Nutritional Requirements of Dairy Cattle

 Feed Intake
 Carbohydrates
 Energy
 Fats
 Protein
 Water
 Minerals
o Calcium and Phosphorus:
o Other Macrominerals:
o Trace Minerals:
 Vitamins
o Vitamin A:
o Vitamin D:
o Vitamin E:
o Other Vitamins:

Nutritional Requirements of Dairy Cattle

By Thomas H. Herdt, DVM, MS, DACVN, DACVIM, Professor, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences and Diagnostic
Center for Population and Animal Health, Michigan State University

 Nutrition: Dairy Cattle

 Nutritional Requirements of Dairy Cattle
 Feeding and Nutritional Management of Dairy Cattle
 Feeding Young Dairy Calves
 Feeding Dairy Calves from Weaning Through Maturation
 Accelerated Dairy Calf-rearing Programs
 Feed Additives in Dairy Cattle
 Nutrition and Disease in Dairy Cattle
During lactation, dairy cows have very high nutritional requirements relative to most other species (see Table: Feeding Guidelines
for Large-Breed Dairy Cattle a). Meeting these requirements, especially for energy and protein, is challenging. Diets must have
sufficient nutrient concentrations to support production and metabolic health, while also supporting rumen health and the efficiency
of fermentative digestion.

Feeding Guidelines for Large-Breed Dairy Cattle a

24-
12- 18- mo
Dry Close Cow Cow 6-mo
Cow - Cow mo mo Heife
(Far (Clos - - Heife
Fresh - Mid Heife Heife r
off) e up) Early Late r
r r (Clos
e up)
Body wt, lb 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 440 660 1,000 1,375
(kg) (675) (675) (675) (675) (675) (675) (200) (300) (450) (625)
DMI, lb 32 22 34 (15) 66 52 45 11 16 25 23
(kg/day) (14) (10) (30) (24) (20) (5) (7) (11) (10)
Milk, 77 (35) 120 77 55
lbb(kg/day) (55) (35) (25)
CP (%)c 9.9 12.4 19.5 16.7 15.2 14.1 12.3 11.4 8.8 15.0
 24-
12- 18- mo
Dry Close Cow Cow 6-mo
Cow - Cow mo mo Heife
(Far (Clos - - Heife
Fresh - Mid Heife Heife r
off) e up) Early Late r
r r (Clos
e up)
RDP (%) 7.7 9.6 10.5 9.8 9.7 9.5 9.4 9.5 8.8 10.1
RUP (%) 2.2 2.8 9.0 6.9 5.5 4.6 2.9 1.9 0.004 4.9
MP (%) 6.0 8.0 13.8 11.6 10.2 9.2 7.2 7.0 5.3 9.7
NEL, 0.60 0.65 1.01d(2.2 0.73 0.67 0.62 — — — 0.72
Mcal/lb (1.32) (1.43) 2) (1.61 (1.47 (1.36 (1.58
(Mcal/kg) ) ) ) )
ME, Mcal/lb 0.93 1.03 0.82
(Mcal/kg) (2.05 (2.27 (1.80
) ) )
NDF (%) 40 35 30 28 30 32 30 32 33 35
ADF (%) 30 25 21 19 21 24 20 22 24 25
NFC (%) 30 34 35 38 35 32 35 30 25 34
Calcium (%) 0.44 0.48 0.79 0.60 0.61 0.62 0.41 0.41 0.37 0.40
Phosphorus 0.22 0.26 0.42 0.38 0.35 0.32 0.28 0.23 0.18 0.23
(%)
Magnesium 0.11 0.40 0.29 0.21 0.19 0.18 0.11 0.11 0.08 0.40
(%)
Chlorine (%) 0.13 0.20 0.20 0.29 0.26 0.24 0.11 0.12 0.10 0.20
Sodium (%) 0.10 0.14 0.34 0.22 0.23 0.22 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.14
Potassium 0.51 0.62 1.24 1.07 1.04 1.00 0.47 0.48 0.46 0.55
(%)
Sulfur (%) 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20
Vitamin A 80,30 83,27 75,000 75,00 75,00 75,00 24,00 24,00 36,00 75,00
(IU/day) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Vitamin D 21,90 22,70 21,000 21,00 21,00 21,00 6,000 9,000 13,50 20,00
(IU/day) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Vitamin E 1,168 1,200 545 545 545 545 240 240 360 1,200
(IU/day)
Adapted, with permission, from Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle, 2001, National
Academy of Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
a
DMI, dry
matter
intake; CP,
crude
protein;
 24-
12- 18- mo
Dry Close Cow Cow 6-mo
Cow - Cow mo mo Heife
(Far (Clos - - Heife
Fresh - Mid Heife Heife r
off) e up) Early Late r
r r (Clos
e up)

RDP,
rumen
degradable
protein;
RUP,
rumen
undegraded
protein;
MP,
metabolizab
le protein;
NEL, net
energy
lactation;
ME,
metabolizab
le energy;
NDF,
neutral
detergent
fiber; ADF,
acid
detergent
fiber; NFC,
non-fiber
carbohydrat
e. Trace
mineral
added to
ration
(expressed
as ppm):
cobalt:
0.11;
copper 10–
18; iodine:
0.3–0.4;
iron: 13–
130;
 24-
12- 18- mo
Dry Close Cow Cow 6-mo
Cow - Cow mo mo Heife
(Far (Clos - - Heife
Fresh - Mid Heife Heife r
off) e up) Early Late r
r r (Clos
e up)

manganese:
14–24;
selenium:
0.30; zinc:
22–70.
b
Milk components: 3.5% fat, 3.0% true protein, and 4.8% lactose.
c
All concentration values are on a dry-matter basis.
d
These cows will lose body weight (values >0.82 not feasible).

