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energies

Article
Thermodynamic Analysis on an Integrated Liquefied
Air Energy Storage and Electricity Generation System
Yingbai Xie and Xiaodong Xue *
Department of Power Engineering, North China Electric Power University, Baoding 071003, China;
xieyb@ncepu.edu.cn
* Correspondence: 2162214059@ncepu.edu.cn

Received: 22 August 2018; Accepted: 20 September 2018; Published: 23 September 2018 

Abstract: For an integrated liquefied air energy storage and electricity generation system,
mathematical models of the liquefied air energy storage and electricity generation process are
established using a thermodynamic theory. The effects of the outlet pressure of the compressor
unit, the outlet pressure of the cryogenic pump, the heat exchanger effectiveness, the initial air
temperature and pressure before throttling on the performances of the integrated liquefied air energy
storage, and the electricity generation system are investigated, using the cycle efficiency and liquid
air yield ratio as the evaluation indexes. The results show that if the compressor outlet pressure
is raised, both the compression work and the expansion work increase, but because the expansion
work increases more slowly, the cycle efficiency of the system gradually decreases. Increasing the
cryogenic pump outlet pressure and heat exchanger effectiveness can significantly increase the cycle
efficiency of the system; the higher the air pressure and the lower the air temperature before throttling,
the greater the liquid air yield after expansion, and the higher the cycle efficiency. The theoretical
analysis models and research results can provide a reference for the development of an integrated
system of liquefied air energy storage and electricity production, as well as for the development of
medium-capacity energy storage technology.

Keywords: liquefied air energy storage; cycle efficiency; liquid air yield ratio; electricity generation

1. Introduction
Solar, wind, and other renewable energies are widely used to generate electricity in the world [1–5].
For these energy forms, because of their characteristics of instability and intermittence [6,7], efficient
energy storage technologies are required in order for a sustained and stable output [8–12].
Energy storage technologies, such as bulk power management, compressed air energy storage
(CAES), and pumped hydroelectricity storage (PHS) [13–16], are presently relatively mature and
reliable. However, these two technical schemes [17] are limited by geographical or hydrogeological
conditions. PHS technology needs abundant water resources for support, while CAES requires
high-performance natural underground reservoirs. According to the Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI), the total cost for CAES is around 1000 $/kW. It may be double this for PHS. As a result, there is
a demand to develop a general, cost-effective energy storage technology, regardless of local conditions.
Liquid air energy storage (LAES) is an innovative and leading universal industrial energy storage
technology [18–21]. The idea of LAES began in 1977 at the University of Newcastle, and was tested by
Mitsubishi Industries Ltd. (Tokyo, Japan) in 1998 [1]. Researchers at the University of Leeds together
with the Highview Power Storage Company developed the first 350 kW/2.5 MWh pilot demonstration
plant at the University of Birmingham in 2010. The data gathered from this pilot plant showed that the
efficiency of the total cycle is in the range of 50–60%.

Energies 2018, 11, 2540; doi:10.3390/en11102540 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies


Energies 2018, 11, 2540 2 of 12

Since 2014, Viridor has selected Highview to design MW level pre-commercial, multi-MW,
and conceptual Giga-Plant LAES. However the round-trip efficiency is still approximately 60%.
Some literature has contributed to this topic.
The process can be divided into two parts, namely air liquefied and electric generation. As the
air liquefied process needs a lower temperature, while the electric generation process needs a higher
temperature, internal heat exchangers, such as regenerators, are needed to connect these two processes
in order to improve the cycle efficiency.
An integrated system was put forward so as to investigate the operational parameters of the
major devices effecting the cycle efficiency. Chino and Araki [22] also proposed an air liquefaction
plant integrated with a conventional combined cycle power plant. Li et al. studied a LAES system
integrated with a nuclear power plant [23]. The overall system efficiency is improved, owing to the
reheating arrangement.
In this paper, more detailed effects will be discussed regarding the outlet pressure of the
compressor and cryogenic pump, the efficiency of the heat exchanger, the air temperature and pressure
before the throttle on the cycle efficiency, and the liquid air yield.

2. System Description
Figure 1 shows the layout of an integrated liquefied air energy storage and electricity
generation system, referring to the literature [8]. The system adopts a two-stage compression and
two-stage expansion.

