil as the raw
The obtained values of value- added, value- added percent, profit, material. Cutler [65] revealed that decrease in oil quantities and energy
annual revenue, breakeven point, time of return on investment and return on investment has been raised the energy outlays of extraction
investment rate are putative and main economic indices. The time of of petroleum in the US. Energy return on investment comprises the
return on investment is the least time that will pursue the high profit as ratio of energy delivered to energy outlays. Greene et al. [74]
well as environment protection, business and SD involvements. The represented that a feebate rate of $ 500 per 0.01 gallon per mile
analysis of breakeven point identifies the relationship between outlays produces a 16% increase in fuel economy and 29% around $ 1000 so.
and revenues. Using this practice in current study thoroughly repre- Saving fuel for 3 years declines unit sales about 0.5%. But sales will
sents the time of return on investment. The breakeven point is shown follow increase, because the added value of implementation fuel
fixed and variable outlays of project at contrast with the running economy technologies outweighs the decrease in sales. Gonzalez et al.
revenues and prosecutes the lowest level of production which at this [75] disclosed the outlay of $ 0.49 L−1 of ethanol, cash cost of $
level profitability comes into view and the revenue of industries ample 0.46 L−1 and CAPEX of $ 1.03 L−1 of ethanol on the technical and
besets the fixed and variable outlays. In an industry is indispensable financial performance of high yield Eucalyptus biomass. The main
figuring the breakeven budget out to identify an expected market price outlays encompass the biomass, enzyme, tax, fuel, depreciation and
for products at some points in the future or to evaluate the choice of labors. Profitability of the process is very depend on biomass, carbohy-
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Table 20 Table 21
Economic indices [69,70]. Economic indices [2,12].
Economic indices of the used motor oil industry equipped to Cost $ Economic indices of plastic wastes recycling industry [12] Cost $
AS recycling unit
Data value
Data value
Grinded pellets 400000
Grease 703125 Pellets (Very low density) 278787
Bitumen 54/130 417656.3 Total value of annual selling of products 678787
Motor oil 4125000
Total value of annual selling of products 5245781.3 Output value
Additives, packages and required materials 217059
Output value Maintenance 14781.33
Additives, barrels and required materials 2240498.4 Energy consumption 10558
Maintenance 1624.075 Unforeseen costs of fixed capital 12937.42
Energy consumption 14814.1 Total cost 255335.75
Unforeseen costs of fixed capital 33049.43 Value-added 423451.25
Total cost 2289986 Value-added percent 62%
Value- added 2955795.3 Profit 366558
Value- added percent 56.34% Variable cost of commodity unit 389.65
Profit 2795396.8 Breakeven point 15.93%
Variable cost of commodity unit 535 Production cost 314494.4
Breakeven point (6%) 260.83 Annual revenue 364292.6
Production cost 2470258.36 Time of return on investment 1.12
Annual revenue 2775522.94 Economic indices of blown bitumen production industry [2] Cost $
Time of return on investment 0.26 (3.2 months)
Data value
Economic indices of recycling AS project of reprocessing industries to bitumen Blown bitumen 90/15 (new product 110/15) 12150000
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Table 22
Comparison of scores system for industries (used motor oil and acidic sludge, blown bitumen, plastic wastes respectively) [2,11,12].
KBEM EFQM
4. Environmental development aspects from four recycling 4.1.2.2. Evaporative coolers. Evaporative coolers are designed to
industries condition the particulates before capture in another device such as
thermal oxidizers, incinerators, furnaces, calciners and kilns and boiler
4.1. Typical technologies for management of by-products and applications [83].
residuals
4.1.2.3. Fabric filter collectors. There are three basic dust collector
4.1.1. VOCs elimination technologies applications. Nuisance venting of conveyors, transfer points, packing
Many VOCs elimination technologies have been developed in some stations and so on this dust is often sent to waste. Next is product
studies. Table 23 presents many of the techniques. collection venting of classifiers, crushers, storage bins, air (pneumatic)
Membrane separation has developed into an important technology conveying systems, mills, and flash dryers. Last is process gas filtration
for separating VOCs from gas streams. It is the best suited for relatively venting of spray dryers, kilns, powder boilers, reactors and so on [83].
low-flow streams containing moderate VOC concentration [83]. The
removal of airborne contaminants and VOCs are an area of prominent 4.1.2.4. Fiber bed filters. This classification is specialized filtration
applications for photo-catalysis. The struggles to be encountered devices that primarily designed to coalesce and capture liquid
involve the treatment of relatively massive gas streams in devices with contaminants such as acid mists and aerosols the viscosity of which
low pressure-drops, good photo-catalyst irradiation and efficient is low enough that they flow or can be made to flow through of fiber bed
reactant species-photo-catalyst contacting. These designs were checked surface [83].