Feed Intake
Under nearly all practical management conditions, dairy cows and growing dairy heifers are fed ad lib. Thus, voluntary feed intake is
the major limitation to nutrient supply in dairy cattle. Feed intake is usually characterized as dry matter intake (DMI) to compare diets
of variable moisture concentrations. DMI is affected by both animal and feed factors. Body size, milk production, and stage of
lactation or gestation are the major animal factors. At peak DMI, daily DMI of high-producing cows may be 5% of body wt, and even
higher in extremely high-producing cows. More typical peak DMI values are in the range of 3.5%–4% of body wt. In mature cows,
DMI as a percentage of body weight is lowest during the nonlactating, or dry, period. In most cows, DMI declines to its lowest rate in
the last 2–3 wk of gestation. Typical DMI during this period is <2% of body wt/day, with intake rates depressed more in fat cows than
in thin ones. Feed intake during this period has an important relationship to postpartum health, with low DMI and associated
prepartum negative energy balance increasing the risk of postpartum disease. After calving, DMI increases as milk production
increases; however, the rate of increase in feed consumption is such that energy intake lags behind energy requirements for the first
several weeks of lactation. Milk production and associated energy requirements generally peak around 6–10 wk into lactation,
whereas DMI usually does not peak until 12–14 wk into lactation. This lag in DMI relative to energy requirements creates a period of
negative energy balance in early lactation. Cows are at greater risk of metabolic disease during this period than at other times
during their lactation cycle. Management and nutritional strategies should be designed to maximize DMI through the period of late
gestation and early lactation.

Feed factors also affect DMI. Total ration moisture concentrations >50% generally decrease DMI, although this may be related more
to fermentation characteristics than to moisture per se, because high-moisture feeds for dairy cattle are typically from fermented
(ensiled) sources. Rations high (>30%) in neutral detergent fiber (NDF) may also limit feed intake, although the degree to which this
occurs is related to the source of NDF. Environment also affects feed intake with temperatures above the thermal neutral zone
(>20°C [68°F]), resulting in reduced DMI. Monitoring DMI, when possible, is a useful tool in diagnosing nutritional problems in diets
of dairy cows.

Carbohydrates
Energy requirements for lactating dairy cows are met primarily by carbohydrate fractions of the diet. These consist of fibrous and
nonfibrous carbohydrates. Fibrous carbohydrate proportions are generally measured as NDF and expressed as a percentage of dry
matter. Nonfiber carbohydrate (NFC) proportions are calculated by subtracting the proportions (as dry matter) of NDF, crude protein,
fat, and ash from 100%. Nonfiber carbohydrates primarily consist of sugars and fructans, starch, organic acids, and pectin. In
fermented feeds, fermentation acids also contribute to the NFC fraction. The sum of sugars and starch is referred to as nonstructural
carbohydrate (NSC), which should not be confused with NFC. Balancing fiber and NFC fractions to optimize energy intake and
rumen health is a challenging aspect of dairy nutrition.

In general, fiber in the diet supports rumen health. Fiber in the rumen, especially fiber from forage sources that have not been finely
chopped or ground, maintains rumen distention, which stimulates motility, cud chewing, and salivary flow. These actions affect the
rumen environment favorably by stimulating the endogenous production of salivary buffers and a high rate of fluid movement
through the rumen. Salivary buffers maintain rumen pH in a desirable range, while high fluid flow rates increase the efficiency of
microbial energy and protein yield. Fiber, however, delivers less dietary energy than NFC. Fiber is generally less fermentable in the
rumen than NFC, and rumen fermentation is the major mechanism by which energy is provided, both for the animal and the rumen
microbes. Therefore, diets with high NDF concentrations promote rumen health but provide relatively less energy than diets high in
NFC.

To increase the energy supply, dietary NDF concentrations are usually reduced by adding starch and other sources of NFC. This
increases the rate and extent of rumen fermentation, which leads to greater energy availability. Increased ruminal fermentation also
leads to the increased production of volatile fatty acids, which tends to lower rumen pH. At rumen pH values <6.2, fiber digestion is
reduced; at values ≤5.5, fiber digestion is severely diminished, feed intake may be reduced, and rumen health is generally
compromised. There is a reciprocal relationship between NFC and NDF proportions, so the adverse effects of high dietary NFC may
be especially evident as cud chewing and salivary flow may be simultaneously diminished because of reductions in dietary NDF.

Recommended minimum NDF concentrations depend on the source and physical effectiveness of the NDF and the dietary
concentration of NFC. Fiber from forage sources is, in general, more effective at stimulating salivation and cud chewing than is fiber
from nonforage sources. Thus, one variable in the assessment of dietary NDF adequacy is the proportion of NDF coming from
forages. Minimum NDF concentrations in the diets for high-producing cows are 25%–30%. When fiber sources from forage make up
≥75% of the NDF, then total NDF concentrations in the lower end of this range may be acceptable (see Table: Recommended
Minimum NDF Concentrations Based on Proportion of NDF Coming from Forage Sources a). When a smaller portion of total NDF is
derived from forage sources, then total NDF concentrations should be in the upper end of this range. Maximum recommended NFC
concentrations are 38%–44%. Diets with higher NFC concentrations will benefit from higher proportions of NDF coming from forage
sources. These recommendations must be viewed as broad guidelines rather than strict rules. Factors including the total
fermentability of the diet as well as the fermentability of the NDF influence the NDF requirement. Diets with highly fermentable NDF
sources require higher total concentrations of NDF but provide more energy per mass unit of NDF than diets with less fermentable
NDF. Feeding management schemes such as totally mixed rations result in lower minimum NDF concentrations than feeding dietary
components individually (see Nutritional Requirements of Dairy Cattle).