Compressor #1 Expander #2
5S 6S
1L 7E
12S Hot S torage
2L Tank 6E

11S
Cooler #1 Heat
Exc hanger #2

Compressor #2 3L 5E Expander #1

4L 4E
7S

Cooler #2 Heat
Cold S torage Exc hanger #1
Tank #1
10S 9S 8S
5L
3E
10L 1S 3S

Cold Cold
Stor age Gasification Heat
Box Tank #2 Exc hanger

6L 2S 4S
9L
J-T Valve 2E
Cryogenic
7L Pump
Separator
Liquid 1E
8L Air Ta nk

Figure 1.
1. Schematic
Schematicdiagram
diagramofof
anan integrated
integrated liquid
liquid air energy
air energy storage
storage and electricity
and electricity generation
generation system.
system.
The left side is the air liquefying process. It contains two air compressors, a J–T valve (It is
a throttle valve),Models
3. Mathematical a separator, a liquid air tank, and some heat exchangers. When there is surplus
for Processes
electricity from the renewable energy sources or from the grid, the outer air is compressed by the two
air compressors,
3.1. Air Liquefyingand its temperature and pressure are raised. Then, the gaseous air is cooled down
Process
and throttled in the J–T valve. The liquefied air is then collected in the separator and stored in the
The outlet pressure and inlet pressure of the air compressors are as follows:
liquid air tank.
pac,out = pac,in ac (1)

where pac,out is the outlet pressure of the air compressor, Pa; pac,in is the inlet pressure of the air
compressor, Pa; and πac is the compression ratio.
The relationship between the inlet and outlet temperature of the air compressor is as follows:
Energies 2018, 11, 2540 3 of 12

When there is an insufficient supply of electricity available to meet the consumers’ demands,
the cryogenic pump is activated. The liquid air in the liquid air tank increases its temperature through
the heat exchangers, and recovers to a gaseous state. When it reaches the set-points for the temperature
and pressure, the air enters the two-stage expander in order to generate electricity. This is the electricity
generation process.
There are some regenerators between the two processes. To decrease the system fluctuation,
the large capacity storage method is used.
The above integrated system is modeled with the following assumptions:

• Ignoring other components, it is assumed that the air is a mixture of 21% oxygen and 79%
nitrogen. The thermodynamic properties of nitrogen and oxygen are evaluated in REFPROP
(Reference Fluid Thermodynamic and Transport Properties Database), according to the authors
of [24,25], respectively.
• According to thermodynamics, it is assumed that the compression and expansion processes are
polytropic processes.
• The pressure losses along the cycle have been ignored, in order to have a solution that compares
different cycles under the same conditions. In the analysis, the system is assumed to be in a steady
state condition, and the thermal losses in the heat exchangers are ignored [26].

3. Mathematical Models for Processes

3.1. Air Liquefying Process


The outlet pressure and inlet pressure of the air compressors are as follows:

p ac,out = p ac,in π ac (1)

where pac,out is the outlet pressure of the air compressor, Pa; pac,in is the inlet pressure of the air
compressor, Pa; and π ac is the compression ratio.
The relationship between the inlet and outlet temperature of the air compressor is as follows:
n c −1
Tac,out = Tac,in π ac nc (2)

where Tac,out is the outlet temperature of the air compressor, K; Tac,in is the inlet temperature of the air
compressor, K; and nc is the polytropic index of the compression process.
The efficiency of the compressor η ac can be expressed as follows:

κ−1 nc
ηac = × (3)
κ nc − 1

where κ is the adiabatic index.


The specific work, wac , done to the compress air is as follows:

2
wac = ∑ cair (Tac,out,i − Tac,in,i ) = (h2L − h1L ) + (h4L − h3L ) (4)
i =1

where cair is the specific heat capacity of air, J/(kg·K).


After the two air compressors, two internal heat exchangers are used. The high-temperature
and high-pressure air is cooled down to heat the low temperature cold fluid within the internal heat
exchanger. Ignoring the heat dissipated to the surroundings, the outlet air temperature of the cold
side, Thex,cold,out , is as follows:

Thex,cold,out = (1 − ε) Tac,out + εThex,cold,in (5)


Energies 2018, 11, 2540 4 of 12

where ε is the efficiency of the heat exchanger, and Thex,cold,in is the inlet air temperature of the internal
heat exchanger on the cold side, K.
The lower the temperature of the air entering the second compressor, the smaller the power
consumption needed for compressing the air. Therefore, the cold side air from these two heat
exchangers is introduced from cold storage tank #1. When leaving the heat exchanger, the cold
side air discharges the absorbed heat into the hot storage tank. The heat stored in the hot storage tank
per unit mass is as follows:
qhst = h6S − h5S (6)

The hot side air continues cooling down in the cold box. The parameters of point 6L (in Figure 1)
must be controlled to be below certain values. In the cold box, the energy balance equation must
include the mass flow rate of the three working fluid streams.
Then, the air passes the J–T valve and is throttled into the two-phase region. The gaseous air is
recovered to be reused. The liquefied air flows out from the bottom of the separator and is stored in
the liquid air tank. The ratio of liquid air yield is as follows:
m8L
Y= (7)
m1L

where m8L is the mass flow rate of the liquid air that enters the liquid air tank, kg/s, and m1L is the
mass flow rate of the gaseous air being suctioned at air compressor #1, kg/s.

