Engineering Geology, 25 (1988) 341-366 341

Elsevier Science Publishers B. V., Amsterdam - Printed in The Netherlands

11
LOESS IMPROVEMENT METHODS

" DIMCHO EVSTATIEV

I Soil Improvement Section, Geotechnical Laboratory, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences,
Sofia (Bulgaria)
(Received January 16, 1986; accepted in revised form September 10, 1986)

ABSTRACT

Evstatiev, D., 1988. Loess improvement mf>thods. Eng. Geol., 25: 341-366.

The paper deals with the present-day state of the methods of improvement of loess
soils as a base and material for engineering constructions. The experience of the Soviet
Union, Bulgaria, the United States, Chinl! and other countries where loess is widespread has
been taken into account. The classification of loess bases into 2 types and 4 sub-types has
been suggested depending on the thickness of the loess and total overburden collapse. The
improvement methods have been classified into 8 groups depending on their nature and
the results achieved: (1) compaction by rollers, heavy tampers, soil piles, moistening and
by explosions or vibrations and other similar methods; (2) modification of the granulo·
metric composition by the addition of coarsp.r mat.erial ; (3) stabilization on the surface or
in depth by means of injection or mixing with various binders and chemical reagents; (4)
loess improvement by replacement with various cushions or jet grouting; (5) reinforcement
comprising methods in which the strength of loess is improved by putting bodies of ten-
sile resistance into it; (6) geomembranes; (7) desiccation by different draining systems,
electro-osmosis or hygroscopic materials; and (8) correction, terracing, grassing and
afforestation of slopes.
The applicability of the methods, their recent development as well as typical case his-
tories have been discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Loess and loess-like soils are widespread in the Soviet Union. China. the
United States. Bulgaria, Romania. Poland. Germany. Brazil, Australia and a
number of other countries in all parts of the globe. They have varied origin.
but what unites them is their specific granulometric and mineral composition
(mainly silty soils containing mostly quartz and varied quantities of feldspars.
mica, carbonates and clay minerals), their characteristic non-consolidated
structure (soft soils with great porosity n = 40-50%. the existence of a great
volume of macropores). their low degree of saturation S, and the binding of
the sand and silt particles with the clay and carbonate mass. which is not
resistant to water. or with the capillary forces.
These features of the composition and structure predetermine the exis-
tenceofthetwo most important building properties of loess: collapsibility at
saturation caused by overburden or by the additional load of the installations
1 and considerable permeability. In building codes and textbooks on engin-
1
342

eering geology and soil mechanics, loess is usually discussed in the same
group with muds, peat, expansive soil and artificial non-consolidated soils
under the common heading of structurally unstable soils.
The unfavourable properties of loess have long been known to builders.
For instance, in the first Bulgarian capital Pliska built in the 7th-8th cen-
turies A.D. on loess up to 8 m thick, a big water supply reservoir and the
foundations of some heavy buildings had subsided (Evstatiev et ai. , 1983).
The loess base underlying the foundations of the palaces, cult buildings and
parts of the fortress wall had been compacted with the use of short wooden
piles.
Interest in loess has intensified especially during the current century, and
since the 1930's in connection with the growing urbanization, industrializa-
tion and modem farming. This is especially relevant for the Soviet Union
where considerable civil, power industry and agricultural construction had to
be accomplished in regions of widespread collapsible soils. That is why loess
research related to construction has developed most extensively in that
country, and the works of Soviet researchers have laid the foundations of
almost all main aspects of the loess problem (e.g., Abelev, 1948; Abelev and
Abelev, 1979; Denisov, 1946,1953; Larionov et ai., 1959; Anan'ev, 1964;
Mavlianov et ai., 1978; Mustafaev, 1979; Kraev and Costianoi, 1980; Krutov,
1982).
Since World War II, loess research related to construction has rapidly
developed in Bulgaria (Stefanoff and Kremakova, 1961; Minkov, 1968),
China (Chang Tsung-Hu, 1960), Romania (Graciun and Popescu, 1963), the
U.S.A. (Krinitzsky and Turnbull, 1967; Sheeler, 1969; Handy, 1973) and in
many other countries.
As a result of all these investigations, the specificities of loess as a soil
base for various constructions have been elucidated by and large, and a num-
ber of methods of secure foundations have been developed. The existing
methods of counteracting the collapsibility of constructions and water leak-
age can be divided into three big groups: constructive measures , water isola-
tion measures, and loess improvement methods. The first group includes the
various methods of reinforcing structures and pile foundations by means of
which the loess is essentially traversed and strong soil reached. The second
group includes the methods of water isolation preventing the access of water
to the loess base.
The third group of methods subject to consideration in this work com-
prises all methods whereby collapsibility and filtration are counteracted by a
modification of the loess properties by way of compaction, stabilization ,
replacement or some other ways. It is difficult to determine to which group
some methods belong. For instance, the short pyramidal piles are referred to
as a method of loess compaction, but they are at the same time part of the
foundation of a building. There are similar difficulties in defining some of
the methods of replacement, of geomembranes, and so forth.
Soviet experience has proved that constructive and water isolation meas-
ures alone cannot solve the problem of stability of the overwhelming part of
 343

constructions erected on collapsible loess. Numerous data indicate that the

rising level of ground water is an inevitable process in all built or irrigated
areas, notwithstanding the water isolation measures that had been taken
(Smirnovand Bogdanov, 1974; Litvinov, 1974). Best results have been
achieved in the optimum combination of the advantages of the three groups
of methods. This is especially relevant to seismic regions.
The effectiveness of a decision taken regarding foundation works in loess
depends to an extremely high degree on the quality of the geological engi-
neering investigations and of soil mechanics tests, which should provide
information about the thickness of the loess layer and of the collapsible zone,
the extent of collapse under overburden or additional load, permeability,
etc. Of special importance is the defining of the type of loess base, which
largely determines the choice of the best suited method.
Loess is probably the most frequently compacted and stabilized soil. An
evidence of this is the existence of scores of methods of modifying its build-
ing properties. The author of this paper has set to the task of analyzing these
methods and indicating to what degree they have been worked out. In this
connection, a specification has become necessary regarding the existing type
patterns of loess bases and the elaboration of a new classification of the
methods of loess improvement, which would help elucidate their nature and
inter-relatedness.