Recommended Minimum NDF Concentrations Based on Proportion of

NDF Coming from Forage Sources a

NDF from Forage (% NDF from

Minimum Total NDF (%
of Dietary Dry Forage (% of
of Dietary Dry Matter)
Matter) NDF)
19 75 25
18 66 27
17 58 29
a
Reprinted with permission from the National Academies Press,
copyright 2001, National Academy of Sciences. As the proportion of
neutral detergent fiber (NDF) from forage sources decreases, the
minimum requirement for total NDF increases. These represent
minimum requirements; diets with higher NDF concentrations present
no problem and are generally appropriate for animals with relatively
low energy requirements.

Energy
Dietary energy is usually measured in megacalories (Mcal) or megajoules (MJ). When the energy in a given feedstuff is expressed
in terms of the Mcal or MJ actually available for metabolism, heat production, or storage in the animal, the term metabolizable
energy (ME) is used. The efficiency of utilization of ME varies based on the physiologic functions supported, which include body
maintenance, growth, and lactation. The net energy (NE) system takes into account the differences in efficiency of ME utilization for
each of these processes and assigns a separate NE value to individual feedstuffs based on each of these energy-requiring
processes, ie, body maintenance, growth, and lactation. Thus, in the USA, in which the NE system is typically used, energy values
of feedstuffs for ruminants are expressed as NE for maintenance (NE M), NE for gain (NEG), and NE for lactation (NEL). This system is
cumbersome and nonintuitive and has many computational disadvantages compared with alternative systems based directly on ME.
However, the NE system has the major advantage of more equitably comparing the energy values of forages to concentrates when
used in ruminant diets. Dry Matter, Energy, Crude Protein, Fiber, and Non-Fiber Carbohydrate Concentrations of Some Feedstuffs
Commonly Fed to Dairy Cattle a has typical values for ME, NEL, NEM, and NEG, for some feedstuffs commonly fed to dairy cows. The
values in these and other published tables are estimates of the energy delivered to lactating cows consuming feed at three times the
maintenance consumption rate, ie, three times more feed than they would consume were they not in production. The listed values
are typical averages for the feeds; the actual values for individual feeds may vary considerably, especially for forages. Laboratory
analyses of feeds and forages are always advisable for both comparative evaluation and ration balancing. Values for ME and NE
cannot be measured directly by typical laboratory analyses. These and any other energy values on a laboratory report are
estimates, usually based on formulas with acid detergent fiber concentration as the primary independent variable. Many
contemporary computer programs for ration evaluation or balancing in dairy cows do not rely on laboratory estimates of feed energy
concentrations. Rather, they estimate the contributions of individual feeds to the energy supply based on feed characteristics, intake
rates, and estimated rates of passage through the rumen. Such programs are frequently referred to as "models." When using
programs of this type, the estimated energy values of individual feeds will diminish with increasing rates of feed intake.

Dry Matter, Energy, Crude Protein, Fiber, and Non-Fiber Carbohydrate

Concentrations of Some Feedstuffs Commonly Fed to Dairy Cattle a

Net
Net Energy Net Neutral
Dry Metabolizable Energy Non-fiber Cru
for Energy Detergent
Matter Energy for Carbohydrate Pro
Maintenance for Gain Fiber
(%) (Mcal/kg) Lactation (%) (%)
(Mcal/kg) (Mcal/kg) (%)
(Mcal/kg)
Ground 88 3.12 2.01 2.16 1.48 9.5 75.47 9.4
shell corn
Corn 35 2.33 1.45 1.57 0.97 45 40 8.8
silage
Pasture 20 2.46 1.54 1.67 1.06 45.8 19.6 26
Hay 84 2.02 1.23 1.33 0.75 58 21.6 13
(cool-
season
grasses)
Hay crop 42 1.92 1.16 1.25 0.68 58 18.2 17
silage
(cool-
season
grasses)
Grass- 85 2.07 1.25 1.35 0.77 50.8 23.8 18.4
legume
mix hay
Grass- 44 1.96 1.23 1.32 0.74 50.4 21.5 19
legume
mix hay
crop
silage
Legume 84 2.09 1.28 1.38 0.8 43 27.3 20.8
hay
Legume 43 2.01 1.22 1.32 0.74 43 25.1 22
hay crop
silage
Oats 90 2.78 1.77 1.9 1.26 30 50.2 13.2
(rolled)
Sorghum 29 1.85 1.11 1.18 0.62 61 21.9 9.1
silage
 Net
Net Energy Net Neutral
Dry Metabolizable Energy Non-fiber Cru
for Energy Detergent
Matter Energy for Carbohydrate Pro
Maintenance for Gain Fiber
(%) (Mcal/kg) Lactation (%) (%)
(Mcal/kg) (Mcal/kg) (%)
(Mcal/kg)
Soybean 89 3.31 2.13 2.29 1.59 15 27.6 49.9
meal
(solvent
extracted,
44% CP)
Cotton 90 2.91 1.94 1.96 1.31 50.3 5.1 23.5
seeds
Dried 90 3.03 1.97 2.07 1.41 39 24.4 30
distillers
grains
with
solubles
Corn and 89.2 2.91 1.86 2 1.35 21.5 65.2 8.6
cob meal
a
Reprinted with permission from the National Academies Press, copyright 2001, National Academy of Sciences
Energy values are estimated based on a consumption rate 3 times the rate of consumption at maintenance. These
are representative values intended primarily for relative comparison among feeds. Analyzed values of actual feed
samples will vary substantially, especially among forages.
In the USA, energy requirements of adult dairy cows are typically expressed in terms of NE l. This applies to pregnant dry cows as
well as lactating animals. Maintenance requirements for mature cows of various mature body weights are given in Maintenance
Energy Requirements for Cows of Various Body Weights. Energy requirements per kg of milk produced at various milk fat
concentrations are given in Dietary Net Energy Requirement for Milk Production.