considering as performance qualifiers the levels of photo-conversion of
miscellaneous classifications of pollutants at different concentrations, 4.1.2.5. Packed towers. Packed towers are employed for control of
temperatures, relative humidity, pressures, space-times and irradiation soluble gases such as halide acids (such as HF and HCl), and to remove
times using the fluidized photo catalyst bed, annular packed bed, soluble organic compounds such as alcohols and aldehydes. Packed
photo-catalytic coated honeycomb monoliths, fixed powder layer, fiber towers are also used as gas coolers and condensers [83].
optic based, Photo-CREC air unit with venturi, flat plate fluidized bed,
fluidized bed photo-catalytic, fixed layer photo-catalytic, annular 4.1.2.6. Wet electrostatic precipitator. They are frequently utilized to
photo-catalytic, packed bed photo-catalytic, TiO2 coated monolith collect submicron particulate that arises from combustion, drying
photo-catalytic, photo-catalytic reactors with fiber optic bundles and operations, process chemical production, polishing devices, inlet low
Photo-CREC air with venturi [84–86]. loading of particulates and flows contain corrosive gases and similar
sources [83].
4.1.2. Dust, airborne particles and some pollutants control practices
Wet scrubbing, bag house, mechanically aided scrubbers, wet
electrostatic precipitator and dry cyclone collectors are designed to 4.1.3. Oily sludge management practices and some by-products
capture particulate dust or to increase the size of aerosols effectively The oily sludge generated has hazardous nature (Carcinogen). Oily
remove fine particles in the range from 0.1 µm to 20, 1, 10, 10 µm sludge includes various petroleum hydrocarbons, water, heavy metals,
respectively. Mechanically aided scrubbers are low cost, compact size and solid particles as hazardous waste materials [87]. Hu et al. [88]
and reliable devices which applied at low loading such as loading and asserted that some recovery and disposal practices could be employed
unloading facilities, fugitive dusts from storage facilities, wet coating to management and treatment of oily sludge such as, biodegradation,
operations, and etc [83]. oxidation, stabilization/solidification, incineration, froth floatation,
ultrasonic irradiation, electro-kinetic method, microwave irradiation,
4.1.2.1. Bio filters. Bio filters are often employed to control emissions pyrolysis, freeze / thaw, surfactant enhanced oil recovery, centrifuga-
of water-soluble or condensable hydrocarbons (such as alcohols), tion, and solvent extraction. Also, in the procedures launched via clay
phenols, aldehydes such as formaldehyde, odorous mercaptans, filter come out high quantities of cake filter. The filter cake discharged
organic acids, and similar compounds from filling operations and from the filter press can be utilized in drilling mud. It can also be
packing processes [83]. buried in landfill or treated. Asphalt residues and button residuals of all
distillation facilities can be profoundly utilized to produce different
kinds of bituminous or raw products for some industries and etc. The
obtained fuels of regenerative used motor oil technologies are used so
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Table 23
VOCs control technologies [83].
Absorption 250 90% Especially good for inorganic acid gasses Limited applicability
1000 95%
5000 98%
Adsorption 200 50% Low capital investment, good for solvent Selective applicability, moisture and temperature
1000 90–95% recovery constraints
5000 98%
Condensation 500 50% good for product or solvent recovery Limited applicability
10,000 95%
Thermal incineration 20% 95% High destruction No organic can be recovered, capital intensive
100% 99% Wide applicability can recover heat energy
that burning. The organic solvents applied in some procedures are the energy levels of gaseous particles are significantly motivated
recovered in the following recycling processes [89]. The char can either consequently are released the high density particles of electrons by
be additional processed onsite to discharge the energy content of the electrical discharge and lead to transformation, depletion and deforma-
carbon, or applied offsite in other thermal techniques. The residual tion processes. At atmospheric pressure and temperatures around 5000
output of char is employed as a fuel or as a feedstock for other K° products only are in the gaseous phase. At higher temperatures
petrochemical processes. Char generated is burned via a rotary drum upper than 10,000 K° ions only emerge under plasma state and at
incinerator or microwave techniques and etc [90]. Many of the higher temperatures (108) lead to the formation of a mixture of
products yielded by pyrolysis and gasification processes for PSW are electrons and naked nucleus [91,92]. Based on studies of America
well sold. The residual solids can be employed as carbon black or Aeronautics and Space Administration this state is called the fourth
activated carbon [53]. state of matter. All components of the galaxy have been made up by a
spinning cloud, when the temperature at the center of bulk arrived to
106 °C fusion reactions started and its radiations given off into space.