LOESS BASE TYPE PATTERNS

According to Soviet norms (Rukovodstvo ... , 1977), depending on the

extent of collapsibility under geological load, 6 n> loess bases are divided into
Type I (6 n < 5 cm) and Type II (6 n > 5 cm). This classification has been
accepted in Bulgaria (Pravilnik ... ,1983) and in some other countries. Loess
base Type I is usually <8 m thick, but there is also loess of a thicker collaps-
ible zone, which does not collapse under overburden. The loess base of Type
II is >8-10 m thick, sometimes reaching a thickness in dozens of metres (in
China, Central Asia, Bulgaria and elsewhere). The value of 6 n is most fre-
quently obtained by laboratory methods, but experience has shown that
sometimes there are considerable disparities between laboratory calculated
and actual collapses. It has been recommended, therefore, that the type of
loess base be determined by experimental wetting in situ. In some countries
this is rendered more difficult by the great horizontal non-homogeneity of
loess (Minkov and Evstatiev, 1977).
Suggestions have been made to introduce sub-types of loess bases in con-
nection with the application of the methods of their improvement (Minkov
and Evstatiev, 1975,1977). The author considers that from that point of
view it would be sufficient if the two main types are divided into two sub-
types each depending on the thickness of the loess (Table 1).
344

TABLE 1

Loess base type patterns

Type Sub-type

I, 6 n < 5 em la, hs < 5 m

rb , hs>5m
II, li n > 5 em a
n , hs < 15 m
lIb, hs > 15 m

CLASSIFICATION OF LOESS IMPROVEMENT METHODS

Anan'ev (1976) divided loess improvement methods into two groups:

methods of mechanical compaction and methods of physico--chemical
stabilization_ In these two groups, he distinguishes between methods of sur-
face stabilization and methods of deep improvement, taking into considera-
tion 20 methods with 17 varieties. His classification does not include the
methods of surface stabilization employed in road and water irrigation con-
struction, the method of mechanical stabilization, the methods of reinforce-
ment, of drainage of water-saturated loess, and some new methods of deep
stabilization of loess.
In this paper, another classification has been presented taking into con-
sideration all used or experimented methods of improvement of the building
properties of loess. The methods have been classified into 8 groups (Table 2).
The first group comprises the methods whereby the properties of the loess
are improved through its compaction; the second group - through modifica-
tion of its granulometric composition; the third - through the creation of
qualitatively new cohesive contacts; the fourth - through replacement of
some of the collapsible loess by non-collapsible materials; the fifth - through
incorporating elements into the loess, which have tensile strength; the sixth
- through the use of polymer membranes; the seventh - through drainage;
and the eighth - through slope cutting, terracing, planting of grass and
afforestation of loess slopes.
The drawing up of this classification has been accompanied by difficulties
due to the non-homogeneity of the classified objects. Besides, the nature of
the methods as well as the function they perform had to be taken into con-
sideration. Some of them are too complex and involve elements or entire
component parts of other methods. For instance, during surface stabilization
using non-organic binders, a change of the granulometric composition and
compaction take place. In some of the methods of reinforcement and replace-
ment, bodies of stabilized soil are used, but in this case it is not the soil
stabilization that is the main element determining the soil's mechanical
behaviour of the improved base or slope.
Consequently, the classification presented has the ambition of taking into
consideration all kinds of interventions in loess soils aimed at the improve-
ment of their building behaviour, i.e. all methods whereby loess itself is used
 345

as a base or material, while some of its physical or mechanical properties are

corrected. Moreover, the main principle of classification is both the way in
which the improvement has been accomplished and its actual results.

STATE OF LOESS IMPROVEMENT METHODS

Table 2 shows that building practice now has at its disposal scores of
methods and their varieties in countering collapsibility and filtration leakage
in loess soils. Most of them have been worked out or adapted to loess in the
Soviet Union. In that country, every other year since 1960 all-Union confer-
ences have been held on stabilization and compaction of soils, and the pro-
ceedings of these conferences reflect the continuous advance in this field. The
proceedings of the last conferences have mostly been taken into consideration
here, since they contain the latest achievements of Soviet researchers. Besides
publications in various journals, a number of normative documents, which
regulate the application of different methods have been used, as well as the
following more important monographs: Bezruk, 1965, 1971; Litvinov, 1969,
1977; Goncharova, 1973; Abelev. 1975: Bannik. 1976: Anan'ev, 1976;
Voronkevich, 1981; Tokin, 1984; Grigorian, 1984; Krutov et aI., 1985.

1. Loess compaction

This group comprises the methods whereby an increase of the density of

loess is achieved with the ensuing elimination of collapsibility, reduction of
permeability and greater bearing capacity. This is realized under the influence
of static or dynamic forces, through injection of clay suspensions or under
the influence of the adsorptive action of water. In some of the methods a
combination of the effects described has been used.

1.1. Compaction of the surface using rollers and tampers

This is the best known and most widely applied method in construction.
Huge masses of compacted loess are used for road embankments, earth dams,
various water irrigation facilities, levellers and back embankments in civil
engineering. Compaction proceeds in optimal moisture content Wopt until the
attainment of the standard density P d, •• Depending on the clay content,
Wopt ranges between 12% and 19%, while pd"ranges between 1.62-1.78
g/cm'. The shape of Proctor's curves depends very much on the granulometric
composition and in some loess varieties Pd" is attained in a narrow range of
water content. When compacted, typical silty loess in Bulgaria has the follow-
ing soil mechanics properties: Woot = 159'0-16%; Pd., = 1.68-1.70 g/cm';
modulus of total deformation Eo = 20-30 MPa; modulus of elasticity E =
25-40 MPa; cohesion C = 0.025-0.05 MPa; angle of internal friction <p =
26- 30° ; coefficient of filtration 10 -'-10 - 8 cm/sec.

1.2. Compaction by heavy tamping

The dynamic energy of a concrete tamper is used, the tamper being
dropped by the outrigger jib of a scraper. This method was first applied in
TABLE 2