3.2. Electricity Generation Process


During the peak electricity demand period or in the case of a power failure, the electricity
generation process is activated. The liquid air in the liquid air tank is extracted by the cryogenic pump,
and the power consumption is as follows:
p2E
wcp = R air,gas T1E ln (8)
p1E

where T1E is the liquid air temperature at the outlet of the liquid air tank, K; p1E is the pressure of liquid
air at the outlet of the liquid air tank, Pa; and p2E is the pressure of air at the outlet of the cryogenic
pump, Pa.
The air then absorbs heat from cold storage tank #2, turning into a gaseous state in the gasification
heat exchanger. The air temperature at the outlet of the heat exchanger is as follows:

T3E = (1 − ε) T2E + εT4S (9)

In heater #1, the air heats to T4E , and enters expander #1 to produce work. The expansion process
is also a polytropic process, where the temperature at the outlet of each expander is as follows:

− (nen−e 1)
Tae,out = Tae,in πe (10)

where ne is the polytropic index of the expansion process, and π e is the expansion ratio.
The polytropic efficiency and the polytropic index of the expander is as follows:

( n e − 1) κ
ηe = × (11)
ne κ−1

The work produced for the unit mass working fluid expansion in the expanders is as follows:

we = (h5E − h4E ) + (h7E − h6E ) (12)


Energies 2018, 11, 2540 5 of 12

3.3. Cyclic Performance


A complete cycle of the liquefied air energy storage system includes two stages, the liquefied
energy storage and the energy released to power generation. The main parameter used to measure the
system performance is the system cycle efficiency, also called the round-trip efficiency, which can be
expressed as follows:
we − wcp
ηRT = Y (13)
wac

4. Performance Analysis of an Integrated System of Liquefied Air Energy Storage and


Power Generation
MATLAB software is used to program the established models. Referring to the literature [27],
the basic operating parameters of the liquefied air energy storage and power generation system are
shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Basic operating parameters of the system.

Parameters Value Units


Ambient temperature (T0 ) 293 K
Ambient pressure (p0 ) 100 kPa
Outlet pressure of cryogenic pump (p2E ) 7000 kPa
Liquid air storage pressure (p1E ) 100 kPa
Minimum temperature of cold storage tank #2 93 K
Maximum temperature of cold storage tank #2 300 K
Pinch point temperature of cold box (cold side) 5 K
Pinch point temperature of cold box (hot side) 10 K
Gross compression ratio of compressors 80 -
Isentropic efficiency of compressors 0.92 -
Isentropic efficiency of expanders 0.9 -
Heat exchanger effectiveness 0.92 -
Isentropic efficiency of cryogenic pump 0.9 -

REFPROP (Reference Fluid Thermodynamic and Transport Properties Database) is an


internationally recognized physical property calculation software developed by the National Institute
of Standards and Technology (NIST). The properties of the working fluid at each point labeled in the
system are generated by the NIST REFPROP database. For the air liquefied process and the electric
generation process, the values of these points are shown in Tables 2 and 3, respectively.

Table 2. Parameters of the points in the air liquefied process.

Point p/kPa T/K h/kJ·kg−1 ρ/kg·m−3


1L 100.00 293.00 293.27 1.16
2L 894.43 578.60 584.91 7.35
3L 894.43 315.85 314.67 16.21
4L 8000.00 623.72 632.65 85.10
5L 8000.00 319.46 305.60 191.42
6L 8000.00 98.00 −84.42 769.30
7L 100.00 79.11 −84.42 29.13
8L 100.00 79.11 −125.95 812.26
Energies 2018, 11, 2540 6 of 12

Table 3. Parameters of the points in the electric generation process.