5. New technologies for management of by-products, wastes;
The sun as a main hot plasma source causes the upper layers of
redesign and reproduction
atmosphere are constantly bombarded by solar radiations [85]. The
solar interactions (solar wind) hit to earth's magnetosphere are
5.1. Plasma technology
captured or given off from the route. This phenomenon leads to a
shock wave that is accommodated by plasma. Therefore, origin of
In the classical view, materials can exist in any of the three states of
earth's magnetic field also refers to plasma. Plasma forces (natural
matter such as solid, liquid and gas. But in modern physics, a fourth
plasma) play a major role in the formation and destruction of celestial
state called the plasma state has been recognized. The mixture of gases
bodies like planets and stars, black holes and around 99% of cosmos
that existing ions are discharged in opposite directions from each
[92]. By the definitions, plasma technology may be of two types, natural
other, resulting in a zero net electrical discharge is called plasma state.
and manmade. Manmade plasmas are being produced in laboratories
On the other words, very reactive and ionized gas, discharging of
by raising the energy content of a material, and the energy in question
glaring light are other definitions from plasma state. Ionization process
can be any one of the following kinds - mechanical, thermal, chemical,
occurs when molecules of a gas are exposed to rays (radiation) energy,
radiation, rays, electrical, nucleus, energies, combination of them,
electrical currents or excessive thermal energy, during these processes
Table 24
Plasma technology and its classification [85,92].
Non-Equilibrium (Cold plasma) Atmospheric pressure, non-equilibrium plasmas *Plasma unit for processing the ash of asbestos in France
DBD *Plasma unit for destroying the toxic wastes in Madison
Corona discharges *Plasma unit for processing the scrap cars in Japan
High-frequency plasmas *Plasma unit for processing the used tires in Jackson
Low-pressure, non-equilibrium plasmas *Plasma unit for removing the hazardous wastes and producing energy in the USA
Radio frequency electrical discharge
Electron cyclotron resonance plasmas
Helicon Plasmas
Direct current electricity discharges
Magnetically-confined plasmas
Low-frequency alternating current discharge
Low-pressure high-density plasmas
Micro Wave
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Table 26
Bond energies and enthalpies of formation of free radicals [92,125].
Diatomic molecules
C-H 3.3 °CH° 596.3 6.1
C-N 7.8 CH2: 430.1 4.4
C-Cl 4.0 CH3° 146.0 1.5
C-F 5.7 HC˭C° 566.1 5.8
C˭O 11.2 HC˭CH2° 300.0 3.1
C-C 6.3 NH: 350.0 3.6
Polyatomic molecules
C˭C 7.6 NH2° 185.4 1.9
C≡C 10.0 :Si: 456.6 4.7 Fig. 8. Schematic diagram of the Plasmatron [125].
CH3-H 4.5 °SiCl0 195.0 2.0
C2H5-H 4.3 SiCl2: −163.0 −1.7 and etc) of diamond, heating, melting metals, precipitation and coating
CH2-CH-H 4.8 SiCl30 −318.0 −3.3 [102,118]. Based on the results of the various tests carried out, plasma
CHC-H 5.7 C6H50 328.9 3.4
C6F50 −547.7 −5.0
jet has been reported to be successful in the disposal of glass and
ceramic, municipal wastes, agricultural residue, coal, heavy metals, fly
Steam reforming for producing fuel Thermal decomposition required energy ash, radioactive wastes, industrial wastes, kiln dust, organic wastes,
cell required energy (KJ/mol) (KJ/mol) used tires, plastics, medical and biomedical wastes, chemical wastes,
C 167 – –
asbestos fibers and products containing persistent organic pollutants
CH4 230 – –
CH4O 114 CH4 62 and poly chlorinated biphenyls [119,120]. Thermal plasma is being
C2H2 99 C2H2 −235 utilized in the reformation of natural gas, hydrogen production, fuel
C2H4 269 C2H4 −65 cells and hydrogen-rich gases using gasification of industrial synthetics
C2H6 400 C2H6 66 oils and blends of oils, used lubricants and other fuels [121]. Other
C3H4 303 C3H4 −198
C3H6 462 C3H6 −39
mentionable uses of plasma jets are the production of waste-derived
C3H8 581 C3H8 80 fuels and alterations in the state of matter. Many of hazardous wastes,
C6H6 932 C6H6 −70 hydrocarbon-rich sludge can be recycled by jet plasma to give
C7H16 1343 C7H16 179 expensive and valuable materials such as diamond and graphite and
C8H16 1250 C8H16 −86
similar materials. Diamond-like carbon is a hard film which is made
from carbon composites and has physical properties like diamond. It
voltage transformer at frequencies under 100 Hz continuously [112]. also reveals very high abrasion resistance and a low coefficient friction
as well as it is kind of products associated to plasma jet technology.
Diamond powder is employed as suspensions in organic liquids
[98,122,123].