Classification of loess improvement methods ~

'"
No. Methods Type of loess base Kind of construction Degree of elaboration

1. Compaction by:
1.1. Rollers, light tampers, vibration plates all types all kinds high, instructions
1.2. Heavy tampers ja civil, water irrigation high, instructions
1.3. Short pyramidal piles ja civil high, instructions
Ribbed foundations ja civil medium, publications
1.4.
1.5. Soil piles rb and II- civil high, instructions
1.6. Gas explosions rb and III civil, water irrigation medium, pu blications
1.7. Compaction injections Ib and III civil experimentation
1.8. Injection of clay suspension Ib and III civil good, publications
1.9. Moistening 11ft and lIb water irrigation, civil high, instructions
1.10. Moistening and deep vibration Ib and II- civil good, publications
1.11. Moistening and surface explosions Ib and II- civil, water irrigation high, publications
1.12. Moistening and deep explosions Ib, IIa and lIb civil, water irrigation high, instructions
1.13. Injection of vapour I1 a civil experimentation
1.14. Water stream n a and lIb civil experimentation
2. Improvement of the granulometric all types road, water irrigation good, literature
composition
3. Stabilization
3.1. Surface stabilization by:
3.1.1. Cement, lime and waste materials all types road, water irrigation high, instructions
3.1.2. Bitumen and bituminous emulsions all types road, water irrigation good, literature
3.1.3. Macromolecular compounds all types road, water irrigation medium, literature
3.1.4. Salts, acids and alkali all types road, water irrigation experimentation
3.2. Stabilization in depth by:
3.2.1. Injection of silicate grouts; Electro- Ib and na civil high, regulations
and gas silicatization
3.2.2. Injection of gases Ib and n a civil medium, literature
3.2.3. Injection of cement, lime and lb and II- civil medium, literature
other grouts
3.2.4. Injection of large molecular compounds rb and II- civil experimentation
3.2.5. Mechanical mixing with PorUand Ib and II- civil good, literature
cement and lime
3.2.6. Mixing with cement by jet·grouting lb, lIB and lIb civil good, literature
3.2.7. Burning of liquid and gas fuels Ib and lI a civil high, regulations
4. Replacement by:
4.1. Soil cushion r" civil and water irrigation good, instructions

~ and rb
4.2. Sand cushion civil good, literature
4.3. Soil-cement cushion civil high, instructions
4.4. Cement-bentonite grout introduced rb and lIa civil good, literature
by jet-grouting
5. Reinforcement all types civil and road good, literature
6. Geomembranes all types water irrigation and civil good, literature
7. Desiccation by:
7.1. Surface draining all types civil high, regulations
7.2. Drainage boreholes and well points all types civil high, instructions
7.3. Horizontal boreholes all types civil good, literature
7.4. Electro-osmosis all types road and civil good, literature
7.5. Hygroscopic substances all types civil medium, literature
8. Correction, terracing, grassing and all types all kinds high, literature
afforestation of slopes

~
~
348

the 1930's in the Soviet Union (Abelev, 1975). Since World War II, it has
been used in almost all countries building on loess soils. Initially the weight
of the tamper was 2.5-3 tons, but now it has been increased to 15-20 tons
and the compaction effect has grown to 4 m (Minkov et ai., 1980; Minkov
and Donchev, 1983). This makes it possible to use the method besides in
sub-type I', in sub-type I b, too, and in combination with other methods even
in sub-type II' (Minkov et ai., 1980, 1981). The best results have been
obtained in degree of saturation S, between 0.35 and 0.60. In the Soviet
Union depth in which Pd > 1.60 g/cm' has been adopted as the border of the
compacted zone (Rukovodstvo, 1977). According to the Bulgarian regula-
tions, this border is at Pd > 1.55 g/cm' (Pravilnik ... ,1983). A new design of
collapsible tampers is used in Bulgaria whose lower surface is tapered off in
the shape of a cone, and compaction is more effective using this particular
shape. If heavy tampers of a conical or pyramidal shape are fastened to a
leading column, compacted pits are obtained serving as beds for isolated or
strip foundations. In the Soviet Union, scores of buildings have foundations
made in this way (Krutov et ai., 1985).
There are cases where heavy tamping has not produced the expected result;
this is due to the higher than Wopt water content of the soil or the existence
of fossil soil in the loess, whose carbonate horizon is very difficult to com-
pact (Minkov et al., 1980).
As in other structurally unstable soils, the weight of the tampers has to be
further increased in order to obtain a better compaction effect.

1.3. Compac tion by short py ramidal piles

This method has been in use in the Soviet Union since 1965. It consists of
driving into the loess of a concrete pile 3-4 m long with a cross section in
the upper part 60 x 60 up to 70 X 70 cm and in the lower part most fre-
quently 10 X 10 cm. A compacted zone is formed along the length of the
pile which bears most of the stresses. In this way compaction with pyramidal
piles is more effective than compaction with prismatic piles.
The method produces the best results in loess base of I a sub-type, but
there are numerous examples of its application in Ib bases. An important
advantage of this method is the complete mechanization of all technological
operations. It has been used in the Soviet Union and in Bulgaria in founda-
tion works of hundreds of pre-fabricated buildings up to 9 storeys high
(Lubenets, 1974; RSN 224-75; Golubkov, 1976; Toshkov, 1982; Grigorian,
1984).

1.4. Compaction by ribbed foundations

Various kinds of foundations have been designed with the aim of compact-
ing loess during construction of buildings under the action of their weight.
Their base instead of being flat contains elongations in the shape of ribs, cot-
ters, pyramids, etc. Experiments started in 1962 in the Ukraine, and this
method, have since been used in the foundation works of scores of housing
and farm buildings (Anan'ev, 1976; Golubkov, 1976).
 349

1.5. Compaction by soil piles

This method has been applied in the Soviet Union since 1934. Currently
it is performed with special percussion drilling machines using rods weighing
up to 2700 kg. The percussion drill with a diameter of 50-60 cm ends in
the shape of a cone with a 30' angle at the top. Boreholes up to 15 m long
are drilled around whose walls a compacted zone with a diameter of up to
1.50 m is formed. The boreholes are filled with loess which is compacted in
portions of 100-200 kg by the percussion drill. The compaction can be
achieved by driving in of various shapes of reinforced concrete piles, which
are subsequently taken out and the holes made are filled with concrete, com-
pacted soil or soil-cement (Mitchell, 1970; Anan'ev, 1976; Krutov, 1982;
Grigorian, 1984). Successful attempts have been made in the Soviet Union
of compacting the walls of a borehole through the blast action of an electric
spark (Lomize et aI., 1974; Anan'ev, 1976). During the past two years, tests
have been carried out in Bulgaria trying to improve one of the well-known
variants of compaction by soil piles, in which after a borehole with a diameter
of 8-10 cm has been drilled, a linear blasting charge is set off (Anan'ev,
1976). During these tests, after the charge has been placed, the borehole is
filled with silicate grout. After the explosion, an opening with a diameter of
up to 0.80 is obtained, whose walls are impregnated with silicate grout. The
opening is then filled with plastic soil-cement mixture.
Usually the uppermost 2-3 m of loess remain uncompacted and that is
why compaction by soil piles is combined with compaction by heavy tamping.
This method has been successfully used in the foundation works of scores
of industrial, housing and administrative buildings, and many writers con-
sider it one of the most important methods in loess base of sub-type II"
(Litvinov, 1974; Abelev, 1975; Bannik, 1976; Voronkevich, 1981; Krutov,
1982).