Point p/kPa T/K h/kJ·kg−1 ρ/kg·m−3


4E 7000.00 534.49 537.19 18.14
1E 100.00 79.11 −125.95 812.26
5E 836.66 309.54 308.36 8.89
2E 7000.00 79.11 −121.22 813.12
6E 836.66
3E 7000.00 536.06
290.00 274.45 540.48 81.53 2.28
7E 100.00
4E 7000.00 310.44
534.49 537.19 310.83 18.14 1.21
5E 836.66 309.54 308.36 8.89
6E 836.66 536.06 540.48 2.28
4.1. Outlet Pressure of Compressor
7E
(p4L100.00
) 310.44 310.83 1.21
The work consumption of the compressor is associated with the number of compression stages
and the4.1.compression
Outlet Pressuremodeof Compressor (p4L )
at the identical rated isentropic efficiency of compressor, and the same
heat exchanger
The workeffectiveness.
consumption Theoretically, the isothermal
of the compressor compression
is associated process
with the number has a minimum
of compression work
stages
consumption, while the mode
and the compression adiabatic
at thecompression
identical rated process hasefficiency
isentropic a maximum work consumption.
of compressor, and the sameThe
isothermal compression
heat exchanger process can
effectiveness. be approached
Theoretically, if the number
the isothermal of compression
compression stages
process has is increased
a minimum
workand
infinitely, consumption,
if internalwhile theare
coolers adiabatic compression
put between process has a maximum work consumption.
the stages.
In fact, the number of compression stages are limited, asifincreasing
The isothermal compression process can be approached the numbertheofnumber
compression stagesa more
will cause is
increasedsystem
complicated infinitely, and if internal
configuration andcoolers
will are put in
result between
greater theirreversible
stages. losses, such as mechanical
In fact, the number of compression stages are limited, as increasing the number will cause a more
friction and flow resistance. According to the thermodynamic theory, for the multi-stage compression
complicated system configuration and will result in greater irreversible losses, such as mechanical
process, the compression work consumption will be at a minimum if the compressors of the different
friction and flow resistance. According to the thermodynamic theory, for the multi-stage compression
stagesprocess,
adopt identical pressure ratios.
the compression work consumption will be at a minimum if the compressors of the different
For the aforementioned,
stages adopt identical pressure two-stage
ratios. compression and intermediate cooling is adopted. Figure 2
shows theFor relationship betweentwo-stage
the aforementioned, the outlet pressure and
compression of the compressor
intermediate unitis(p
cooling 4L) to the
adopted. work
Figure 2 of
compression,
shows the work of expansion,
relationship betweenandthecycle efficiency.
outlet pressure of the compressor unit (p4L ) to the work of
compression, work of expansion, and cycle efficiency.

0.56 800
Work of compression
0.54 Work of expansion
750
Cycle efficiency
0.52 700
Cycle efficiency

0.50 650
Work /kJ/kg

0.48 600

0.46 550

0.44 500

0.42 450

0.40 400
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Compressor outlet pressure p4 /MPa

Figure 2. Influence of the compressor outlet pressure (p4L ) on the work of compression, work of
Figureexpansion,
2. Influence of the
and cycle compressor outlet pressure (p4L) on the work of compression, work of
efficiency.
expansion, and cycle efficiency.
In Figure 2, with the increasing compressor outlet pressure (p4L ), the compression work and the
In Figure 2,work
expansion withboth
the increase,
increasing but,compressor outlet
the expansion work pressure (pmore
increases 4L), the compression
slowly. However, work and the
the cycle
efficiency
expansion work of the
bothsystem gradually
increase, decreases.
but, the expansion work increases more slowly. However, the cycle
efficiency The increment
of the systemofgradually
the compression work because of the increase in the compression pressure ratio.
decreases.
Equations
The (2) andof(4)the
increment indicate that the greater
compression workthe compression
because of thepressure
increaseratio,
in the
thehigher the compressor
compression pressure
outlet temperature. This means that the specific compression work increases. The elevation of the
ratio. Equations (2) and (4) indicate that the greater the compression pressure ratio, the higher the
compressor outlet temperature results in a higher temperature of the heat storage medium, which also
compressor outlet temperature. This means that the specific compression work increases. The
increases the heating temperature of the air in the electric power generation process.
elevation According
of the compressor
to Equation outlet(12),temperature results
a higher inlet in a higher
air temperature of temperature
the expander of the heat
means storage
a higher
medium, which
specific workalso increases
output. However, thetheheating temperature
air cannot be liquefiedofcompletely,
the air in therefore
the electric power generation
the liquefaction rate
process.
According to Equation (12), a higher inlet air temperature of the expander means a higher
specific work output. However, the air cannot be liquefied completely, therefore the liquefaction rate
cannot reach 100%. It can be seen from the conservation of energy, that the heat collected during the
compression process is not fully used in the release phase, so the increase of the expansion work is
Energies 2018, 11, 2540 7 of 12