Maintenance Energy Requirements for Cows of Various Body Weights

Body Weight (kg) Daily Energy Requirement (Mcal NEL/day)

400 7.16
450 7.82
500 8.46
550 9.09
600 9.70
650 10.30
700 10.89
750 11.47
800 12.03
Dietary Net Energy Requirement for Milk Production

Milk Fat Dietary Energy Requirement/day/kg Milk

Concentration (%) Produced (Mcal NEL)
Milk Fat Dietary Energy Requirement/day/kg Milk
Concentration (%) Produced (Mcal NEL)
3.5 0.70
4 0.75
4.5 0.80
5 0.84
5.5 0.89
6 0.94
6.5 0.99
The required dietary energy concentration is a function of the energy requirement and the feed intake rate. Calculated requirements
for dietary energy concentration typically are very high in early lactation because the rate of milk production is high relative to the
feed intake rate. However, the ration energy density concentrations required to meet the energy requirement of cows in very early
lactation may be too high to be compatible with adequate dietary fiber concentrations (see Carbohydrates). In general, diets with
energy concentrations >1.71–1.76 Mcal/kg do not contain adequate fiber to support good rumen health and function. Thus, dairy
cows in early lactation typically cannot meet their energy requirements and are expected to lose weight. During the first 3 wk of
lactation, dairy cows commonly have rates of negative energy balance in the range of −5 to −10 Mcal/day. The risk of metabolic
disease increases with the degree of negative energy balance, although there is great variability among individual cows in the
capacity to adapt to negative energy balance without incurring metabolic disease. Feed intake, rather than milk production, is
generally the most limiting factor influencing energy balance in early lactation dairy cows. Thus, nutritional management strategies
that result in rapid increases in feed intake rates after calving are the most beneficial in terms of both cow health and productivity.

Fats
Supplemental fats can be added to increase energy concentration. Fat concentrations in typical dairy diets without supplemental fat
are usually low, ~2.5% of dry matter. Supplemental fats may be added to attain a total ration fat concentration of ~6% of dry matter.
Fats in ruminant diets can induce undesirable metabolic effects, both within the rumen microbial population and within the animal.
Ramifications of these effects include reduced fiber digestion, indigestion and poor rumen health, and suppression of milk fat
concentration. The major benefit of supplemental fat in ruminant diets is that dietary energy concentration can be increased without
increasing the NFC concentration.

Fats may be supplemented from vegetable sources such as oil seeds, animal sources such as tallow, and specialty fat sources that
are manufactured to be rumen inert, ie, not interact with the metabolism of rumen microbes. Supplemental fats from vegetable
sources generally have a relatively high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids. Unsaturated fats adversely affect rumen microbial
activity. In addition, these fatty acids are extensively converted to saturated fatty acids in the rumen. When fed in excessive dietary
concentration, intermediate products from the saturation process may escape the rumen and be absorbed by intestinal digestion.
Some of these products are trans-fatty acids, some of which directly suppress mammary butterfat synthesis. Supplemental fats from
animal sources are more saturated and thus less detrimental to microbial activity and less apt to result in suppression of butterfat
synthesis. Rumen-inert fats are designed to have little or no effect on rumen microbial activity and mammary butterfat synthesis. In
general, when supplementing fats to dairy diets, up to 400 g (~2% of diet dry matter) may be added as vegetable fats, particularly if
the fats are added as oil seeds, which tend to be less detrimental than free oils. An additional 200–400 g may be added from highly
saturated or preferably rumen-inert sources, generally not to exceed a total of 6.5% fat in the total dietary dry matter.

Protein
The protein requirements of lactating dairy cows are high because of the demand for amino acids for milk protein synthesis. Two
systems of describing the dietary protein supply and requirements for dairy cows are in general use: the crude protein system and
the metabolizable protein system. The crude protein system considers only the total amount of dietary protein, or protein equivalent
from nonprotein nitrogen sources. Crude protein values are based on the measurement of total dietary nitrogen and the assumption
that protein is 16% nitrogen. The crude protein system is relatively simple to use and has provided a traditional means of formulating
dairy cow rations. Recommended Minimum Dietary Protein Concentrations for Dairy Cows at Various Levels of
Production a provides general guidelines for the required crude protein concentration of diets for large- and small-breed dairy cattle
at various levels of production. It can be used for general evaluations of the protein adequacy of dairy diets. The metabolizable
protein (MP) system is more complex than the crude protein system, and it was developed in recognition of the fact that not all crude
protein provided to cows may be available for absorption as amino acids.

Recommended Minimum Dietary Protein Concentrations for Dairy Cows

at Various Levels of Production a
 Dietary Protein Requirements (% of Dry Matter)
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________
Large-breed Cows Small-breed Cows
_________________________________ __________________________________
_____________ _____________
Milk
Product
Crude Metabolizable
ion Crude Protein Metabolizable Protein
Proteinb Proteinc
(kg/day
)
18 15.0 12.9
23 16.4 13.1
27 14.5 11.0 17.5 13.3
32 15.0 11.2 18.4 13.3
36 15.8 11.5 19.0 13.3
40 16.5 11.7
45 17.3 11.9
50 17.8 12.0
55 18.3 12.1
a
This table is intended to provide a general reference for initial evaluations of dairy diets, not a
standard against which rations are balanced. Calculation of dietary metabolizable protein
concentrations generally requires specialized software.
b
Crude protein requirements were generated by Spartan Dairy 3.0 (Michigan State University),
assuming a mature cow in mid lactation.
c
Metabolizable protein requirements were generated by the Nutrient Requirements of Dairy
Cattle Computer Program that accompanies Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle, 2001,
National Academy of Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
MP refers to amino acids absorbed from the small intestine and available for metabolism. MP in ruminants is derived from two
sources: microbial protein synthesized in the rumen and dietary proteins that escape rumen degradation. Protein escaping rumen
degradation is referred to as rumen undegraded protein (RUP), while protein that is broken down in the rumen is referred to as
rumen degraded protein (RDP). Both sources are important and must be considered in diet evaluation and formulation.