1.6. Compaction by gas explosions

The method is Soviet invention No. 480357 (Kirillov, 1983). The compac-
tion is done with a heavy device 1.5- 2.0 kN linked with pipes along which
gas and water are fed from the surface. The device is fastened to a crane and
sinks into the loess due to its own weight, facilitated by the water fed under
pressure from its lower part. After reaching the desired depth, the device is
withdrawn and at the same time a series of explosions of the gas are set off.
A column of loess compacted up to P d = 1.50-1.65 g/cm 3 with a diameter of
up to 1.20 m is obtained. The equipment used is comparatively light and
easily movable. The method has been applied in urban construction, but is
also considered promising in water irrigation projects (Frolov and Kirillova,
1983).

1.7. Compaction injections

This method has been successfully used in other uncompacted soils (Brown
and Warner, 1973) and there are reasons to expect that it would be effective
in loess, too. The small diameter borehole is widened by the injection of
350

cement mortar and the surrounding soil is compacted. For this purpose, rein-
forced rubber baloons are also used in the Soviet Union, which are dropped
in the borehole and then expanded through the feeding of water under pres-
sure 1.5-2.0 MPa (Litvinov, 1969). The widened openings are filled with
concrete or soil cement.

1.8. Compaction by injection of clay suspension

The compaction is done through the injection of clay grout under pressure
150-350 kPa into the loess. In the zone of penetration of the suspension
around the borehole, the porosity of the loess drops down to 37-38%, the
collapsibility is entirely eliminated and the modulus of total deformation
increases by 3.0-3.5 times. This method has been successfully applied in the
United States (Holtz and Hilf, 1961) and in the Soviet Union (Shehovtsev,
1962).

1. 9. Compac tion by preliminary moistening

The natural susceptibility of loess to collapse after moistening due to over-
burden has been used. This method was first applied in 1914-1915 in the
Giadnata Steppe in Russia and ever since it has been used in that country in
the building of hundreds of facilities chiefly in water irrigation construction
(Anan'ev, 1976; Bannik, 1976; Litvinov, 1977; Ukazaniya ... ,1979;
Voronkevich, 1981). After World War II it has been applied in a number of
projects in the United States (Gibbs and Bara, 1967; Lofgren, 1969; Dudley,
1970), in Romania (Beles et al., 1969), in Bulgaria (Minkov and Evstatiev,
1975), in Brazil (Wolle et al., 1981) and elsewhere. Usually moistening is
applied to a shallow excavation where a constant water level is maintained in
the course of several months until the collapse deformations fade out. Com-
paction can be accelerated by vertical sand drains especially if water is fed
into them under pressure. There are suggestions to accelerate compaction
also by superimposed embankments (Anagnosti, 1973).
In the Soviet Union, successful attempts have been made to stabilize loess
by moistening during the construction of buildings, as well as to the straighten-
ing of buildings tilted as a result of collapse (Anan'ev, 1976).
This is the most cost efficient of all existing methods of compaction of
loess with great thickness, but its application gives rise to some difficulties.
The length of moistening causes some ecological problems, the existence of
slow post-collapse deformations delays construction works, the spread of fis-
sures beyond the compacted areas threatens the existing installations, etc.
The topmost 5--6 m of loess remain uncompacted and therefore additional
heavy tamping may become necessary. The effectiveness of the method is
significantly improved by combining moistening with the application of
dynamic energy.

1.10. Compaction by preliminary moistening and deep vibration

Like other non-consolidated soils, water-saturated loess is well compacted
using heavy torpedo-like vibrations attached to the outrigger's jib (Kanatov,
 351

1974; Anan'ev, 1976). So far, this method (known as vibroflotation in the

Western countries) has not been widely applied to loess, but this is anticipated
in the foreseeable future.
Litvinov (1977) has put forward a method of compaction of water·
saturated loess with the help of directed vibration flow produced by a flat
vibrator sunk into a borehole.

1.11. Compaction by preliminary moistening and underwater explosions

This method is used in water irrigation and hydro-power construction in
the Soviet Union and in Bulgaria (Yadgarov et a1., 1974; Minkov and Evstatiev,
1975; Anan'ev, 1976; Askarov et a!., 1981). After preliminary moistening of
the base, as described in section 1.9., linear charges are placed on the bottom
of the water basin. The explosions are set off with a water column usually
more than 1.0 m high serving as a weight. The result is a faster and greater
effect of compaction. The possibilities of using the method for bases of type
I are also expanded.

1.12. Compaction by preliminary moistening and deep explosions

This method was developed in the Soviet Union in the early 1960's
(Litvinov, 1977). Its application to construction started in 1967. Loess is
moistened with drain boreholes situated at a distance of 3-5 m from each
other. A metal pipe with a widening in the lower part is sunk in additional
boreholes or in the drain boreholes, with 5-7 kg of explosive put in it. After
the moistening of the loess, which does not continue until complete satura-
tion, the explosives placed in several boreholes are simultaneously set off.
The powerful blast corresponding to a 12 degree MSK earthquake causes the
loess texture to break and there is a quick collapse reaching up to 2 m. The
enormous quantity of gas set free during the blast also contributes to
the rapid consolidation. It dissolves in the water and affects its viscosity. In
built areas, the compacted site is surrounded by deep narrow trenches in
order to avoid the propagation of fissures beyond it. Using this method, loess
is compacted within a few weeks only, and moreover, considerably less water
is used. The density achieved is much greater than during common moisten·
ing. The method has been used on a number of industrial and urban sites in
the Soviet Union and the soil compacted in this way exceeds 1 million m'.
In Bulgaria, it has been applied in high-rise housing construction (Donchev,
1980). The method is very cost·effective and suitable in eliminating collapse.
In earthquake conditions, there are certain risks of the liquefaction of loess,
since it has been long overmoistened. Moreover, considerable settlement
during construction has been measured in some high-rise buildings in Bulgaria,
construction having started directly after the completion of compaction. The
method requires a well trained team of borehole mechanics, a geologist, a
geophysicist and an explosion works specialist, and this impedes the work of
the builders. It is most effective in work of great volume, particularly in
water irrigation and hydro-power construction.
352

1.13. Compaction by water vapour

Preliminary collapse of loess is caused by superheated water vapour injected
into the loess. The method has been used in Dnepropetrovsk, U.S.S.R. in
straightening buildings tilted as a result of the collapse of part of the founda-
tions (Varinichenko, 1974). It could also be used for preliminary compac-
tion of loess foundations.

1.14. Compaction by water stream

Jet-grouting technology is used (Kirillov et aI., 1983). Loess is cut by a
water stream fed by a monitor under great pressure in a borehole from the
bottom upwards. A column with a diameter of up to 2-3 m or a strip with
the same width is obtained of loess precipitated under water which has lost
its collapsibility. In the course of time, the physico-mechanical properties
of the soil are improved due to the dispersion of the water and the decrease
of the water content.