5.1.1.11. Micro wave. Three types of micro wave plasma reactors have
been recognized such as closed, open and resonance structures with a
magnetic field. These plasmas are sustained by micro wave energy In CVD process, instead of using the high pressure, diamond are
introduced into the reactor by coaxial cables or waveguides in the case produced by allowing the atoms to join together to form diamond
of higher powers regarding to its frequency. This type of discharges are [124]. The transfer rate depends on the pressure inside the chamber of
more difficult to maintain under low-pressure ambient [92]. deposition. The required pressure and temperature of this process is
1.35 m and 700–720 °C respectively. Also, in this practice a variety of
techniques and materials are used, as a source of carbon, hydrogen and
Fridman et al. [114] utilized pulsed corona plasma for removal of
activator. The required energy is supplied from heating elements,
VOCs from gas emissions of paper industry. By the way, high removal
flame, and microwave radiation. In order to start the reaction, mixture
efficiencies were achieved for VOCs by average power up to 20 W and
from both of the gases methane and hydrogen to ratio of 1–2% and 98–
6.4 kW for pilot plant. It also utilized to improve indoor air quality, air
99% are continuously introduced into the reactor respectively. Using
cooling and de-odorising via production of free radicals, elimination of
plasma reactor equipped to anode and cathode plates (electrical
black smoke, fuel odor, dust and TVOCs in industries such as
current; the ionization energies of many atoms and molecules comprise
petrochemical, steel, textile and etc. Sterilization efficiency for indoor
in the range between 10 and 20 eV [93] according to Table 26) is
pollutants has been estimated about 99.9%, 180 and 200 times faster
produced radicals of hydrogen in order to create active radicals of
than ultraviolet sterilization and ozone, 157% more powerful than
methyl and also develop the C–C bonds in core surface as well as
peroxide via producing free radicals respectively. It is a prominent
prevention of forming graphite layers. Table 26 shows bond energies
technique to eliminate TVOCs, CFCs, dioxins, furans, PAHs, poly
and enthalpies of formation of free radicals.
chlorinated biphenyls and NO, H2S, NOx, NH3, other solvents and
Kado et al. [104] revealed that direct dehydrogenation of methane
gases [98, 115, 116]. Hartz et al. [117] declared that destruction and
to generate more suitable chemicals was conducted using low tem-
removal efficiency of up to 99.6% for C2F6 was achieved using
perature plasmas such as spark discharge, DBD and corona. Results
microwave powers applied from 500 to 2000 W in surface wave
had shown that energy efficiency in spark discharge was much upper
plasmas as an innovative technology.
than that in DBD and corona discharge, methane highly dissociated to
atomic carbon and hydrogen in spark discharge. To form a thin layer of
5.1.1.12. Plasma jet or torch and its industrial and commercial
diamond by radicals of methyl on surface of core the reactor tempera-
applications. One of the most important kinds of hot plasma is the
ture must be handled. The results of researches have been reported the
plasma jet. There are several industrial applications of plasma jet
growth rate from 0.1 to 10 µm per hour using a heating element and if
reactors, including synthesis (such as SiC, Si3N4, AlN, acetylene gas
the flame be used as the source of energy the growth rate will grow
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quickly up to 100 µm per hour, but will not be good quality. Using per day it would be a prominent achievement that a very high amounts
microwave source the required energy and temperatures can be (90–100%) of industrial hazardous waste had become to an extremely
supplied as well as appropriate speed of growth the diamond layer. valuable additive or products as well as economic benefits, creating job
The growth process is performed at high temperatures so the melting opportunities, business and promoting the business excellence. The
point of the core used should be higher than the temperature of reactor. used motor oil, plastic wastes, blown bitumen and AS recycling
Commonly silicon, molybdenum and tungsten used as the core. Source industries undoubtedly are a boost to the economy, in the prevailing
of atoms and molecules can be gaseous, liquid or solid like AS. We can financial times. Plasma technology has abundant potential in pursuing
point out to this type of process as alterations in the state of matter a green world via impede culminating greenhouse gases emission from
from one form to another by plasma technology [126]. Bromberg et al. large and small scale industries and wastes can be retrieved into syngas
[125] revealed that Plasmatron reactor is employed for reforming and which is potentially able to supersede natural gas for industrial and
altering heavier hydrocarbons including bio-fuels and used motor oils energy exploitation as well as producing valuable products. Although,
can comprise some advantages such as compactness and low weight there is so much difficulty to its implementation because of complexity
(due to high power density), high conversion efficiencies, minimal of sciences, scarcity of sufficient information and facilities in develop-
outlays (simple metallic or carbon electrodes and power supplies), ing nations. However, employing new technologies can lead us towards
quick response period and variations in operation with a wide range of SD in all levels of recycling industries.
fuels. Fig. 8 presents a diagram of the Plasmatron.
The thermal efficiency of hydrogen generation by Plasmatron of References
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