RUP passes unaltered through the rumen and forms a direct source of protein for intestinal digestion and amino acid absorption.
Nitrogen from RDP, in contrast, must be incorporated into newly synthesized microbial protein before it will provide amino acids
available for intestinal absorption. The efficiency with which RDP is recovered as microbial protein depends on the growth rate of the
rumen microbes, which in turn depends on the supply of fermentable energy sources in the rumen. Thus, diets with sufficient RDP
and relatively high energy concentrations will result in high yields of microbial protein, which will become available for intestinal
digestion and absorption as MP. Calculations that balance dairy diets for MP must consider the complex interrelations among
fermentable energy sources, RUP, and RDP. In general, specialized software, commercially available, is necessary to formulate
dairy diets using the MP system. Even with such software, many variables must be estimated with uncertainty. Therefore,
calculations of MP supply must be recognized to be approximations.
The relationship of dietary protein intake to metabolizable protein supply
The relationship of dietary protein intake to metabolizable protein supply. The two branch
points (indicated by 1 and 2) constitute the major variables relating the dietary crude
protein supply to the metabolizable protein supply. The first branch point represents the
proportion of protein that is degraded in the rumen. This branch point is influenced by
inherent properties of the protein and the rate of ingesta passage through the rumen. The
second branch point represents the proportion of nitrogen from degraded protein that is
recaptured as microbial protein. This is influenced by the microbial growth rate, which
depends on the supply of rumen available energy. Nitrogen that is not recaptured as
microbial protein is absorbed from the rumen as ammonia and converted to urea by the
liver. Some urea is recycled back to the rumen, but a large portion is excreted in urine.
RUP, rumen undegraded protein; RDP, rumen degraded protein; N, nitrogen; MCP,
metabolizable crude protein; MP, metabolizable protein.
Dietary ingredients vary in their proportion of RUP and RDP. In general, feeds with high moisture and high protein concentrations,
eg, legume silages, will have a high proportion of RDP. In contrast, feeds that have been processed and especially those that have
undergone drying will have relatively high proportions of RUP. The proportions of RUP and RDP in diets and individual ingredients
are not fixed but can vary somewhat depending on intake rate. At high rates of feed intake, the rate of feed passage through the
rumen is high; thus, there is less opportunity for rumen protein degradation than with the same feeds at lower intake rates.
Therefore, on the same diet, RUP proportions are higher in animals with high rates of feed intake than in those with low rates of feed
intake. Animals most likely to benefit from supplements selected for high RUP proportions are those with relatively high protein
requirements and relatively low rates of feed intake. Cows in very early lactation and young, rapidly growing heifers are the primary
examples. Supplements formulated for high RUP proportions are commonly known as rumen bypass protein supplements; however,
even with these types of supplements, some portion of the protein is degraded in the rumen.

Along with overall protein requirements, dairy cows, as all other animals, have specific amino acid requirements. However,
evaluating dairy cow diets relative to amino acid requirements is more difficult than making similar evaluations of diets for
monogastric animals. This is because the amino acid supply for dairy cows and other ruminants is a combination of the amino acids
provided by the microbial protein and the RUP. Microbial protein has an excellent amino acid profile, and diets with a large supply of
microbial protein typically meet amino acid requirements if MP requirements are met. In some cases, however, high-producing dairy
cows may benefit from the selection of RUP sources with specific amino acid profiles, or from adding rumen-protected forms of
specific amino acids. Software is available that estimates the amino acid supply for dairy cows on different diets. The first limiting
amino acids in typical dairy cow diets are lysine and methionine. With typical feedstuffs, if the MP requirement is met and the dietary
lysine:methionine ratio is ~3:1, then the amino acid requirements for milk production are probably being optimized.

Water
The availability of high-quality water for ad lib consumption is critical. Insufficient water intake leads immediately to reduced feed
intake and milk production. Water requirements of dairy cows are related to milk production, DMI, ration dry matter concentration,
salt or sodium intake, and ambient temperature. Various formulas have been devised to predict water requirements. Two formulas
to estimate water consumption of lactating dairy cows are as follows:

Note: FWI is free water intake (water consumed by drinking rather than in feed), DMI is in kg/day, milk is in kg/day, Na is in g/day,
and temperature is in °C. Water consumed as part of the diet contributes to the total water requirements; thus, diets with higher
moisture concentrations result in lower FWI.

Providing adequate access to water is critical to encourage maximal water intake. Water should be placed near feed sources and in
milking parlor return alleys, because most water is consumed in association with feeding or after milking. For water troughs, a
minimum of 5 cm of length per cow at a height of 90 cm is recommended. One water cup per 10 cows is recommended when cows
are housed in groups and given water via drinking cups or fountains. Individual cow water intake rates are 4–15 L/min. Many cows
may drink simultaneously, especially right after milking, so trough volumes and drinking cup flow rates should be great enough that
water availability is not limited during times of peak demand. Water troughs and drinking cups should be cleaned frequently and
positioned to avoid fecal contamination.

Poor water quality may result in reduced water consumption, with resultant decreases in feed consumption and milk production.
Several factors determine water quality. Total dissolved solids (TDSs), also referred to as total soluble salts, is a major factor that
refers to the total amount of inorganic solute in the water. TDS is generally expressed in units of mg/L or parts per million (ppm)
which are numerically equivalent values (see Table: Guidelines for Total Soluble Salts (Total Dissolved Solids) in Drinking Water for
Cattle). TDS is not equivalent to water hardness, which is a measure of the amount of calcium and magnesium in water. Water
hardness has not been shown to affect dairy cow performance.