2. Improvement of the granulometric composition

The best or optimal granulometric mixture consists of gravel, sand, silt

and clay, which under the concrete natural conditions and way of applying,
has the best strength and resistivity in the compacted state. Such a mixture
is mostly used in road, less often in hydro-power and rarely in civil engineer-
ing. In the Soviet Union, a great number of investigations of this problem,
including loess were carried out in the 1930's and continued after World War
II (Bannik, 1976). The optimal granulometric mixture for loess is obtained
by adding sand or river gravel. Scores of kilometres of roads have been built
in Bulgaria on a base of such a mixture with Ip = 3.5 and Pd = 2.25-2.30
gjcm' (Nachev, 1964). Laboratory stUdies have shown that the strength
parameters of the mixture are substantially improved after the addition of
small quantities of binders.

3. Stabilization of loess

Included here are methods in which the improvement of the binding pro-
perties of loess is achieved chiefly through the creation of new structural
bonds, as a result of which cohesion increases. In some of the methods this is
realized by breaking the natural texture, and in others, that texture is fixed
and strengthened by injection of various binders, chemical reagents or fuel
mixtures. There are two groups of methods depending on whether stabiliza-
tion is performed on the surface or in depth.

3.1. Methods of surface stabilization

In these methods stabilization is achieved by mixing the soil with binding
materials or chemical reagents in special mixers or on the site using rotary
fresno, while compaction is obtained using road rollers, small tampers, vibra-
tory plates and various types of vibrators. The number of stabilized layers
and their thickness depend on the concrete application.
 353

3.1.1. Stabilization usingcement,limeandsome waste materials. This method

is most widely applied in road construction (Bezruk, 1965, 1971; Ganse,
1973) as well as in streets and farm grounds construction (Minkov and
Evstatiev, 1975). The greatest number of studies on this problem have been
made in Bulgaria (Evstatiev, 1969, 1984; Evstatiev and Minkov, 1975), in the
Soviet Union (Bezruk, 1965, 1971) and in the United States (Handy, 1956).
These studies have established the optimal proportions of the binding mate-
rials, the mechanism of formation of strength and the strength and technolog-
ical performance of loess-eement mixtures. It has been found that when the
quantity of the clay fraction> 17%, lime produces a better effect than
cement. Investigations have also been carried out to replace cement by resi-
dual ash from cement plants and by activated fly ash from thermo-electric
plants.
Its application in water irrigation construction has been of a comparatively
recent date. In Bulgaria, 15 balancing reservoirs have been built whose bot-
toms with a total area of 130,000 m' have an impermeable screen consisting
of one or two soil-cement layers, each one 0.15 m thick and covered by a
protective soil layer 0.15-0.20 m thick (Minkov and Evstatiev, 1975). In
loess base of type II, the soil is first moistened until deformations under
overburden stop. Compaction by heavy tampers is applied under the dykes
of the balancing reservoirs. Attempts have been made to apply soil-eement
revetments of canals, but this method, however, has not been widely used
(Minkov and Evstatiev, 1975; Tokin, 1984). In the Soviet Union loess-
cement has long been used for making bricks, foundations and floors of
animal farms, etc. (Vilenkina, 1961; Tokin, 1984).

3.1.2. Stabilization by bitumen and bituminous emulsion. Loess varieties

containing little clay are well stabilized using hot bitumen and especially
bituminous emulsion. The Soviet Union has the greatest experience in this
area as great quantities of bitumen-stabilized soil have been used in road
construction (Bezruk, 1965, 1971). In other countries with loess soils, this
method is not competitive to the stabilization using inorganic binders.

3.1.3. Stabilization by macromolecular compounds. Numerous laboratory

experiments have been made with loess and similar soils (Kardoush et aI.,
1957; Demirel and Davidson, 1960; Bezruk, 1965, 1971), but so far, none of
the macromolecular compounds have found application in road construction
on a loess base, because of their high cost.
Some compounds with surface active properties soluble in water are more
promising as they can be used for building impermeable screens (Koval'chuk
et aI., 1971) or as an additive to loess-cement mixtures improving their
compactability, impermeability, freeze and water resistivity (Evstatiev, 1969).

3.1.4. Stabilization by salts, acids and alkali. Successful attempts have been
made in the Soviet Union and in Bulgaria to reduce the filtration leakage of
irrigation canals into loess soils by superficial treatment with a solution of
354

NaCI or by building a screen of salted loess covered by compacted soil

(Sokolovskiy, 1952; Ermolaeva and Rel'tov, 1971; Minkov and Evstatiev,
1975). The increase of the content of Na+ in the adsorbed complex causes a
thickening of the double water layers on clay particles, peptization of the
colloids and reduction of the effective porosity.
Besides NaCI, Na,CO" Na,PO. and NaF have been suggested for use in
improving the properties of loess (Afanas'ev, 1962). Of greatest interest are
salts like sodium hexametophosphate (NaPO,), which form stable compounds
in the soil. The collapsibility of loess is eliminated after it has been soaked
with diluted acid solutions (Anan'ev, 1976). In New Zealand, loess has been
successfully stabilized using phosphoric acid (Evans and Bell, 1981).
Attempts have been made in water irrigation construction to build imperme-
able screens using loess processed with a diluted solution of NaOH or alkaline
suspensions of peat and brown coal treated with NaOH (Dumanskiy, 1954).
Some salts or alkaline and alkaline earth elements in small quantities improve
the strength of loess cement mixtures (Evstatiev, 1969).

3.2. Stabilization in depth

This group of methods has developed with particular intensiveness during
the past two decades in the Soviet Union (Goncharova, 1973; Bannik, 1976;
Litvinov, 1977; Voronkevich, 1981). While stabilization in depth was
formerly used chiefly to stabilize the foundations of subsided buildings, now,
as a result of a number of technological improvements, it has become possi-
ble to do it as a preliminary treatment of the loess base. It is accomplished
through the injection of various chemical reagents or fuel mixtures, or
through the mechanical or jet-grouting mixing with binders. As a result, new
cementing bonds are created and cohesion is considerably increased; collapsi-
bility is eliminated and the bearing capacity grows.
In this work, loess stabilization in depth means an improvement of the
building properties of the soil all over the area of the foundations and of the
entire collapsible zone. When only part of the collapsible layer under the
foundation is replaced or is cut in depth by strips or columns of stablized soil
between which collapsible loess remains, the terms replacement and rein-
forcement of the soil base have been respectively used.