cannot reach 100%. It can be seen from the conservation of energy, that the heat collected during the
compression process is not fully used in the release phase, so the increase of the expansion work is
slowerPressure
4.2. Outlet than that
of of
thethe compression
Cryogenic Pumpwork, resulting in a decrease in the cycle efficiency. Therefore,
the outlet pressure of the compressor unit (p4L ) should not be too high.
The cryogenic pump is a special pump that leads liquid air from the liquid air tank to the
4.2. Outlet
gasification heatPressure of the Cryogenic
exchanger Pump The outlet pressure of the cryogenic pump is treated as
for gasification.
the inlet pressure of the pump
The cryogenic expander,
is a ignoring
special pumpthe flowing pressure
that leads lossfrom
liquid air of the
theair in theairheat
liquid exchangers
tank to the
and the pipelines.
gasification heatThe inlet for
exchanger air gasification.
pressure and the temperature
The outlet ofcryogenic
pressure of the the expander
pump isare the as
treated primary
the
parameters that determine the expansion work with the condition of the constant air flow.
inlet pressure of the expander, ignoring the flowing pressure loss of the air in the heat exchangers and Therefore,
the inlet air pressure
the pipelines. The and
inlettemperature
air pressure andof the
the temperature
expander should be increased
of the expander are theasprimary
much as possible, in
parameters
that determine the expansion work
order to increase the output expansion work. with the condition of the constant air flow. Therefore, the inlet
air pressure to
According andbasic
temperature of the expander
thermodynamic should be
principles, forincreased as much as
the multi-stage possible, inprocess,
expansion order to the
increase the output expansion work.
expansion work reaches its maximum at the identical expansion ratio for each stage. Therefore, two-
According to basic thermodynamic principles, for the multi-stage expansion process,
stage expansion and inter-stage reheating expansion modes are adopted in this paper. The inter-stage
the expansion work reaches its maximum at the identical expansion ratio for each stage. Therefore,
reheater is used to elevate the inlet air temperature of the next stage expander and the efficiency of
two-stage expansion and inter-stage reheating expansion modes are adopted in this paper.
the expander unit. reheater is used to elevate the inlet air temperature of the next stage expander and the
The inter-stage
Figure 3 shows
efficiency the expansion
of the expander unit. work and cycle efficiency to the outlet pressure of the cryogenic
pump. Figure 3 shows the expansion work and cycle efficiency to the outlet pressure of the
cryogenic pump.

0.50
500
0.48 Cycle efficiency
480
0.46 Work of expansion Work of expansion /kJ/kg
460
0.44
Cycle efficiency

440
0.42
420
0.40
400
0.38
380
0.36
360
0.34
340
0.32
2 4 6 8 10
Cryogenic pump outlet pressure /MPa

Figure 3. Influence of the outlet pressure of the cryogenic pump on the expansion work and the
Figure 3. Influence
cycle efficiency.of the outlet pressure of the cryogenic pump on the expansion work and the cycle
efficiency.
As shown in Figure 3, the cycle efficiency and the expansion work increase in a similar way to the
As shown
increase of in
theFigure 3, the cycle
outlet pressure efficiency
of the cryogenicand the For
pump. expansion
example,work
whenincrease inpressure
the outlet a similarof way
the to
cryogenic
the increase of pump boostspressure
the outlet from 2 MPa to 5cryogenic
of the MPa, the cycle
pump.efficiency increaseswhen
For example, from 36% to 44%,pressure
the outlet and the of
expansion work increases from 345 kJ/kg to 425 kJ/kg.
the cryogenic pump boosts from 2 MPa to 5 MPa, the cycle efficiency increases from 36% to 44%, and
According
the expansion work to the basicfrom
increases principles of thermodynamics,
345 kJ/kg to 425 kJ/kg. the higher the pressure and temperature
before the air enters the expander, the more work is output during the expansion process. Increasing
According to the basic principles of thermodynamics, the higher the pressure and temperature
the outlet pressure of the cryogenic pump is equivalent to increasing the pressure at the inlet of
before the air enters the expander, the more work is output during the expansion process. Increasing
the expander. Theoretically, augmenting the outlet pressure of the cryogenic pump is beneficial for
the outlet pressure
improving of the
the cycle cryogenic
efficiency pump
of the is equivalent
system. However, intoreality,
increasing the pressure
the outlet pressureofatthe
thecryogenic
inlet of the
expander.
pump Theoretically, augmenting
is limited, considering the harm the
of outlet
the highpressure
pressure of the equipment.
on the cryogenic pump is beneficial for
improving the cycle efficiency of the system. However, in reality, the outlet pressure of the cryogenic
pump4.3. Heat Exchanger
is limited, Effectiveness
considering the harm of the high pressure on the equipment.
Heat storage and cold storage tanks, as well as other heat exchangers are used to guarantee
4.3. Heat
the Exchanger Effectiveness
independent operation of the liquid air storage and electric power generation processes.
Heat storage and cold storage tanks, as well as other heat exchangers are used to guarantee the
independent operation of the liquid air storage and electric power generation processes. These heat
exchangers have the capacity to provide cooling or heating at any time during single or two-phase
processes.
The heat exchanger effectiveness is the maximum actual heat transfer. Figure 4 shows the heat
Energies 2018, 11, 2540 8 of 12

These heat exchangers have the capacity to provide cooling or heating at any time during single
or two-phase processes.
The heat exchanger effectiveness is the maximum actual heat transfer. Figure 4 shows the
heat exchanger effectiveness compared to the compression work, expansion work, and the cycle
efficiency,
Withsupposing that
the constant heater
outlet #1, heater
pressure of the #2, cooler #1,
compressor and
unit andcooler #2 haveofan
inlet pressure theidentical
expanderheat
unit,
With the
exchanger
constant outlet
effectiveness.
pressure of the compressor unit and inlet pressure of the expander unit,
increasing the heat exchanger effectiveness will greatly decrease the compression work consumed,
increasingWith
the heatconstant
exchanger effectiveness will greatly decrease the compression work consumed,
increase the
the expansionoutlet
work,pressure
and theofcycle
the compressor
efficiency. unit and inlet pressure of the expander unit,
increase the expansion
increasing the heat work, andeffectiveness
exchanger the cycle efficiency.
will greatly decrease the compression work consumed,
increase the expansion work, and the cycle efficiency.
0.54 650
0.54 0.52 650
0.50 600
0.52
0.48 600
Cycle efficiency