Guidelines for Total Soluble Salts (Total Dissolved Solids) in Drinking

Water for Cattle

Total
Soluble Salts Comments
(mg/L)
<1,000 Safe and should pose no health problems.
1,000–2,999 Generally safe but may cause a mild temporary diarrhea
Total
Soluble Salts Comments
(mg/L)
in animals not accustomed to the water.
3,000–4,999 Water may be refused when first offered to animals or
cause temporary diarrhea. Animal performance may be
less than optimum because water intake is not
maximized.
5,000–6,999 Pregnant or lactating animals should not drink such
water. May be offered with reasonable safety to animals
when maximum performance is not required.
≥7,000 These waters should not be offered to cattle. Health
problems and/or poor production will result.
Reprinted with permission from the National Academies Press,
copyright 2001, National Academy of Sciences.
Other inorganic contaminants that affect water quality include nitrates, sulfates, and trace minerals. Concentrations of nitrate
(expressed as nitrate nitrogen) <10 mg/L are safe for ruminants. At concentrations >20 mg/L, cattle may be at risk, especially if
nitrate concentrations in the feed are high. Water with nitrate concentrations >40 mg/L should be avoided. General
recommendations for sulfate concentrations in drinking water are <500 mg/L for calves and <1,000 mg/L for adult cattle. The
specific sulfate salts present in water may affect the response of cattle; iron sulfate is the most potent depressor of water
intake. Concentrations of Potentially Toxic Nutrients and Contaminants in Drinking Water Generally Considered Safe for Cattle lists
potential elemental contaminants of drinking water with upper-limit guidelines.

Concentrations of Potentially Toxic Nutrients and Contaminants in

Drinking Water Generally Considered Safe for Cattle

Element Upper-limit Guideline (mg/L or ppm)

Aluminum 0.5
Arsenic 0.05
Boron 5.0
Cadmium 0.005
Chromium 0.1
Cobalt 1.0
Copper 1.0
Fluorine 2.0
Lead 0.015
Manganese 0.05
Mercury 0.01
Nickel 0.25
Selenium 0.05
Vanadium 0.1
Zinc 5.0
Reprinted with permission from the National Academies Press,
Element Upper-limit Guideline (mg/L or ppm)

copyright 2001, National Academy of Sciences.

Minerals
Calcium and Phosphorus:
Calcium requirements of lactating dairy cows are high relative to other species or to nonlactating cows because of the high calcium
concentration in milk. Thus, inorganic sources of calcium, such as calcium carbonate or dicalcium phosphate, must be added to the
rations of lactating dairy cows. For the first 6–8 wk of lactation, most dairy cows are in negative calcium balance, ie, calcium is
mobilized from bone to meet the demand for milk production. This period of negative calcium balance does not appear to be
detrimental so long as there is sufficient dietary calcium such that bone reserves can be replenished in later lactation. The
availability of dietary calcium for absorption varies with dietary source. Dietary calcium from inorganic sources is generally absorbed
with greater efficiency than that from organic sources. Furthermore, cows in negative calcium balance absorb calcium more
efficiently than cows in positive calcium balance.

When calculating calcium requirements, newer nutritional models take into account the variability in calcium availability from
different sources. This availability generally ranges from 75%–85% for inorganic calcium supplements to a low of 30% for forage
sources of calcium. This approach makes it difficult to generate general recommendations for total dietary calcium concentrations
across various diets. Generally, diets with large portions of forage from legume sources will have minimum calcium concentration
requirements in the range of 0.71%–0.75%, while diets with forages from primarily grass (including corn silage) sources will have
minimum calcium concentration requirements in the range of 0.42%–0.47%.

Two approaches are taken with respect to the calcium supply for dry cows, each with the objective of preventing milk fever, or
parturient paresis (see Parturient Paresis in Cows). One approach is to place cows in a calcium-deficient state during the last 2–3
wk of gestation; the rationale is to stimulate parathyroid hormone secretion and skeletal calcium mobilization before calving. This
makes calcium homeostatic mechanisms more responsive at the time of parturition, allowing cows to maintain serum calcium
concentrations during lactation. This approach requires diets with calcium concentrations near 0.3% of dry matter. Such diets are
difficult to formulate with available feedstuffs while still meeting other nutritional requirements. Another approach is to feed an
acidifying diet, usually referred to as a diet with a low or negative dietary cation-anion difference (DCAD). The low-calcium diet
approach is not additive with the DCAD approach to milk fever prevention. When low-DCAD diets are fed, total dietary calcium
concentrations should be near 0.9%, which is substantially greater than the requirement for a dry cow on a conventional diet.

Phosphorus nutrition for lactating dairy cows has dynamics similar to those of calcium. The efficiency of phosphorus absorption is
affected by physiologic state and dietary source. As is the case with calcium, most dairy cows in early lactation are in negative
phosphorus balance. Phosphorus mobilized from bone early in lactation is replaced during later lactation when feed intakes are
higher. Young animals and animals in negative phosphorus balance absorb phosphorus more efficiently than do older animals or
animals in positive phosphorus balance. Phosphorus from inorganic sources is more available than that from organic feed sources.

Judiciously balancing diets to meet, but not exceed, phosphorus requirements is important for dairy cow performance and
environmental stewardship. Excess phosphorus excreted in feces is one of the major pollutant risks associated with livestock
production. Newer nutritional models account for variation in phosphorus availability from different sources, but there is less
variation in availability among phosphorus sources than among calcium sources. In general, concentrates when fed to ruminants
have a phosphorus availability of 70%, and forages close to 64%. Inorganic mineral supplements are usually rated at 75%–80%
availability, but rock phosphate is very low, ~30%. Total dietary phosphorus concentration requirements for most dairy diets will be
in the range of 0.35%–0.4%, and for dry cows, 0.3%–0.35%. Phosphorus supplementation for dry cows is seldom necessary.