3.2.1. Injection of silicate grouts. In 1944, Askalonov (1959) suggested the

monosolution method based on the chemical interaction between the
adsorbed ion complex, water-soluble salts and water glass. The mechanism of
that interaction has been studied by a number of writers (Voronkevich,
1981). The method has a great deal of variants depending on the composi-
tion of the silicate grout and the technological differences.
Up until 1982, the method had been applied to more than 800 projects in
the Soviet Union (Beketov, 1983), which enabled its continuous improve-
ment, the reduction of its prime cost and the drawing up of normative docu-
ments regulating its use. The effectiveness of silicatization is enhanced by
adding ammonia or formamide solution to water glass, by the successive
 355

injection of increasingly less concentrated solutions, while in certain condi-

tions the free absorption of water glass by the surface is possible through the
drain boreholes (Sokolovich, 1980; Rzhanitsin, 1974; Abramova and
Voronkevich, 1983; Beketov, 1983).
The effectiveness of silicatization can be substantially increased by alter-
nating water glass injections with CO, injections (Sokolovich, 1980; NIIOPS,
1973). A deeper penetration of the water glass is achieved as well as a greater
strength of the stabilized loess. In clay or moistened loess, as well as in loess
of destroyed texture, the penetration of the solution can be increased in an
electro-osmotic way (Akimov, 1962; Venkov, 1966; Bronstein, 1968).
So far, silicatization has been applied using grouts with density most often
ranging between 1.10 and 1.15 g/cm 3 , injected under pressure 0.2--0.4 MPa.
It is the writer's belief that it is more promising to inject water glass under
great pressure, i.e. to apply squeeze grouting widely used in other dispersive
soils, which would result in a greater penetration of the grouts and compac-
tion of the loess. This method could likewise be used in straightening some
installations tilted as a result of subsidence of part of the foundations.

3.2.2. Injection of gases. Successful attempts have been made to stabilize

loess by the injection of ammonia (Sokolovich, 1980; Voronkevich, 1981).
Ammonia enters into physico--chemical interaction with Ca* of the soil as a
result of which highly dispersed Ca(OH), is obtained . Some 5-8 kg of
ammonia are needed per 1 m 3 of loess. The effect is enhanced if the soil is
additionally injected with CO,. Attempts have also been made to inject
silicotetrafluoride SiF 4 , which is a waste product of the manufacture of
superphosphates (Afanas'ev, 1962).

3.2.3. Injection of cement, lime and other grouts. In the state of Arizona
(U.S.A.), the foundations of buildings affected by collapse have been stabilized
with a solution of lime with a lime-water ratio 1:3 (Sultan, 1971). Similarly
lime-slag injections have been used in the Soviet Union (Dolgih, 1962). In
Bulgaria preparatory works are going on for tests with a cement solution by
squeeze grouting.

3.2.4. Injection of large molecular compounds . Successful tests have been

made in the Soviet Union with carbamide resin (Kuleev, 1961; Voronkevich,
1981) which needs a solidifier if the loess has a high carbonate content
(Sokolovich, 1980).
The stabilizing effect of epoxide-phenol mixtures has also been tested
(Zgadzai, 1968) and of some other large molecular compounds (Goncharova,
1971; Voronkevich, 1981).

3.2.5. Stabilization by mechanical mixing with Portland cement. A number

of methods are known of stablizing collapsible loess in depth by mechani-
cally mixing it with Portland cement or other binding materials which have
the same effect (Minkov and Evstatiev, 1975; Anan'ev, 1976; Tokin, 1984).
356

In some of them boreholes are first made by percussion drilling without

taking out the soil onto the surface, i.e. according to the technology of soil
piles, and the hole obtained is filled with a soil-cement mixture prepared on
the surface. Stabilization with micro piles is similar; several reinforced con-
crete piles with a diameter of 0.1 m and length of 1.4-2.5 m are simul-
taneously driven into the loess. While they are being taken out, the openings
are filled with plastic soil cement mixture (VRSN-74; Anan'ev, 1976; Tokin,
1984). This method has been widely used in agricultural construction in the
Soviet Union . According to another method, the mixing of the soil and
cement is done in the process of drilling itself: first a borehole of a smaller
diameter is drilled, in the course of whose widening the soil is mixed with
cement. Mixing from the bottom upwards has also been applied using a
special auger.

3.2.6. Stabilization through mixing by a jet-grouting monitor. Jet-grouting

technologies have become recently widespread in foundation works in dif-
ferent soils (Aschieri et al., 1983). In one variant, the soil is not taken out
onto the surface, but is mixed in the borehole itself with a cement solution
fed by a monitor in the form of a cutting stream under great pressure up to
40 MPa. A column of plastic soil cement with a diameter of up to 2 m or
with thin walls of various configuration is obtained.
Loess is very suitable for stabilization according to this technology, because
it is easily washed by the stream of water and the resulting plastic cement
loess mixture has great strength. The first tests in the Soviet Union (Hasin et
aI., 1984) and in Bulgaria have produced very good results and currently
this is probably one of the most promising technologies of deep stabilization
of loess.

3.2.7. Stabilization by burning of liquid or gas fuels. In its present form, this
method has been developed for loess soil by Litvinov (1977) and has been
successfully applied in foundation works of hundreds of buildings in the
Soviet Union and a number of other countries. The application of this method
is technically and economically expedient in the following cases:
(a) in stabilizing the foundations of tall existing buildings and installations
(high chimneys, blast furnaces, water towers, multistoreyed buildings, etc.);
(b) in arresting the deformations of buildings and installations that have
already subsided.
The fuel mixtures are burnt in closed boreholes under pressure. The
expenditure of air per hour in the case of liquid fuel is 25 m 3 per 1 kg of fuel
on the average, and in the case of gas fuel it is 10 m 3 per 1 m 3 of gas. In a
borehole with a diameter of 0.15-0.20 m, a stabilized soil column with a
diameter of 1.5-2.0 m and depth of 8- 10 m can be built in the course of
8-10 days. Usually the stabilization is done in groups of 12-15 boreholes.
Loess is burnt at a temperature of 300-1000'C whereby its collapsibility is
entirely eliminated and its bearing capacity greatly increases.
 357

4. Replacement with other soils

This group includes several methods in which part of the collapsible surface
layer directly under the foundations or in depth is excavated and replaced by
compacted or stabilized loess or some other suitable soils or materials. The
ground becomes a non-homogeneous medium and the interaction between
the foundation, the improved and unmodified loess is of particular impor-
tance for its bearing capacity. Using modern computer methods such as the
method of finite elements, considerable progress has recently been made in
forecasting the mechanical behaviour of that complex ground .
Replacement on the surface is used in loess of lesser depth and includes
several well elaborated methods. The building excavation is made a little
deeper and then the distance between its bottom and the foundation is filled
with a cushion of compacted or stabilized loess, clay or coarser material. In
this way the danger of collapse of the loess layer situated directly under the
foundation where the stresses are the greatest is eliminated.
Replacement in depth is accomplished by excavating the entire collapsible
layer with a scraper or in some other method and substituting with suitable
material.