0.50 Work of compression


Work of expansion 550

Work /kJ/kg
0.46
0.48 Work Cycle efficiency
Cycle efficiency

of compression
0.44 Work of expansion 550

Work /kJ/kg
0.46 Cycle efficiency 500
0.42
0.44
0.40 500
450
0.42
0.38
0.40 450
0.36 400
0.80 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.96
0.38
Efficiency of heat exchanger
0.36 400
0.80 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.96
Figure 4. Influence of heat exchanger Efficiency
effectiveness on the compression work, expansion work, and
of heat exchanger
the cycle efficiency.
Figure 4. Influence of heat exchanger effectiveness on the compression work, expansion work, and the
Figure 4. Influence
cycle efficiency. of heat exchanger effectiveness on the compression work, expansion work, and
the cycle Inefficiency.
Figure 4, when the heat exchanger effectiveness increases from 0.8 to 0.96, the compression
work decreases
In Figure 4, whenfrom 630
the kJ/kg to 585 kJ/kg,
heat exchanger the expansion
effectiveness work increases
increases from 0.8from 425the
to 0.96, kJ/kg to 500 kJ/kg,
compression
and
work the cycle
decreases efficiency
fromthe increases
630 heat from
kJ/kgexchanger about
to 585 kJ/kg, 39% to around
the expansionincreases 52%.
work increases
In Figure 4, when effectiveness fromfrom
0.8 to4250.96,
kJ/kg to compression
the 500 kJ/kg,
and the According
cycle to the
efficiency above from
increases analysis
aboutdata,
39% as
to the heat
around exchanger effectiveness increases, the
52%.
work decreases from 630 kJ/kg to 585 kJ/kg, the expansion work increases from 425 kJ/kg to 500 kJ/kg,
compression
Accordingwork decreases
to the aboveand the expansion
analysis worktheincreases, so the cycle efficiency ofincreases,
the system
and the cycle efficiency increases from aboutdata,
39% to as
around heat exchanger
52%. effectiveness
increases.
the compression This result also conforms
work decreases and to
thethe basic principles
expansion of thermodynamics.
work increases, so the cycle Therefore, a larger
efficiency of the
According to theeffectiveness
above analysis data, asheat
thetransfer
heat exchanger effectiveness increases, the
system increases. This result also conforms to the basic principles of thermodynamics. Therefore,heat
heat exchanger means better effects. Where possible, a higher a
compression
exchanger work decreases should
effectiveness and thebeexpansion
applied. work increases, so the cycle efficiency of the system
larger heat exchanger effectiveness means better heat transfer effects. Where possible, a higher heat
increases. This effectiveness
exchanger result also conforms to the basic principles of thermodynamics. Therefore, a larger
should be applied.
4.4. Temperature
heat exchanger and Pressure
effectiveness before better
means Air Throttling
heat transfer effects. Where possible, a higher heat
4.4. Temperature and
exchanger effectiveness Pressure before Air Throttling
Figure 5 is theshould be curve
inversion applied.
of air. The regions of cooling and heating are clearly shown on
theFigure
temperature pressure coordinates.
5 is the inversion If a regions
curve of air. The maximum inversion
of cooling and pressure exists
heating are with
clearly an initial
shown on theair
4.4. Temperature
temperature and Pressure
pressure greater than
pressure before
this AirIf Throttling
pressure,
coordinates. a itmaximum
will raise inversion
the temperature ofexists
pressure the air.
with an initial air pressure
greater than this pressure, it will raise the temperature of the air.
Figure 5 is the inversion curve of air. The regions of cooling and heating are clearly shown on
the temperature pressure coordinates. 1000 If a maximum inversion pressure exists with an initial air
pressure greater than this pressure,900 it will raise the temperature of the air.
800
700
600
1000
T/K

500
900
400
800
300
700 200
600 100
T/K

500 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
400
p/MPa
300
200 Figure 5. Air inversion curve.
Figure 5. Air inversion curve.
100
0
Only if the initial pressure and temperature
0 5 10 15 20fall into
25 the
30 cooling
35 zone, will the air lower its
temperature by throttling. The envelope of the cooling
p/MPa zone is the inversion curve. In Figure 5, the
pressure of the air before throttling should be smaller than the maximum inversion pressure, which
is 34.16 MPa for air. Figure 5. Air inversion curve.
Energies 2018, 11, 2540 9 of 12