The dietary calcium:phosphorus ratio is not of particular importance in ruminants. Ratios from 7:1 to 1:1 are acceptable, so long as
the total amount of each element meets the dietary requirements.

Serum concentrations of calcium and inorganic phosphorus are of value in assessing the short-term homeostasis of these minerals
but of little value in assessing longterm nutritional status. Bone ash concentrations are the best way to assess longterm calcium and
phosphorus nutritional status.

Other Macrominerals:
Other macrominerals required in dairy cow diets include sodium, potassium, chloride, magnesium, and sulfur. Of
these, sodium generally needs to be supplemented, typically as sodium chloride or common salt. Insufficient dietary sodium results
in reduced feed intake with subsequent reductions in animal performance. Signs of severe salt deficiency include licking and
chewing on fences and other environmental objects, urine drinking, and general ill thrift. Milk production is reduced within 1–2 wk of
removing supplemental salt from the diets of lactating cows. Completely withholding salt from dry cow diets in an effort to prevent
udder edema at calving is not a good practice. Maintenance requirements for sodium in nonlactating cows are estimated at 1.5
g/100 kg body wt/day, with gestation requirements estimated at an additional 1.4 g/day after 190 days of gestation. For large-breed
dairy cows, this results in a sodium requirement of ~9–10 g/day. Unsupplemented dry cow diets seldom provide sodium at >3 g/day.
Therefore, daily supplementation of dry cow diets with a minimum of 6–7 g of sodium per day (~15–16 g of salt) is important.
Additional salt is necessary during heat stress. Although salt should be supplemented to dry cows in required amounts, excessive
salt supplementation is unnecessary and may contribute to udder edema at calving.

Supplemental magnesium may need to be fed with diets containing high proportions of grass forages, especially those consisting of
rapidly growing pasture grasses. Such forages typically have low magnesium concentrations as well as high concentrations of
potassium and organic acids, which interfere with the availability of dietary magnesium. Magnesium oxide is the typical magnesium
supplement in ruminant diets.

Dairy cattle, like other animals, have no dietary requirement for inorganic sulfur. The dietary requirement for sulfur reflects only the
dietary requirement for sulfur-containing amino acids. In ruminants, rumen microbes can synthesize sulfur-containing amino acids
from nonprotein sources of nitrogen and sulfur. Dairy cow diets most likely to require supplemental sulfur are those with low protein
concentrations and those with supplemental nonprotein nitrogen. In general, a nitrogen:sulfur ratio of 15:1 is recommended in
ruminant diets.

Recommended dietary concentrations for typical dairy cow diets are: sodium (0.23%), chloride (0.29%), potassium (1.1%),
magnesium (0.21%), and sulfur (0.21%).

Trace Minerals:
The trace minerals typically supplemented or measured in dairy cow diets include cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, selenium,
iodine, and zinc. Of these, selenium and copper are the trace minerals most likely to be deficient. Several areas of North America,
Europe, and other continents are characterized by growing conditions that result in feeds with low selenium concentrations. In these
areas, livestock feeds need to be supplemented with selenium. Sources of supplemental selenium include sodium selenite, sodium
selenate, and selenomethionine. The latter source is typically referred to as organic selenium.

Selenium deficiency is known to cause myopathies in calves, which may affect cardiac or skeletal muscle (ie, white muscle disease,
see Nutritional Myodegeneration). In adult cattle, selenium deficiency appears to suppress immune function and especially
neutrophil function. It also increases the risk of retained placenta, although feeding selenium in excess of requirements does not
prevent this condition. Dietary selenium requirements in dairy cattle are estimated at 0.1–0.3 mg/kg diet dry matter. In the USA, 0.3
mg/kg dry matter is the maximum legal concentration of supplemental selenium in dairy cattle diets.

The selenium status of cattle can be accurately assessed from blood or serum concentrations. Whole blood concentrations of 120–
250 ng/mL or serum concentrations of 70–100 ng/mL in adult cattle indicate adequate selenium status.

Recommended dietary copper concentrations in cattle diets are 10–15 mg/kg diet dry matter; however, the dietary copper
requirement depends greatly on the concentration of interfering substances. These include primarily sulfur and molybdenum, but
iron, zinc, and calcium may also interfere with copper availability. The adsorption efficiency for dietary copper in ruminants is
normally quite low, 4%–5%. However, with increasing concentrations of dietary sulfur and/or molybdenum, absorption efficiency
may be reduced to ≤1%.

Copper deficiency is characterized by loss of hair pigmentation, loss of hair around the eyes, anemia, and general ill thrift and
suppressed immunity. In severe cases, persistent diarrhea may also occur.

The copper status of cattle can be assessed from liver or serum copper concentrations. Liver concentrations <20 mg/kg dry tissue
or serum concentrations <0.5 mcg/mL indicate copper deficiency. Because the liver is a physiologic storage site for copper, copper
concentrations in the liver will be reduced before serum concentrations.

Dietary manganese deficiencies in dairy cattle are less common than deficiencies of copper or selenium. Signs include poor growth
and skeletal deformities in newborn calves and reproductive abnormalities, including anestrus, in adult cows. Recently
recommended dietary manganese concentrations for cattle are 15–25 mg/kg; previous recommendations have been as high as 40
mg/kg dry matter.

Recommended zinc concentrations in the diets of dairy cattle and calves are 23–63 mg/kg dry matter. Signs of zinc deficiency
include reduced feed intake and general ill thrift. Parakeratosis, particularly around the nostrils and lower legs, and weakening of the
hoof horn are signs of prolonged zinc deficiency. Normal concentrations of serum zinc are 0.7–1.3 mcg/mL. Concentrations <0.4
mcg/mL are considered deficient.