4.1. Soil cushion

In the Soviet Union this method was used in loess soils even before World
War II. There are several instructions regarding the design, carrying out and
control of construction works. Usually, local loess soil is used, but there have
been cases when soil cushions have been made out of clay or sandy clay. The
thickness of the cushion is usually 1-2 m, and it is compacted in layers in
the way described in 1.1. When the loess layer is deeper, the soil cushion can
be combined with compaction by a heavy tamper. Considerable experience
has been accumulated in the use of these cushions in civil engineering (Minkov
and Evstatiev, 1975; Anan 'ev, 1976) in all countries building on loess soils.
In the Soviet Union, China and Romania, they are also used in the construc-
tion or reconstruction of irrigation canals in collapsible loess (Vremennie
ukazania, 1975; Bally, 1982; Wang Ching-Tu, 1982).
There are also cases when the soil cushion has not accomplished its pur-
pose. This is due to the use of unsuitable types of loess base or to poor-quality
construction. Soil compaction is difficult in a small building site and during
the moist seasons.

4.2. Sand cushion

Sand cushions have been successfully used in a number of projects in the
Soviet Union (Golubkov, 1976). Sand is easily compacted and when the
depth of the loess is not great, it is possible to increase the load of the founda-
tions. It has been applied in combination with compaction by heavy tamping
(Krutov et aI., 1985).

4.3. Soil-cement cushion

Soil-cement cushions have been widely used in foundation works on
collapsible loess soils in Bulgaria only, t o date (Minkov and Evstatiev, 1975;
358

Minkov et aI., 1981). More than 90 buildings and other installations have
been constructed on soil-cement cushions including a large nuclear power
plant, industrial and power installations, high TV towers, and residential and
administrative buildings. Instructions have been worked out on the design
and construction of soil-cement cushions (Ukazania ... ,1976).
The soil-cement cushion is built using loess from the building site itself,
mixed with 3-7% Portland cement and compacting in layers of 15-20 cm at
Wopt until the attainment of P d.m",' The thickness of the cushion is usually
1- 1.5 m and only in rare cases reaches or exceeds 3 m. It has a modulus of
total deformation of 80-120 MPa and unlike the other cushions has a capa-
city of redistributing the stresses transmitted to it by the foundations on a
larger area. In the calculation of the thickness of the soil-cement cushion,
the methods of mechanics of layered media are used, the method of finite
elements offering great conveniences (Karachorov and Gechev, 1984). The
results obtained by this method match field observations and measurements
very well (Minkov et aI., 1981; Evstatiev et aI., 1985). In foundation works
of isolated or strip foundations, the admissible load of the cushion is usually
0.25-0.30 MPa, but there are cases of greater loading.
The soil-cement cushion can be used in loess bases of Type I, but in com-
bination with heavy tamping it has also been used in Sub-type II' (Minkov
et aI., 1980). After the big Vrancea earthquake of 1977, it was found that
buildings and installations erected on a soil-cement cushion had experienced
considerably less damage than those built on natural loess (Minkov and
Evstatiev, 1979).

4.4. Replacement in depth by jet-grouting

The practice of excavating the entire collapsible layer and its replacement
by another soil has long been common in engineering. This is accompanied
by great difficulties when the thickness of the loess is considerable and espe-
cially when the construction is in the limited space of urban sites. In this
case, the replacement can be comparatively quickly accomplished by jet-
grouting methods taking away the loess and replacing it by a cement-
bentonite mixture. The possibility of mixing loess and a cement mixture on
the site (cf. 3.2.6.) should be taken into consideration in making technical
and economic estimates.

5. Loess reinforcement

According to current ideas (Shlosser et al., 1985), reinforcement comprises

all methods in which the strength or bearing capacity of loess is improved by
putting in it bodies of tensile strength. Reinforcement is horizontal or verti-
cal. The methods of horizontal reinforcement include the various methods of
building retaining walls of soil reinforced with metal or polymer bands, grids
and nets, as well as the methods of "nailing" slopes. Some loess-like sands
alone are suitable for the construction of retaining walls of reinforced soil.
The experimentation of some of the ways of "nailing" steep loess slopes is of
considerable interest, especially from the point of view of their seismic
resistance.
 359

The methods of vertical reinforcement include the building of columns

in the loess base, or of deep narrow underground walls of loess, stabilized
with Portland cement or water glass by injection or using jet-grouting tech-
niques, as well as by burning of fuel mixtures whereby a considerable part of
the loess remains unchanged.
Significant successes have been obtained in the Soviet Union in the rein-
forcement of collapsible loess bases with columns or underground walls of
silicated loess (Beketov, 1983; Beketov et al., 1983). For instance, during the
construction of the Energomach Works in Volgodonsk, 2142 boreholes and
about 16,000 tons of water glass were used to build underground walls of
silicated loess.

6. Geomembranes

In loess soils geomembranes are chiefly used in water irrigation construc-

~ion, in building water reservoirs and enhancing the impermeability of the
concrete revetments of the canals (Minkov and Evstatiev, 1975). For instance,
in greatly collapsible loess in Bulgaria, a screen at the bottom of a balancing
reservoir has been used consisting of a lower loess-cement layer covered by
a polyethylene membrane on which 15 cm of compacted loess was placed.
In the Soviet Union a screen of polymer membrane covered by a layer of
soil is used in the construction of irrigation canals in loess. Observations have
been made for many years on the durability of the screen depending on the
kind of polymer, the thickness of the membrane and the soil and climatic
conditions. In that country, too, polymer membranes have been used for
securing the isolation of water in the foundations of buildings.
Geomembranes are expected to be still more widely used in the future in
combating collapsibility and filtration leakage of loess soils.

7. Desiccation of loess

Many years of observations in the Soviet Union (Litvinov, 1974), Bulgaria

and elsewhere have shown that the rising of ground water levels in built
areas, and especially in irrigated lands, is an inevitable process. In some cases,
the ground water level is only a few metres below the surface. During founda-
tion and excavation works, this very often calls for using various methods
of drying the loess.