The envelope temperature, which is larger than the corresponding temperature of the maximum
inversion Only if theisinitial
pressure, pressure
the upper partand temperature
of the inversionfall into the
curve. Thecooling zone,ofwill
lower part thethe air lower
inversion its is
curve
temperature by throttling. The envelope of the cooling zone is the
the boundary of the heating and cooling regions for temperatures below the corresponding inversion curve. In Figure 5,
The envelope
the pressure temperature,
ofmaximum
the air before which is
throttlinglarger than
should be the corresponding
smaller than theof temperature
maximum of
inversion the maximum
pressure,
temperature of the inversion pressure. The temperature the air before throttling must
inversion
whichpressure,
is 34.16 MPais the
forupper
air. part of the inversion curve. The lower part of the inversion curve is
be in the envelope of the upper as well as the in the lower inversion curve.
the boundary of the temperature,
The envelope heating and cooling
which regions
is larger than thefor temperatures
corresponding below the
temperature of thecorresponding
maximum
The end state of the air expansion always falls into the two-phase liquid–vapor region, which
temperature
inversionofpressure,
the maximum inversion
is the upper pressure.
part of the The
inversion temperature
curve. The lower partof the air inversion
of the before throttling must
curve is the
means that only a fraction of the gas expanded in this region is liquefied. The liquid air yield ratio
boundary of the heating and cooling regions for temperatures
be in the envelope of the upper as well as the in the lower inversion curve. below the corresponding temperature of
and the system cycle
the maximum efficiency with Therespect to thethetemperature and pressure of the
theenvelope
air before
The end stateinversion
of the airpressure.
expansion temperature
always fallsofinto air
thebefore throttling
two-phase must be in
liquid–vapor region, which
throttling,
the are shown wellinasFigures 6 lower
and 7,inversion
assuming that the air is throttled down to atmospheric
meansofthat upper
only aasfraction the
of in
thethegas expanded incurve.this region is liquefied. The liquid air yield ratio
pressure. The
The initial
end statepressure
of theand air temperature
expansion alwaysare 10falls
MPaintoandthe140two-phase
K, respectively.
liquid–vapor region,
and the system cycle efficiency with respect to the temperature and pressure of the air before
which means that only a fraction of the gas expanded in this region is liquefied. The liquid air
throttling, are shown in Figures 6 and 7, assuming that the air is throttled down to atmospheric
yield ratio and the system cycle efficiency with respect to the temperature and pressure of the air
pressure. The initial pressure and temperature are 10 MPa and 140 K, respectively.
before throttling, are shown in Figures 6 and 7, assuming that the air is throttled down to atmospheric
1.0 0.6
pressure. The initial pressure and temperature are 10 MPa and
Liquid air yield140 K, respectively.
Cycle efficiency
0.8 0.5

Cycle efficiency
Liquid air yield

1.0 0.6
0.6 Liquid air yield 0.4
Cycle efficiency
0.8 0.5
0.4 0.3

Cycle efficiency
Liquid air yield

0.6 0.4
0.2 0.2

0.4 0.3
0.0 0.1
0.2 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 0.2
Air temperature before the throttle /K
0.0 0.1
Figure 6. Influence of temperature
70 before
80 90air throttling
100 on liquid
110 120 130 140 150air yield ratio and cycle efficiency.
160
Air temperature before the throttle /K

In Figure 6, 6.
Figure when the pressure
Influence is under
of temperature before 10
air MPa, theon
throttling airliquid
temperature before
air yield ratio air throttling
and cycle efficiency. is 75 K,
Figure 6. Influence of temperature before air throttling on liquid air yield ratio and cycle efficiency.
the liquid air yield ratio is close to 100%, and the cycle efficiency is close to 60%. If the air temperature
In Figure 6, when the pressure is under 10 MPa, the air temperature before air throttling is
is increased from 75 K to 155 K, the liquid air yield ratio and the system cycle efficiency decrease
In
75Figure
K, the 6, when
liquid airthe pressure
yield ratio isisclose
under 10 MPa,
to 100%, andthetheair temperature
cycle efficiency before
is closeair throttling
to 60%. If theisair
75 K,
monotonically.
temperature
the liquid air yieldis ratio
increased from
is close to75 K to 155
100%, andK, thecycle
the liquid air yield is
efficiency ratio andtothe
close system
60%. If thecycle efficiency
air temperature
Therefore,
decrease
the lower the temperature before air throttling, the higher the liquid air yield ratio
monotonically.
is increased from 75 K to 155 K, the liquid air yield ratio and the system cycle efficiency decrease
and the cycle efficiency
Therefore, afterthe
the lower expansion.
temperatureIn field
beforeconditions,
air throttling, the
theair temperature
higher the liquidbefore
air yieldthe throttling
ratio and
monotonically.
should be as low as possible.
the cycle efficiency after expansion. In field conditions, the air temperature before the throttling should
Therefore, the lower the temperature before air throttling, the higher the liquid air yield ratio
be as low as possible.
and the cycle efficiency after expansion. In field conditions, the air temperature before the throttling
should be as low as possible. 0.40 0.25
0.35
0.20
0.30
0.40 0.25
Cycle efficiency