Iron deficiency is extremely rare in adult cattle, because iron is ubiquitous in the environment and the endogenous concentrations of
iron in most feedstuffs will more than meet requirements. Signs of iron deficiency are primarily anemia and low serum iron
concentrations. Adequate serum iron concentrations are 110–150 mcg/dL. However, these concentrations drop quickly in the
presence of inflammatory disease, and such changes in serum iron concentrations should not be interpreted as being due to a
dietary deficiency. Suckling calves are the only group of cattle generally at risk of iron deficiency and to which supplemental iron
need be provided.

Iodine deficiency occurs with some frequency in cattle and is primarily manifest by goiters in newborn calves. The required dietary
iodine concentration is generally ~0.2 mg/kg of dietary dry matter. However, dietary iodine concentrations of 0.6 mg/kg are
recommended as a safety factor because of the potential presence of goitrogenic substances in common protein supplements.

Vitamins
Vitamin A:
Preformed vitamin A, or retinol, does not exist in any plant material, so there is no vitamin A in natural diets for dairy cattle. Vitamin
A activity from natural sources comes primarily from β-carotene, which is found in plants and is particularly abundant in fresh
forages. β-carotene is labile; its concentrations in forages are not constant but diminish with time in storage. Therefore,
measurement of β-carotene concentrations in feeds is not practical and seldom done. Recommended vitamin A consumption rates
for various classes of cattle are based on providing supplemental vitamin A, which is derived from commercial sources: for adult
cows (lactating and dry)—110 IU/kg body wt, which is ~4,400 IU/kg dry diet; for growing heifers—80 IU/kg body wt, which is ~2,500
IU/kg dry diet. Conditions that can increase dietary vitamin A requirements in adult cows include low forage diets, high corn silage
diets, poor quality forages, and infection.

The vitamin A status of cattle may be assessed via serum or hepatic vitamin A concentrations. The liver stores vitamin A for release
during periods of insufficient dietary intake, thus making liver the ideal tissue for nutritional assessment. For adult cattle receiving
diets with recommended supplemental vitamin A concentrations, hepatic vitamin A concentrations are 300–1,100 mg/kg dry tissue
(expressed as retinol). Clinical signs of vitamin A deficiency do not occur until these reserves have been substantially depleted.
Adequate serum vitamin A concentrations in adult cattle are 225–500 ng/mL, with values usually dropping to ~150 ng/mL within 1
wk of calving.

Calves are born with low body stores of vitamin A and depend on colostrum consumption to supply hepatic vitamin A stores. The
NRC recommends dietary vitamin A concentrations for young calves at ~9,000 IU/kg diet dry matter. Most milk replacer diets have
substantially higher concentrations of vitamin A, possibly because vitamin A requirements may be increased by infectious diseases,
especially those affecting the respiratory or enteric epithelium.

Vitamin A deficiency is associated initially with night blindness followed by poor growth, poor hair coats, and suppressed immunity.
In adult cattle, vitamin A deficiency is associated with retained placentas and impaired fertility.

Vitamin D:
Vitamin D is necessary for the absorption and metabolism of calcium and phosphorus. Recent research suggests that vitamin D
may also be necessary for immune cell function. Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) can be formed by the solar irradiation of skin or vitamin
D2 by the solar irradiation of forages. However, reliance on natural vitamin D formation is considered unreliable, and vitamin D
requirements are based on recommendations for supplement addition to diets. The recommended rate of vitamin D supplementation
for adult dairy cows is 30 IU/kg body wt, which would be supplied by diets with ~1,000 IU/kg dry matter.

Vitamin D status can be assessed via blood serum concentrations of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol. Adequate values are 20–50 ng/mL,
with concentrations <5 ng/mL indicating deficiency.

Vitamin E:
Vitamin E is present in relatively high concentrations in fresh forages. Thus, cattle receiving pasture or fresh-cut forages may require
little vitamin E supplement. In contrast, vitamin E degrades in stored forages, so dairy cattle on typical confinement-reared diets
require supplemental vitamin E.

Vitamin E functions to protect cellular membranes from oxidative damage. Clinical manifestations of deficiency include nutritional
myopathy (white muscle disease, see Nutritional Myodegeneration) in young calves and diseases in older cattle including retained
placenta and increased susceptibility to environmental mastitis.

Recommended rates of vitamin E intake vary based on gestation stage: terminal dry period—1.8 IU/kg body wt, which is ~90 IU/kg
dry matter; lactation—0.8 IU/kg body wt, which is ~30 IU/kg dry matter. Much higher concentrations are occasionally supplemented
when environmental mastitis is a particular problem. Vitamin E is essentially nontoxic, and there is little risk of oversupplementation.

Vitamin E supplements may be natural or synthetic. Natural sources of vitamin E are derived from plant oils and are
designated RRR-α-tocopherol or D-α-tocopherol, based on stereoisomer characteristics of their chemical structure. Synthetic
supplements are designated all rac-α-tocopherol, or DL-α-tocopherol. The natural-source supplements appear to have much greater
biologic activity.

Blood serum vitamin E concentrations may be used to assess vitamin E status in dairy cattle. Serum concentrations of 2–4 mcg/mL
are generally adequate. However, in addition to vitamin E nutritional status, these concentrations are influenced by the total
concentration of serum lipid, with higher serum lipid concentrations resulting in higher vitamin E concentrations. Serum lipids are
generally low in late gestation and high in the period of peak feed intake. To compensate for this fluctuation, serum vitamin E
concentrations are sometimes expressed as a ratio, with some serum lipid component, such as cholesterol or triglyceride, used as
the denominator.

Other Vitamins:
Most ruminant diets provide adequate amounts of vitamin K and the B vitamins, either through natural feedstuffs or synthesis by
microbial activity in the rumen. Thus, there are no recommended dietary concentrations of these vitamins for ruminants.