7.1. Surface draining

There are well known and widely applied methods of draining surface
waters to prevent the moistening of the foundations of buildings, to protect
deep excavations from inundation during construction, etc. Although the
importance of these measures is well known, they are often underestimated
in practice. For instance, the collapse of hundreds of small houses in Bulgaria
was caused only because the water coming from the rainwater pipe had been
left to soak freely in the loess foundation.
360

7.2. Drainage boreholes and wellpoints

There are cases of successful ground water lowering in loess using vertical
drainage boreholes, but in the comparatively small Dardy's coefficient of
loess between 10-' and 10-5 cm/sec, wellpoint drainage has proved most
effective (Bannik, 1976; Voronkevich, 1981). The vacuum in the boreholes
is between 26 and 78 kN/m' . The water collected in the borehole is periodi-
cally pumped out and in this way the soil mass is dried.

7.3. Horizontal drainage boreholes

Horizontal drainage boreholes have successfully been used in Bulgaria
during the past few years in draining water-saturated loess in slopes (Tsvetkov,
1985). They have been made according to a method developed in Czecho-
slovakia of a drill resting in the soil, whereby great productivity is achieved
because the metal drainage pipe with a diameter of 80- 100 mm is inserted
into the loess without casing of the borehole. The method has been particu-
larly effective in landslides in water-saturated loess soils.

7.4. Electro-osmosis
The principle of desiccation by electro-osmosis of soils is well known and
has been described in the literature (Bannik, 1976; Mitchell, 1976;
Voronkevich, 1981). One interesting example is the case of a deep railway
excavation in the FRG traversing water-saturated loess. The high level of
ground water caused loess liquefaction when the excavation exceeded 2 m in
depth. As a result of electro-osmotic desiccation, a 7 m deep excavation
could be made with sloping 1:0.75. Before the switching on of the electric
current, the water was pumped out at a discharge of 0.02 m' /24 h, after
which the discharge increased to 3 m' /24 h.

7.5. Hygroscopic substances

Loess under isolated foundations can be desiccated also by driving through
it perforated pipes filled with CaCl, (Litvinov, 1969). Water-saturated loess
in the Soviet Union has been successfully desiccated with quick-lime com-
pacted in boreholes of 200 to 500 mm (Abelev, 1983). Beside drying the soil,
the lime also compacts it as a result of the great voluminous expansion dur-
ing its hydration.

8. Correction, terracing, grassing and afforestation of slopes

These methods will not be considered because they are very well known
and have long been applied. The problem of the stability of loess slopes has
specially been investigated by Lohnes and Handy (1968).
Some specific peculiarities of loess should be kept in mind while determin-
ing the most suitable slope inclination. This will be illustrated by one example
in Bulgaria. In the construction of an industrial enterprise, on the basis of
laboratory data, it was calculated that the inclination of the 10 m high slope
should be 1 :1. The builders first made an excavation with an inclination of
 361

the slope close to the vertical and then began the correction of the slope
according to the design. Autumn rains began at that time greatly moistening
the part of the slope with 1:1 inclination and causing its sliding. At the same
time, the slope close to the vertical remained dry and was not affected by
any deformation whatever.
Trees and plants like accacia, alfalfa and some other grasses have the ability
of greatly desiccating loess by their roots, as a result of which its cohesion
considerably grows. This is used in improving the stability of natural and
artificial slopes. At the same time it should be kept in mind that the collapsi-
bility of the loess desiccated in this way may increase considerably.

CONCLUSION

It becomes evident from this analysis that when compared with other soils,
probably the greatest number of methods have been elaborated for loess in
the endeavour to improve its building properties. In the degree to which they
have been elaborated, and in applicability, these methods can be classified
into three groups: (1) methods of a high degree of elaboration and wide·
spread use in practice (1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.9, 1.12, 3.1.1, 3.2.1, 3.2.7, 4.1,
4.3,5,6,7.1, and 8 from Table 2); (2) methods of a fairly good degree of
elaboration which are comparatively more rarely used (1.4, 1.8, 1.10, 1.11,
2, 3.1.2, 3.2.5, 3.2.6, 4.2, 4.4, 7.2, 7.3 and 7.4) and (3) methods of a fairly
poor degree of elaboration or at the stage of experimentation. Almost all
methods of the first two groups have been included in national or depart-
mental normative documents in the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Romania and
elsewhere. Now investigations are being conducted for the further improve-
ment both of the widespread methods and of those which have not yet been
well developed. It is important also that the methods applied have such a
prime cost that their use would not significantly raise the cost of construc-
tion. According to statistics provided by Soviet sources, and on the basis of
Bulgarian experience, the prime cost of 1 m 3 of loess soil improved using
some of the methods, changes approximately as follows: heavy tamping-
1.5-2.5 rubles; soil piles - 1.6-6.2 rubles; injection of clay suspensions -
1.5 rubles; moistening and deep vibrations - 0.8-1.5 rubles; moistening and
surface explosions - 0.30-0.50 rubles; moistening and deep explosions -
0.5-1.2 rubles; compaction with water vapour -1 ruble; silicatization-
3-10 rubles; injection of large molecular compounds -12-30 rubles; burn-
ing of liquid and gas fuels - 2-10 rubles; soil cushion -1-2 rubles; sand
cushion - 3-4 rubles; soil-cement cushion - 5-8 rUbles.
With the exception of group 1.9., the other methods do not require a time
delay prior to beginning construction. All methods used have convenient
tests that need to be conducted to verify that the improvement has been
successful.
During the past few years, some new methods have been developed like,
for instance, jet-grouting technologies, improved methods of deep vibration,
gas explosions, etc., which are expected to further develop in the foreseeable
future and to improve the possibilities of foundation works in loess.
362

At present the question of improving loess bases of sub-types 1", Ib and

partially II" may be considered comparatively well tackled _There are few
methods applicable to sub-type n b , Le_ to a loess base of great thickness.
Foundation works in such a base are so far an unresolved problem worldwide.
Of major importance for the future advance in this field, apart from the
technological improvements, will also be the investigations concerning the
nature of the processes which modify the building properties of loess, as well
as the methods of a more precise forecasting of the building behaviour of the
improved loess base.

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77 pp. (in Russian).
Abelev, M.Yu., 1983. Stroitel'stvo promyshlennykh i grazhdanskikh sooruzheniy na
slabykh vodonasyshchennykh gruntakh. Stroyizdat, Moscow , 248 pp. (in ,R ussian).
Abelev, Yu.M. , 1948. Osnovy proektirovania i stroitel'stva na makroporistykh gruntakh.
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zakrepleniyu 0 uplotneniyu gruntov, Kiev, pp.382-385 (in Russian).
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Anagnosti, P. 1973. Storage dams founded on collapsing loess soils. Proc. 8th ICSMFE,
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executed by jet-grouting. Proc. 8th ECSMFE, Improvement of ground, Helskinki, 1:
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stvu, arkhitekture i stroitel'nym materialam, Moscow, 78 pp. (in Russian).
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