0.25
Liquid air yield

0.15
0.35 Liquid air yield
0.20 Cycle efficiency 0.20
0.30 0.10
0.15
Cycle efficiency

0.25
Liquid air yield

0.10 0.15
Liquid air yield 0.05
0.20 Cycle efficiency
0.05
0.15 0.10
0.00 0.00
0.10
4 6 8 10 12 0.05
0.05
Air pressure before the throttle /MPa
0.00 0.00
Figure 7. Influence of pressure before air throttling on liquid air yield ratio and cycle efficiency.
Figure 7. Influence of pressure before
4 air6throttling
8 on liquid
10 air12yield ratio and cycle efficiency.
Air pressure before the throttle /MPa

From Figure 7, we can see that both the liquid air yield ratio and the system cycle efficiency are
0 in theFigure
5 MPa7.and
Influence of pressure before air throttling on liquid air yield ratio and cycle efficiency.
140 K initial state. When raising the pressure from 5 MPa to 6 MPa while keeping
the temperature stable, the liquid air yield ratio and system cycle efficiency increase rapidly.
From Figure 7, we can see that both the liquid air yield ratio and the system cycle efficiency are
Then, the liquid air yield ratio and system cycle efficiency increase gradually from 6 MPa to 12
0 in the 5 MPa and 140 K initial state. When raising the pressure from 5 MPa to 6 MPa while keeping
MPa. As shown in Figure 5, the maximum inversion pressure of the air is 34.16 MPa, so the pressure
Energies 2018, 11, 2540 10 of 12

From Figure 7, we can see that both the liquid air yield ratio and the system cycle efficiency are 0
in the 5 MPa and 140 K initial state. When raising the pressure from 5 MPa to 6 MPa while keeping the
temperature stable, the liquid air yield ratio and system cycle efficiency increase rapidly.
Then, the liquid air yield ratio and system cycle efficiency increase gradually from 6 MPa to
12 MPa. As shown in Figure 5, the maximum inversion pressure of the air is 34.16 MPa, so the pressure
before throttling must be less than the maximum inversion pressure, in order to ensure a cold effect
after throttling.
From Figures 6 and 7, for air at a temperature of 140 K, it is necessary to increase its pressure to at
least 6 MPa in order for it to liquefy.
According to the above analysis, the pressure before air throttling has a significant influence on
the liquid air yield ratio and the system cycle efficiency. Higher pressures and lower temperatures
before air throttling are beneficial for increasing the liquid air yield ratio and the system cycle efficiency.

5. Conclusions
For an integrated system of liquefied air energy storage and electricity production, a mathematical
model of the energy storage stage, energy release stage, and cycle parameter calculation has been
established, based on thermodynamic principles. Using the cycle efficiency and the liquid air yield
ratio as evaluation indexes, the influence of the outlet pressure of the compressor unit (p4L ), the outlet
pressure of the cryogenic pump, the heat exchanger effectiveness, the air temperature and pressure
before throttling on the performance of integrated system of liquefied air energy storage, and electricity
generation are discussed. The following conclusions have been obtained:

• When raising the outlet pressure of the compressor unit (p4L ), both the compression work and the
expansion work are increased. However, the air is not completely liquefied. The heat collected
during the compression process is not fully used in the energy release phase, so the increase of
the expansion work is slower than that of the compression work, resulting in a decrease in the
cycle efficiency.
• After the air is taken out of the liquid air tank, the pressure is increased by the cryogenic pump.
The increased air pressure of the cryogenic pump is equivalent to an increase in the air pressure
at the inlet of the expander, which increases the expansion work. In this process, the consumption
work of the cryogenic pump is much less than the increase in the expansion work, so the system
cycle efficiency increases. A larger heat exchanger effectiveness means a better heat transfer
effect. Therefore, increasing the outlet pressure of the cryogenic pump and the heat exchanger
effectiveness can significantly increase the cycle efficiency of the system.
• According to the air inversion curve, the maximum inversion pressure of air is 34.16 MPa, so the
pressure before throttling must be less than the maximum inversion pressure, in order to ensure
the cold effect after throttling. Under the premise of not exceeding the maximum air inversion
pressure, the higher the air pressure and the lower the air temperature before throttling, the greater
the liquid air yield ratio after throttling, and the higher the system cycle efficiency.

Author Contributions: Y.X. proposed the research direction, the adaptive method, and the system model.
X.X. completed the establishment of the mathematical model of the system, programming with MATLAB,
mapping with Origin, and data analysis. X.X. wrote the paper.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: This paper was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Hebei Province (E2014502085).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Energies 2018, 11, 2540 11 of 12

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